test

8 SRAM TECHNOLOGYOVERVIEWAn SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) is designed to fill two needs: to provide a directinterface with the CPU at speeds not attainable by DRAMs and to replace DRAMs in systemsthat require very low power consumption. In the first role, the SRAM serves as cache memory,interfacing between DRAMs and the CPU. Figure 8-1 shows a typical PC microprocessormemory configuration. SRAM DRAM External Cache (L2) Main Memory 64KB to 1MB 4MB to 512MBMicroprocessorInternal Cache (L1) 8KB to 32KBSource: Micron/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 20812 Figure 8-1. Typical PC Microprocessor Memory ConfigurationThe second driving force for SRAM technology is low power applications. In this case, SRAMsare used in most portable equipment because the DRAM refresh current is several orders of mag-nitude more than the low-power SRAM standby current. For low-power SRAMs, access time iscomparable to a standard DRAM. Figure 8-2 shows a partial list of Hitachi’s SRAM products andgives an overview of some of the applications where these SRAMs are found.HOW THE DEVICE WORKSThe SRAM cell consists of a bi-stable flip-flop connected to the internal circuitry by two accesstransistors (Figure 8-3). When the cell is not addressed, the two access transistors are closed andthe data is kept to a stable state, latched within the flip-flop.INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-1

SRAM Technology 100 Industrial/Peripheral Buffer Memory 64Kbit Low-Power SRAM 256Kbit 1Mbit 512K x 8 Low-Power SRAM Low-Power SRAM Low-Power SRAM 50 Mass Storage Buffer Memory 32K x 8 1M x 4/512K x 8Access Time (ns) 20 Asynchronous SRAM 128K x 8/64K x 16 Asynchronous SRAM Asynchronous SRAM 10 PC Cache Memory 32K x 32/32K x 36 Asynchronous SRAM 5 32K x 36 LVCMOS SSRAM 256K x 18/128K x 36 2 LVCMOS/HSTL SSRAM 64Kbit Non PC Cache MemorySource: Hitachi/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 256Kbit 1Mbit 4Mbit Device Density 22607 Figure 8-2. Hitachi’s SRAM Products Word Line BB To Sense Amplifier 20019 Source: ICE, \"Memory 1997\" Figure 8-3. SRAM Cell The flip-flop needs the power supply to keep the information. The data in an SRAM cell is volatile (i.e., the data is lost when the power is removed). However, the data does not “leak away” like in a DRAM, so the SRAM does not require a refresh cycle. 8-2 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

SRAM TechnologyRead/WriteFigure 8-4 shows the read/write operations of an SRAM. To select a cell, the two access transis-tors must be “on” so the elementary cell (the flip-flop) can be connected to the internal SRAM cir-cuitry. These two access transistors of a cell are connected to the word line (also called row or Xaddress). The selected row will be set at VCC. The two flip-flop sides are thus connected to a pairof lines, B and B. The bit lines are also called columns or Y addresses.Word Line Word LineColumn Decode Column Decode Sense Amplifier(Voltage Comparator) Write Circuitry D Out D In WRITE OPERATION READ OPERATION 19952Source: ICE, \"Memory 1997\" Figure 8-4. Read/Write OperationsDuring a read operation these two bit lines are connected to the sense amplifier that recognizes ifa logic data “1” or “0” is stored in the selected elementary cell. This sense amplifier then transfersthe logic state to the output buffer which is connected to the output pad. There are as many senseamplifiers as there are output pads.During a write operation, data comes from the input pad. It then moves to the write circuitry.Since the write circuitry drivers are stronger than the cell flip-flop transistors, the data will beforced onto the cell.When the read/write operation is completed, the word line (row) is set to 0V, the cell (flip-flop)either keeps its original data for a read cycle or stores the new data which was loaded during thewrite cycle.INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-3

SRAM TechnologyData RetentionTo work properly and to ensure that the data in the elementary cell will not be altered, the SRAMmust be supplied by a VCC (power supply) that will not fluctuate beyond plus or minus five orten percent of the VCC.If the elementary cell is not disturbed, a lower voltage (2 volts) is acceptable to ensure that the cellwill correctly keep the data. In that case, the SRAM is set to a retention mode where the powersupply is lowered, and the part is no longer accessible. Figure 8-5 shows an example of how theVCC power supply must be lowered to ensure good data retention.,,,,,,,,VCC 3.0V Data Retention Mode 3.0V tCDR VDR ≥ 2V tRCE ,,,Source: Cypress/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 22460 Figure 8-5. SRAM Data Retention WaveformMEMORY CELLDifferent types of SRAM cells are based on the type of load used in the elementary inverter of theflip-flop cell. There are currently three types of SRAM memory cells : • The 4T cell (four NMOS transistors plus two poly load resistors) • The 6T cell (six transistors—four NMOS transistors plus two PMOS transistors) • The TFT cell (four NMOS transistors plus two loads called TFTs)4 Transistor (4T ) CellThe most common SRAM cell consists of four NMOS transistors plus two poly-load resistors(Figure 8-6). This design is called the 4T cell SRAM. Two NMOS transistors are pass-transistors.These transistors have their gates tied to the word line and connect the cell to the columns. Thetwo other NMOS transistors are the pull-downs of the flip-flop inverters. The loads of the invert-ers consist of a very high polysilicon resistor.This design is the most popular because of its size compared to a 6T cell. The cell needs room onlyfor the four NMOS transistors. The poly loads are stacked above these transistors. Although the4T SRAM cell may be smaller than the 6T cell, it is still about four times as large as the cell of acomparable generation DRAM cell.8-4 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

SRAM Technology W +V BB To Sense Amps 18470A Source: ICE, \"Memory 1997\" Figure 8-6. SRAM 4T (Four-Transistor) CellThe complexity of the 4T cell is to make a resistor load high enough (in the range of giga-ohms) tominimize the current. However, this resistor must not be too high to guarantee good functionality.Despite its size advantage, the 4T cells have several limitations. These include the fact that each cellhas current flowing in one resistor (i.e., the SRAM has a high standby current), the cell is sensitiveto noise and soft error because the resistance is so high, and the cell is not as fast as the 6T cell.6 Transistor (6T) CellA different cell design that eliminates the above limitations is the use of a CMOS flip-flop. In thiscase, the load is replaced by a PMOS transistor. This SRAM cell is composed of six transistors, oneNMOS transistor and one PMOS transistor for each inverter, plus two NMOS transistors con-nected to the row line. This configuration is called a 6T Cell. Figure 8-7 shows this structure. Thiscell offers better electrical performances (speed, noise immunity, standby current) than a 4T struc-ture. The main disadvantage of this cell is its large size.Until recently, the 6T cell architecture was reserved for niche markets such as military or space thatneeded high immunity components. However, with commercial applications needing fasterSRAMs, the 6T cell may be implemented into more widespread applications in the future.Much process development has been done to reduce the size of the 6T cell. At the 1997 ISSCC con-ference, all papers presented on fast SRAMs described the 6T cell architecture (Figure 8-8).INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-5

SRAM Technology W +V BB To Sense Amps 18471A Source: ICE , \"Memory 1997\" Figure 8-7. SRAM 6T (Six Transistor) CellDensity Company Cell Type Cell Size Process Die Size (µm2) (mm2)4Mbit NEC 6T 12.77 0.25µm 1324Mbit IBM 6T 18.77 0.3µm 145 6T 21.67 0.2µm Leff 5.34128Kbit Hitachi 0.35µmSource: ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 22459 Figure 8-8. 1997 ISSCC Fast SRAM ExamplesTFT (Thin Film Transistor) CellManufacturers have tried to reduce the current flowing in the resistor load of a 4T cell. As a result,designers developed a structure to change, during operating, the electrical characteristics of theresistor load by controlling the channel of a transistor.This resistor is configured as a PMOS transistor and is called a thin film transistor (TFT). It isformed by depositing several layers of polysilicon above the silicon surface. The source/chan-nel/drain is formed in the polysilicon load. The gate of this TFT is polysilicon and is tied to thegate of the opposite inverter as in the 6T cell architecture. The oxide between this control gate andthe TFT polysilicon channel must be thin enough to ensure the effectiveness of the transistor.The performance of the TFT PMOS transistor is not as good as a standard PMOS silicon transis-tor used in a 6T cell. It should be more realistically compared to the linear polysilicon resistorcharacteristics.8-6 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

SRAM TechnologyFigure 8-9 shows the TFT characteristics. In actual use, the effective resistance would range fromabout 11 x 1013Ω to 5 x 109Ω. Figure 8-10 shows the TFT cell schematic.Drain Current, Id (A) –10–6 Vd = –4V –10–8 Vg –10–10 –10–12 Tox = 25nm Tpoly = 38nm L/W = 1.6/0.6µm 20 –2 –4 –6 –8 Gate Voltage, Vg (V)Source: Hitachi/ICE, Memory 1997\" 19953Figure 8-9. TFT (Thin Film Transistor) Characteristics Word Line Poly-Si PMOS BL BL Source: ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 19954 Figure 8-10. SRAM TFT CellFigure 8-11 displays a cross-sectional drawing of the TFT cell. TFT technology requires the depo-sition of two more films and at least three more photolithography steps.INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-7

SRAM Technology 1st Metal (BIT Line) 2nd Poly-Si 3rd Poly-Si 4th Poly-Si ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,(Gate Electrode (Channel of TFT) (Internal Connection) of TFT),,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Contact (W-Plug) 2nd Direct,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,Contact,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,N+,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,N+,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Iso,,,,,lati,,,,,on,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,N+,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,N,,+ ,,,,,,,,,,, AccessN+ Diffusion Driver TiSi2 Transistor Region Transistor 1st Poly-Si (GND Line) (Gate Electrode of Bulk Transistor)Source: IEDM 91/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 18749 Figure 8-11. Cross Section of a TFT SRAM CellDevelopment of TFT technology continues to be performed. At the 1996 IEDM conference, twopapers were presented on the subject. There are not as many TFT SRAMs as might be expected,due to a more complex technology compared to the 4T cell technology and, perhaps, due to poorTFT electrical characteristics compared to a PMOS transistor.Cell Size and Die SizeFigure 8-12 shows characteristics of SRAM parts analyzed in ICE’s laboratory in 1996 and 1997.The majority of the listed suppliers use the conventional 4T cell architecture. Only two chips weremade with a TFT cell architecture, and the only 6T cell architecture SRAM analyzed was thePentium Pro L2 Cache SRAM from Intel.As indicated by the date code of the part and its technology, this study is a presentation of whatis the state-of-the-art today. ICE expects to see more 6T cell architectures in the future.Figure 8-13 shows the trends of SRAM cell size. Like most other memory products, there isa tradeoff between the performance of the cell and its process complexity. Most manufactur-ers believe that the manufacturing process for the TFT-cell SRAM is too difficult, regardlessof its performance advantages.8-8 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

SRAM Technology Date Code Cell Type Cell Size Die Size Min Gate (N) 4T (µm2) (mm2) (µm) Toshiba 9509 4T 22 0.65 4Mbit 1995 4T 14.25 144 0.5 9524 4T 16.5 33 0.4 Samsung 9539 4T 19 31 0.45 1Mbit 9436 4T 19 64 0.6 9443 4T 40 67 0.6 Galvantech 9523 4T 30 108 0.45 1Mbit 9445 4T 27.5 13.5 0.5 9409 4T 44 50 0.65 Hitachi 9506 TFT 15.7 94.7 0.5 1Mbit 9606 TFT 11.7 42.5 0.65 4T 20 77.8 0.5 NEC ? 4T 20 59 0.35 1Mbit 9530 4T 11.25 35 0.3 9631 6T 10.15 41 0.5 Motorola 9612 33 32.5 0.35 1Mbit — — 22461 Hualon 256Kbit ISSI 1MbitMosel-Vitelic 1Mbit NEC 1Mbit Samsung 4Mbit Sony 1Mbit TM Tech 1Mbit UMC 2Mbit Winbond 1Mbit IntelPentium Pro L2 CacheSource: ICE, \"Memory 1997\" Figure 8-12. Physical Geometries of SRAMsFigures 8-14 and 8-15 show size and layout comparisons of a 4T cell and a 6T cell using the same technol-ogy generation (0.3µm process). These two parts were analyzed by ICE’s laboratory in 1996.One of the major process improvements in the development of SRAM technology is the so calledself aligned contact (SAC). This process suppresses the spacing between the metal contacts andthe poly gates and is illustrated in Figure 8-16.INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-9

SRAM Technology 1,000 Cell Size (µm2) 100 6T Cell 10 4T (and TFT) Cell 1 0.8 Micron 0.5-0.6 Micron 0.35 Micron 0.25 Micron 1 Micron Technology 19989A Source: ICE, \"Memory 1997\" Figure 8-13. Trend of SRAM Cell SizesCONFIGURATIONAs shown in Figure 8-17, SRAMs can be classified in four main categories. The segments are asyn-chronous SRAMs, synchronous SRAMs, special SRAMs, and non-volatile SRAMs. These arehighlighted below.Asynchronous SRAMsFigure 8-18 shows a typical functional block diagram and a typical pin configuration of an asyn-chronous SRAM. The memory is managed by three control signals. One signal is the chip select(CS) or chip enable (CE) that selects or de-selects the chip. When the chip is de-selected, the partis in stand-by mode (minimum current consumption) and the outputs are in a high impedancestate. Another signal is the output enable (OE) that controls the outputs (valid data or highimpedance). Thirdly, is the write enable (WE) that selects read or write cycles.Synchronous SRAMsAs computer system clocks increased, the demand for very fast SRAMs necessitated variations onthe standard asynchronous fast SRAM. The result was the synchronous SRAM (SSRAM).8-10 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

SRAM Technology@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@hh@hhhh@@@@@@@@@@@ee????????@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@SIDEWALL SPACER@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 1 N+ POLYCIDE @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@BIT@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ WORD @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ BIT@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@P+@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@4@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 6P 5P@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 2N 4N 3N@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@GND@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 5.2µm 1N BIT @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@3@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 5 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@BIT@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 2 N+ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@gggggg@@@@@@@@@@@ ??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ ??@@@@@@@@@@@@??????@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 6.35µmSource: ICE, “Memory 1997” 22172 Figure 8-14. 6T SRAM Cell WORD WORD VCC 4 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@h@hhhh@h@@@@@@@@@@ee????????@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ R1 R2 2 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 1 3 4 1@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ R1 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ BIT BIT @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 2.5µm @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 3@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 2@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ R2@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ GND @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@gg@gggg@@@@@@@@@@ ??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ee??@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@??ee@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ ??@@@@@@@@@@@@??????@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@Source: ICE, “Memory 1997” 4.5µm 22171 Figure 8-15. 4T SRAM CellSynchronous SRAMs have their read or write cycles synchronized with the microprocessor clockand therefore can be used in very high-speed applications. An important application for syn-chronous SRAMs is cache SRAM used in Pentium- or PowerPC-based PCs and workstations.Figure 8-19 shows the trends of PC cache SRAM.Figure 8-20 shows a typical SSRAM block diagram as well as a typical pin configuration. SSRAMstypically have a 32 bit output configuration while standard SRAMs have typically a 8 bit outputconfiguration. The RAM array, which forms the heart of an asynchronous SRAM, is also found inSSRAM. Since the operations take place on the rising edge of the clock signal, it is unecessary tohold the address and write data state throughout the entire cycle.INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-11

SRAM Technology Standard Process Transistor Active Area Gate Metal Contact Metal Contact Metal Line Metal Line Metal Contact Contact to Poly Spacing SAC Process Transistor Active Area Gate Metal Contact Metal Line Metal Line Contact to Poly Spacing Has Been Eliminated Source: EN/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 22456 Figure 8-16. Self Aligned Contact (SAC) ProcessBurst ModeThe SSRAM can be addressed in burst mode for faster speed. In burst mode, the address for thefirst data is placed on the address bus. The three following data blocks are addressed by an inter-nal built-in counter. Data is available at the microprocessor clock rate. Figure 8-21 shows SSRAMtiming. Interleaved burst configurations may be used in Pentium applications or linear burst con-figurations for PowerPC applications.8-12 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

SRAM Technology SRAMs Asynchronous Synchronous Special Non-Volatile • Low Speed • Medium Speed • Interleaved Versus • Multiport • Non-Volatile RAM • High Speed Linear Burst • FIFO (NVRAM) • Cache TagSource: ICE, \"Memory 1997\" • Flow-Through Versus • Battery-Back SRAM Pipelined (BRAM) • ZBT (Zero Bus Turnaround) 22454 • Late-Write • DDR (Double Data Rate) • Dual Port Figure 8-17. Overview of SRAM Types N.C. 1 32 VDD A15 2 31 A16 A14 3 30 CS2 A12 4 29 WE I/O0 A7 5 28 A13 Input Buffer A6 6 27 A8 A10 I/O1 A5 7 26 A9 A9 A8 Row Decoder I/O2 A4 8 25 A11 A7 Sense Amps A6 A3 9 24 OE A5 A4 512 x 512 I/O3 A2 10 23 A10 A3 Array A2 I/O4 A1 11 22 CS1CE A0 12 21 I/O8WE I/O5 I/O1 13 20 I/O7OE I/O6 I/O2 14 19 I/O6 Column Power I/O3 15 18 I/O5 Decoder Down I/O7 VSS 16 17 I/O4 A14 A13 A12 A11 A1 A0 Logic Block Diagram Pin ConfigurationSource: Cypress/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 22458 Figure 8-18. Typical SRAMFlow-Through SRAMFlow-through operation is accomplished by gating the output registers with the output clock. Thisdual clock operation provides control of the data out window.INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-13

SRAM Technology 64-bit CPU 32-bit CPU 16-bit CPU Standard With Cache Non Cache SRAM Sync. Burst SRAM 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 Year Source: Mitsubishi/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 20429A Figure 8-19. Trend of PC Cache SRAM Address 15 13 15 A6 A7 A0-A14 15 Registers /CE1 ADV CE2 CLK /BW4 /BW3 ADSC /BW2 ADSP /BW1 /CE3 BW4 VDD VSS BW3 CLK /GW BW2 /BWE /OE BW1 /ADSC /ADSP CE /ADV CE2 A8 CE2 A9 OE A0 A1DQ0-DQ35 D0 D1 A0+ 100 Binary Q0 A1+ 99 Counter 98 97 Load Q1 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 Byte 4 8 8 N.C. 1 80 N.C. Write Byte 4 2 Register Write 8 I/O 17 3 79 I/O 16 Driver 32K x 32 4 Byte 3 Memory I/O 18 5 78 I/O 15 Write 8 Array 6 Register Byte 3 VDDQ 7 77 VDDQ Write 8 VSSQ 8 76 VSSQ Byte 2 Driver I/O 19 9 75 I/O 14 Write 8 10 Register 8 32 I/O 20 11 74 I/O 13 Byte 2 12 Byte 1 Write I/O 21 13 73 I/O 12 Write Driver 14 Register I/O 22 15 72 I/O 11 8 16 Byte 1 VSSQ 17 71 VSSQ Write VDDQ 18 70 VDDQ Driver I/O 23 19 69 I/O 10 20 Chip 32 Sense I/O 24 21 /LBO 31 68 I/O 9 Enable Amps 22 A5 32 Register Input Data N.C. 23 A4 33 67 VSS Registers 32 24 A3 34 66 N.C. 32 VDD 25 A2 35 Output N.C. 26 A1 36 65 VDD Buffers 27 A0 37 64 ZZ VSS 28 32 I/O 25 29 N.C. 38 63 I/O 8 30 N.C. 39 I/O 26 VSS 40 62 I/O 7 VDD 41 VDDQ N.C. 42 61 VDDQ VSSQ N.C. 43 60 VSSQ I/O 27 A10 44 59 I/O 6 A11 45 I/O 28 A12 46 58 I/O 5 A13 47 I/O 29 A14 48 57 I/O 4 N.C. 49 I/O 30 N.C. 50 56 I/O 3 VSSQ 55 VSSQ VDDQ 54 VDDQ I/O 31 53 I/O 2 I/O 32 52 I/O 1 N.C. 51 N.C. Logic Block Diagram Pin ConfigurationSource: Hitachi/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 22457 Figure 8-20. Typical SSRAM8-14 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

SRAM TechnologySYNCHRONOUS MODECLOCKAddressOutputBURST MODEAddress ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Output Source: ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 19955A Figure 8-21. SSRAM TimingPipelined SRAMsPipelined SRAMs (sometimes called register to register mode SRAMs) add a register between thememory array and the output. Pipelined SRAMs are less expensive than standard SRAMs forequivalent electrical performance. The pipelined design does not require the aggressive manu-facturing process of a standard SRAM, which contributes to its better overall yield. Figure 8-22shows the architecture differences between a flow-through and a pipelined SRAM.Figure 8-23 shows burst timing for both pipelined and standard SRAMs. With the pipelinedSRAM, a four-word burst read takes five clock cycles. With a standard synchronous SRAM, thesame four-word burst read takes four clock cycles.Figure 8-24 shows the SRAM performance comparison of these same products. Above 66MHz,pipelined SRAMs have an advantage by allowing single-cycle access for burst cycles after the firstread. However, pipelined SRAMs require a one-cycle delay when switching from reads to writesin order to prevent bus contention.Late-Write SRAMLate-write SRAM requires the input data only at the end of the cycle.INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-15

SRAM Technology Clock Control Register Dout PIPELINED Control Dout FLOW-THROUGH Source: ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 22608 Figure 8-22. Pipelined Versus Flow-Through Architectures Clock 1 Clock 2 Clock3 Clock 4 Clock 5 Clock A A+1 A+2 A+3Address Data A Data A+1 Data A+2 Data A+3 Data A 4-word burst read from pipelined SRAMs Clock 1 Clock 2 Clock3 Clock 4 Clock 5ClockAddress ,,,,,,DataA Data A A+1 A+2 A+3 Data A+1 Data A+2 Data A+3 A 4-word burst read from synchronous SRAMsSource: Electronic Design/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 20863 Figure 8-23. Pipelined Versus Non-Pipelined Timings8-16 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

SRAM Technology 3.3V 32K x 8 32K x 32 Pipelined 32K x 32 Non-PipelinedBus Performance Performance Performance Read Write Read Write Read WriteFrequency Speed Banks Cycle Access Cycle (ns) Time Time Time50 20 1 3-2-2-2 4-2-2-2 20 3-1-1-1 2-1-1-1 12 20 2-1-1-1 2-1-1-160 15 1 3-3-3-3 4-3-3-3 16.7 3-1-1-1 2-1-1-1 10 16.7 2-1-1-1 2-1-1-1 2 3-2-2-2 4-2-2-266 12 1 3-3-3-3 4-4-4-4 15 3-1-1-1 2-1-1-1 9 15 2-1-1-1 2-1-1-1 15 2 3-2-2-2 4-2-2-275 15 2 3-2-2-2 4-2-2-2 13.3 3-1-1-1 2-1-1-1 9 13.3 3-2-2-2 3-2-2-283 12 2 3-2-2-2 4-2-2-2 12 3-1-1-1 2-1-1-1 9 12 3-2-2-2 3-2-2-2100 10 2 3-2-2-2 4-2-2-2 10 3-1-1-1 2-1-1-1 9 10 3-2-2-2 3-2-2-2125 8 2 3-2-2-2 4-2-2-2 8 3-1-1-1 2-1-1-1 9 8 3-2-2-2 3-2-2-2Source: Micron/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 20864 Figure 8-24. SRAM Performance ComparisonZBT (Zero Bus Turn-around)The ZBT (zero bus turn-around) is designed to eliminate dead cycles when turning the bus aroundbetween read and writes and reads. Figure 8-25 shows a bandwidth comparison between thePBSRAM (pipelined burst SRAM), the late-write SRAM and the ZBT SRAM architectures. SRAM Device Clock Speed Bus Bandwidth Configuration (MHz) Utilization (Mbytes/sec) PBSRAM 128K x 36 bits 100 50% 200 128K x 36 bits 100 67% 268 Late-Write SRAM ZBT SRAM 128K x 36 bits 100 100% 400 Source: ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 22609 Figure 8-25. SSRAM Bandwidth ComparisonDDR (Double Data Rate) SRAMsDDR SRAMs boost the performance of the device by transferring data on both edges of the clock.INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-17

SRAM TechnologyCache Tag RAMsThe implementation of cache memory requires the use of special circuits that keep track of whichdata is in both the SRAM cache memory and the main memory (DRAM). This function acts like adirectory that tells the CPU what is or is not in cache. The directory function can be designed withstandard logic components plus small (and very fast) SRAM chips for the data storage. An alter-native is the use of special memory chips called cache tag RAMs, which perform the entire func-tion. Figure 8-26 shows both the cache tag RAM and the cache buffer RAM along with the mainmemory and the CPU (processor). As processor speeds increase, the demands on cache tag andbuffer chips increase as well. Figure 8-27 shows the internal block diagram of a cache-tag SRAM. Processor Data Bus Main Memory Cache Buffer RAM Address Bus Cache Tag RAM Source: TI/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 18472 Figure 8-26. Typical Memory System With CacheFIFO SRAMsA FIFO (first in, first out) memory is a specialized memory used for temporary storage, which aidsin the timing of non-synchronized events. A good example of this is the interface between a com-puter system and a Local Area Network (LAN). Figure 8-28 shows the interface between a com-puter system and a LAN using a FIFO memory to buffer the data.Synchronous and asynchronous FIFOs are available. Figures 8-29 and 8-30 show the block dia-grams of these two configurations. Asynchronous FIFOs encounter some problems when used inhigh-speed systems. One problem is that the read and write clock signals must often be speciallyshaped to achieve high performance. Another problem is the asynchronous nature of the flags. Asynchronous FIFO is made by combining an asynchronous FIFO with registers. For an equivalentlevel of technology, synchronous FIFOs will be faster.8-18 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

SRAM Technology A0 Address 65,356-Bit VCC Decoder Memory GND A12 RESET Array I/O0-7 8 I/O Control WE Control Compa- OE rator CS Logic Match (Open Drain) 20865 Source: IDT/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" Figure 8-27. Block Diagram of Cache-Tag SRAM MicroprocessorLAN System Bus Disk Drive FIFO Memory 18804Source: IDT/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" Figure 8-28. FIFO Memory Solution for File ServersINTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-19

SRAM Technology Write Clock Write Write DataWrite Enable Address Counter Write Data Register Write Latch Write Dual Port RAM Array Flag FF Pulse 4096 Words x 18 Bits Logic Full Gen FF EmptyRead Enable Read Address Read Data Read Clock Counter RegisterSource: Paradigm/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" Read Data 20866 Figure 8-29. Synchronous FIFO Block Diagram Write Data Write Clock Write Counter Inhibit Dual Port RAM Array Flag Full 4096 Words x 18 Bits Logic Empty Read Clock Read Counter Inhibit Read Data Source: Paradigm/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 20867 Figure 8-30. Asynchronous FIFO Block DiagramMultiport SRAMsMultiport fast SRAMs (usually two port, but sometimes four port) are specially designed chipsusing fast SRAM memory cells, but with special on-chip circuitry that allows multiple ports(paths) to access the same data at the same time.8-20 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

SRAM TechnologyFigure 8-31 shows such an application with four CPUs sharing a single memory. Each cell in thememory uses an additional six transistors to allow the four CPUs to access the data, (i.e., a 10T cellin place of a 4T cell). Figure 8-32 shows the block diagram of a 4-port SRAM.CPU #1 CPU #2 4-Port SRAMCPU #3 CPU #4Source: IDT/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 18805Figure 8-31. Shared Memory Using 4-Port SRAMShadow RAMsShadow RAMs, also called NOVROMs, NVRAMs, or NVSRAMs, integrate SRAM and EEPROMtechnologies on the same chip. In normal operation, the CPU will read and write data to theSRAM. This will take place at normal memory speeds. However, if the shadow RAM detects thata power failure is beginning, the special circuits on the chip will quickly (in a few milliseconds)copy the data from the SRAM section to the EEPROM section of the chip, thus preserving the data.When power is restored, the data is copied from the EEPROM back to the SRAM, and operationscan continue as if there was no interruption. Figure 8-33 shows the schematic of one of thesedevices. Shadow RAMs have low densities, since SRAM and EEPROM are on the same chip.Battery-Backed SRAMsSRAMs can be designed to have a sleep mode where the data is retained while the power con-sumption is very low. One such device is the battery-backed SRAM, which features a small bat-tery in the SRAM package. Battery-backed SRAMs (BRAMs), also called zero-power SRAMs,combine an SRAM and a small lithium battery. BRAMs can be very cost effective, with retentiontimes greater than five years. Notebook and laptop computers have this “sleep” feature, but uti-lize the regular system battery for SRAM backup.INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-21

SRAM Technology R/WP1 Column Column R/WP4 CEP1 I/O I/O CEP4 OEP1 OEP4 Port 1 Memory Port 4 I/O0P4-I/O7P4 I/O0P1-I/O7P1 Address Array Address Decode Decode A0P4-A11P4 A0P1-A11P1 Logic Logic A0P3-A11P3 A0P2-A11P2 Port 2 Port 3 Address Address Decode Decode Logic Logic I/O0P2-I/O7P2 Column Column I/O0P3-I/O7P3 I/O I/O OEP3 OEP2 CEP3 CEP2 R/WP3 R/WP2 20868Source: IDT/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" Figure 8-32. Block Diagram of a 4-Port DRAMFigure 8-34 shows a typical BRAM block diagram. A control circuit monitors the single 5V powersupply. When VCC is out of tolerance, the circuit write protects the SRAM. When VCC fallsbelow approximately 3V, the control circuit connects the battery which maintains data and clockoperation until valid power returns.RELIABILITY CONCERNSFor power consumption purposes, designers have reduced the load currents in the 4T cell struc-tures by raising the value of the load resistance. As a result, the energy required to switch the cellto the opposite state is decreased. This, in turn, has made the devices more sensitive to alpha par-ticle radiation (soft error). The TFT cell reduces this susceptibility, as the active load has a lowresistance when the TFT is “on,” and a much higher resistance when the TFT is “off.” Due toprocess complexity, the TFT design is not widely used today.8-22 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION

SRAM Technology Nonvolatile EEPROM Memory Array A Row Rows Store Select A SRAM Store Memory Array Recall ArrayI/O RecallI/O Control Column Logic I/O Circuits Column Select Input Data AA ControlCSWE 18479Source: Xicor/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" Figure 8-33. Block Diagram of the Xicor NOVRAM FamilyINTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION 8-23

SRAM Technology Lithium Power 2K x 8 A0-A10 Cell VPFD SRAM Array DQ0-DQ7 Voltage Sense and E W Switching G Circuitry VCC VSS Source: SGS-Thomson/ICE, \"Memory 1997\" 20831A Figure 8-34. Block Diagram of a Typical BRAM8-24 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ENGINEERING CORPORATION