MAP605_Advanced Counselling Skills I

Group Counseling 95  Groups can promote career development in general (Pyle) and can be used effectively in vocational planning with some underserved populations, such as battered and abused woman (Peterson and Priour).  Group treatment under the right conditions can help adult woman improve their functioning and general subjective well-being (Marotta and Asner ).  Group counseling and psycho-educational programs can help persons who have sustained heart attacks deal better with stressors in their lives (Livnch and Sherwood - Hawes).  Group intervention with adolescent offenders can help them increase the maturational processes, especially the ability to work in a sustained way and to achieve a sense of relationship with others (Viney, Henry and Campbell). Yalom has characterised these positive forces as therapeutic factors within groups. For counseling and psychotherapy group these factors include:  Installation of hope (i.e. assurance that treatment will work)  Universality (i.e. the realisation that one is not alone, unique, or abnormal)  Imparting of information (i. e., instruction about mental health, mental illness and how to deal with life problems)  Altruism (i.e., sharing experiences and thoughts with others, helping them by giving of oneself, working for the common good)  Corrective recapitulation of the primary family group (i.e., relieving early family conflicts and resolving them)  Development of socializing techniques (i.e., interacting with others and learning social skills as well as more about oneself in social situations)  Imitated behaviour (i.e., modelling positive actions of other group members) Interpersonal learning (i.e., gaining insight and correctively working through past experiences)  Group cohesiveness (i.e., bonding with other members of the group) CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

96 Advanced Counseling Skills - I  Catharsis (i.e., experiencing and expressing feelings)  Existential factors (i.e., accepting responsibility for one’s life in basic isolation from others, recognising one’s own mortality and the capriciousness of existence).  The group may also serve as a catalyst to help persons realise a want or need for individual counseling or the accomplishment of personal goal. 6.8 Drawbacks of Groups Groups are not a panacea for all people and problems. They have definite limitations and disadvantages. Some client concerns and personalities are not well-suited for groups. Likewise, the problems of some individuals may not be dealt with enough depth within groups. In addition, group pressure may force the client to take action, such as self-disclosure, before being ready. Groups may also lapse into a groupthink mentality, in which stereotypical, defensive and state thought processes become the norm and creativity and problem-solving are squelched. Another drawback to groups is that individuals may try to use them for escape or selfish purposes and disrupt the group process. Furthermore, groups may not reflect the social milieu in which individual members normally operate. Therefore, what is learnt from the group experience may not be relevant. Finally, if groups do not work through their conflicts or developmental stages successfully, they become regressive and engage in non-productive and even destructive behaviours such as scapegoating, group narcissism and projection (McClure). 6.9 Summary Group counseling is a form of therapy which posits that people benefit from shared experiences. Usually group counseling is focused on a particular issue. The therapist facilitated therapy while contributions from other members in the group are considered valuable since all share similar issues. Group counseling is indeed an effective way to resolve concerns. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Group Counseling 97 6.10 Key Words/Abbreviations  Group: Group of individuals who face similar concerns. ● Development: An event constituting a new stage in a changing situation. ● Understanding: Awareness or tolerance. ● Awareness: Conscious knowledge of one’s own and others character and feelings. ● Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW): The Association for Specialists in Group Work—a division of the American Counseling Association aims to empower members and other helping professionals with the knowledge, skills, and resources necessary to practice effective, socially just, and ethical group work in a diverse and global society. ● Cohesiveness: Group cohesion is a social process that characterizes groups whose members interact with each other and refers to the forces that push group members closer together. A lot of work these days is accomplished in groups. ● Counselor: A person trained to give guidance on personal or psychological problems. ● Counselee: One who is being counseled. 6.11 Learning Activity 1. List at least 3 ice breaking activities that facilitate group sessions. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Plan at least two group sessions for students to deal with stress. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

98 Advanced Counseling Skills - I 6.12 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of group therapy. 2. Describe the stages of group counseling. 3. Briefly explain the development of group therapy as a technique. 4. State the similarities and differences between group and individual counseling. 5. Discuss the factors that affect group counseling. 6. What are the principles of group therapy? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Stage 3 in group counseling focuses on __________. (a) cohesion (b) termination (c) conflict resolution (d) exploration 2. Generally, an adult group counseling session is for __________ minutes. (a) 30 mins (b) 1 hr 30 mins (c) 45 mins (d) 2hrs 3. ASGW stands for __________. (a) Associate of specialists in group work (b) association for specialists in group work 4. Psycho educational groups are also referred as __________. (a) Guidance groups (b) self help group (c) task group (d) reconstruction group CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Group Counseling 99 5. __________ introduced the term group therapy.  (a) Jacob Moreno (b) Edward Deming (c) Carl Rogers (d) Prat Answers 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (a), 4. (a), 5. (a) 6.13 References 1. Counseling and guidance, Tata McGraw Hill publishing company 2. Psychology, Mrs. Sonal Sethna, Fifth edition, Vipul prakshan 3. https://www.ericdigests.org/1994/group.htm CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 7 EDUCATIONAL COUNSELING Structure: 7.0 Learning Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 What is Educational Counseling? 7.3 Summary 7.4 Key Words/Abbreviations 7.5 Learning Activity 7.6 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 7.7 References 7.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Analyze Educational counseling and differentiate between Educational and Vocational Counseling  There is a thin line of difference between educational and vocational counseling. Identify the differences and create a flow chart explaining the same. 7.1 Introduction It is a field that focuses on the preparation of students to professionally apply the theory and principles of guidance and counseling for the personal, social, educational, and vocational development of others. Its emergence and development have been tied with the evolution of counseling as a unique professional field. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Educational Counseling 101 Educational counseling/guidance is concerned with the development through adjustment and therefore ought to be designed to individualize educational programs. Schools and colleges should have a holistic program which is an integral part. There has always been a constant concern that the focus should be to enhance learning by providing a suitable atmosphere at schools/colleges and simultaneously minimize the constricting and interfering factors. Guidance on an individual basis aims to enhance the capacity for effective choice-making. 7.2 What is Educational Counseling? Education is looked upon not only as a means of personal advancement but is also valued as an asset of fundamental importance to society. Hence the expectations from education are varied and many. students expect to realize their aspirations and find gainful employment. Parents and teachers expect the intellectual, moral and social development of the young. Society expects to obtain enlightenment and law-abiding citizenry. The functions of education are closely related to the expectations of students, parents, teachers, society and the state. Education is expected to develop the personality of the individual and enhance his skills and abilities. By exposing students to the material of a common cultural heritage and values, education unifies people and societies. From the earliest times, man has recognized the need for education. In the East, the great seers or rishis were unsurpassed in their learning and commanded enormous respect. In the Vedic hymns, the teacher is extolled to the position of God or the Supreme Being to whom the student has to completely surrender himself in thought, word, and action for imbibing the eternal truths. In the early Greek civilization, we had in Socrates, the teacher par excellence. He adumbrated one of the basic functions of education, namely, thinking. Socrates questioned people and provoked them to think. The Sophists realized that people found it awkward to think. What was needed was persuasion, oratory, and rhetoric. They found eager students flocking to them to gain mastery over these skills. This Sophists, in charging fees for their services, made education a truly professional activity. With the ever-growing complexity of civilization and the increasing pace of life there is a need to equip the youth of today to meet the challenges of life in the future; for this education is CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

102 Advanced Counseling Skills - I an indispensable part of life. The scholastic achievement has, therefore, come to be recognized as one of the developmental tasks of adolescence and early adulthood. All the world over, countries invest heavily to educate and equip their citizenry to meet future challenges. But the teacher has been assigned a very small role today in the total development of the individual. It is often found that students who clamor for education and succeed in gaining admission to institutions of learning perform far below the standard that might be expected of them. A few fail to achieve even moderate grades. Why is it that students of known ability fail in their academic efforts? This question is becoming more and more persistent almost everywhere in the world. Binet (1905) was commissioned by the French Education Ministry to examine the reasons for student failure and suggest means for averting it. In the USA this problem of student failure has led to the appointment of Commissions, such as the Regent ’ s Commission and has provoked a vast number of research studies which have generally tended to suggest that intelligence or scholastic ability are not, perhaps the sure guarantors of academic success. The recognition or non-intellectual factors in scholastic performance has led to the need for providing assistance aimed at helping student adjustment. In the last decades of the past century, many American colleges appointed Deans of students whose function, in the beginning, was generally proctorial. Managements also realized that disciplining was not enough and that there should be a positive change in the attitude of the school or college authorities towards students. For the newcomer at school or college adjustment poses a host of problems. There are several critical phases in the life history of the individual and one such phase is adolescence, a period during which the student/student arrives at school/college. The first challenge comes from the body. The growth spurt in a brief span of time changes the appearance and body proportions. The young man/woman must learn to accept his/her new body image and this could cause considerable embarrassment. Closely related to body growth, are the changes in body sensations. Certain feelings not experienced earlier now arise and the individual finds himself extremely sensitive to stimuli. The other concomitant of growth is freedom. The individual now is grown-up and would like to exercise his freedom but it is hard to do so because he is unsure of himself. The parents, till now, have been models but in the changed situation that is in adolescence and post-adolescence, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Educational Counseling 103 this does not give them a sense of self-respect or self-confidence. It may even be a cause for self- depreciation. No wonder the adolescent identifies himself with his peers. One may be confused in his self-evaluation and his sense of values may not be reassuring. He/she may find his/her childhood conscience to be unsuited to the changed circumstances. Young people appear to labor under heavy odds. Therefore, their behavior is often impulsive. They have the resources but have no faith in themselves for taking decisions. They may often be in a state of prolonged conflict. The school/college settings create additional problem situations such as: 1. The student who complains about his inability to study. 2. The student who is nervous and is unable to speak in class. 3. The student who is aloof and cannot make friends. 4. The student who frequently resorts to the neurotic irrelevant patterns of behavior. There could be several such problems. Owing to the fact that the student is in a state of flux, he has no clear and definite purpose in life or a vocational aim. The student is perhaps away from his home and feels exposed to the new environment. Most students exhibit vague and agitated reactions usually referred to as anxiety reactions. Students ’ difficulties and problems can be vastly helped by the sympathetic attitudes of teachers. The students would feel reassured if their problems were recognized and accepted as legitimate. Most students, therefore, want to find sympathetic listeners in their teachers. Often, not meeting with this requirement, they are compelled to turn to their peers, who are no more experienced or knowledgeable then they are themselves. Naturally, they receive little or no help and their problems may increase in intensity and this may be manifested in several ways, the most frequent being their incapacity to study. It is, therefore, necessary for students with marked emotional problems to be given the kind of assistance that would assuage their conflicts. Failure to recognize this would result in students suffering from problems of role definition and differentiation. Non-resolution of these would develop feelings of insecurity which could become upsetting and traumatic. In a situation like this, he could resort to daydreaming as a substitute for the effort which could lead to undesirable consequences. Adolescence has yet another dimension which is very stressful and may lead the young people to several problems. One serious problem concerns interest in sex which could become more compelling and urgent in its quest for avenues CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

104 Advanced Counseling Skills - I of expression and eventual gratification. This could become a very painful experience if knowledge about sex is inadequate and sketchy. Such knowledge may lead to behavior which could be detrimental to their adjustment and well-being. Most people tend to be unsympathetic towards this aspect of adolescents’ stressful experiences. It should be recognized that counseling young people during this stage of their lives is as necessary as it is important. Educational counseling has emerged as a discipline to provide help to students on campuses of schools, colleges and universities, such that they are not tormented by their internal conflicts, do not become cynical and do not resort to self-destructive strategies. Counseling has become increasingly accepted as a positive program in educational institutions. In recent times education has come to have a wider meaning, namely, counseling, for it has increasingly been realized that learning in the ultimate analysis is individual or self-learning. The external agencies — teachers, books, libraries, etc. can only help the individual learner to pursue and realize his goal in accordance with his desires and wishes. The school has an important pervasive counseling function. It is here that the future citizen is encouraged to become a free and autonomous individual. Counseling in school has the ultimate goal of making every individual student a responsible individual. At school, children are given a curriculum, that is, they are provided appropriate learning experiences. The curriculum has nothing in it to help an individual choose his line of action and thinking and be responsible for his actions and choices. He has to realize his self through the exercise of his freedom and through his experience of a feeling of responsibility for his choices and actions. Thus educational counseling is a philosophy, a function, a role, and an activity. As a philosophy, counseling, in the educational context, is a process by which educational experiences are related to students’ experiences. As a function, counseling is a set of responsibilities that the institution should legitimately perform. As a role, counseling should be viewed as the institution’s responsibility to provide services to the students. As an activity, counseling comprises a variety of functions that different persons with counseling roles perform for students which are consistent with the philosophy, the function, and the role. Counselors in an educational setting rely upon psychological facts and principles to explain student problems of learning, of remembering, of establishing healthy inter-personal relations, in brief, the problems of adjustment. A student ’ s CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Educational Counseling 105 function is to study and to obtain good results, otherwise, he has failed his role expectation. The school has the responsibility of determining why he has happened so that the counselor can help the student reach his expected level of performance. Education is a diffused and often contradictory process. It may move towards or away from its pre-conceived goals. For example, successful education should encourage self-motivated inquiry which is obviously a valued educational goal. On the other hand, a self-motivated and free inquiry may reject a rigid curriculum and schedule of classes. In this sense, students may view the goal of education to be dysfunctional. The individual and the society are mutually interacting elements comprising a system. By changing the individuals we may change society, and if we change the society we would have to change the individuals. The goal of education is concerned with these tremendous possibilities. Education, viewed in the context of its counseling function, is concerned with the kind of activities, which if implemented, would best accomplish the educational goal of harmonious individual growth. The dynamics of change lie both within the individual and within society. Naturally, they may proceed either way in planning and implementing the desirable and/or remedial functions. Students who are under stress and strain, that is, those who are experiencing adjustment problems are not concerned with what conceptual basis counselors adopt for organizing the remedial strategies. The school administrators are equally unconcerned with the conceptual or philosophical basis of remedial strategies. They want results. Parents of students are not particularly different from the management or the students in this regard. But the counselors, as professional workers, cannot take a nonchalant attitude to the conceptual basis. The counselors consider whether a widening of the cognitive domain of students would help solve their problems or whether deepening their affective concerns would have a cathartic effect or encourage them to act out their feelings and relieve their pent-up feelings. The counselors are primarily interested in improving the general psychological processes through means of consistent educational counseling. The purpose of educational counseling is to make persons competent. Mere learning of the prescribed course is not enough. It does not equip people to live efficiently and happily. Most teachers are absorbed with teaching and are concerned only with imparting intellectual CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

106 Advanced Counseling Skills - I skills and knowledge. Perhaps the more important concerns of shaping and making students competent individuals remain neglected. Learning is one thing, but knowing how to learn is another. Becoming sensitive to one ’ s environment and responding to it (the social and the non-social parts) in a manner that would be self-satisfying is another aspect of learning. counselors are concerned with the latter aspects of learning. Teachers are concerned with teaching and standards with learning. This brings a very significant fact to the surface. Teaching could be a group or mass activity while learning is almost entirely an individual and personal matter. It is very essential that the self-defeating behavior of several students on our campuses should receive the most careful attention. The self-defeating behavior resorted to buying them often appears to be self-perpetuating. The counselor is most immediately concerned with the self-defeating behavior of students on the campuses. The aim is to change it into productive and self-enhancing behavior. Role of an Education Counselor An educational counselor not only provides educational guidance but also provides personal and therapeutic support for a broad array of students. This job leverages counseling ideas and psychology tools to enhance student development and facilitate student success. the counselor invests some of their time in individual counseling sessions or in group sessions through workshop programs and campus outreach activities. Key Responsibilities  Encourage, intervene and advocate for students experiencing personal, academic and other developmental difficulties.  provide general guidance and faculty support to help diverse students be successful in the classroom.  Often includes retention counseling to students on probation status or academic risk status.  Interpret and explain school policy to students, parents, staff, and faculty.  Advise students in planning goals and organizing lives to achieve educational goals and desired outcomes. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Educational Counseling 107  Prepare and maintain accurate and timely case management notes.  Educational counselors in public schools may communicate with attorneys, clinical counselors, private psychiatrists, social workers and court advocates regarding their student-clients.  Play a vital role in the career planning process of students. In the variety of hundreds of desired career options, educational counselors assist students in making smart career decisions.  Evaluate student’s abilities, interests, and skills through interviews, personality and aptitude assessments, etc.  They help young futures to develop a good personality and embrace life skills so that they can face the challenging world better.  Guide them for job interviews, resume preparation, job searching strategies, and other factors that are important for career exploration.  Guide students to develop organisation skills, time management, stress management, effective study habits, and other such vital skills.  Focus their energies on identifying and dealing with personal, behavioral, social and scholastic problems that affect student performance, achievement and even relationships.  Provide individual/group counseling on varied issues like bullying, peer pressure, the pressure to perform, low self-esteem and so on.  Assessing students’ individual developmental and educational needs and psychological and physical abilities;  Identifying students’ strengths, predispositions, interests and aptitudes or talents;  Identifying reasons behind academic failures or difficulties in students’ functioning, including barriers and constraints which make it difficult for them to function and participate in the life of their (nursery) school or educational institution;  Taking measures which help students develop their competences and potential in order to enhance the effectiveness of their learning process and improve their functioning; CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

108 Advanced Counseling Skills - I  Collaborating with a counseling and guidance center in diagnostic and post-diagnostic processes, in particular, regarding performance/functional behavior assessment. The Role of Teachers in Counseling In the school settings in India, teachers are the primary guidance personnel. They render non- professional assistance to students which may be of some help. In the advanced countries, most school systems have accredited counseling programs provided by the personnel on the staff of the school. Most schools have school psychologists to assist teachers in their work with students. The purpose of providing counseling services, in the words of Rogers (1962), “is to enhance the personal development and psychological growth toward a socialized maturity of its clients”. Arbuckle (1963) states the following functions of school counselors in elementary and secondary schools:  The counselor helps emotionally disturbed children to arrive at happier and satisfying solutions to their problems.  The counselor helps children with their academic difficulties.  The counselor is concerned with preventive and remedial measures. At the elementary school level, there is particular stress on the preventive and developmental aspects so that there may be less need for remedial work later on.  The counselor cooperatively works with teachers to help them gain a greater understanding of the students in their classes.  The counselor helps parents obtain a better understanding and appreciation  The counselor uses appropriate test devices for diagnosis and counseling purposes.  The counselor maintains extensive and up-to-date records concerning students whom he is responsible for.  The secondary school counselor spends much of his time helping to make wise decisions regarding college courses or jobs.  The secondary school counselor aids needy students to obtain an assistant  All school counselors work closely with other specialized personnel. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Educational Counseling 109 The nature of the responsibilities of the school counselor suggests the following major roles- counseling and consulting.  The counseling role: The counselor directly deals with students on matters concerning emotional problems, self-understanding, decision-making, educational and vocational planning, etc.  The counselor works with teachers, parents, educational specialists and administrators on matters involving student understanding and student management.  The teachers’ role- Several writers, such as Roeber, Smith, Erickson, Humphreys, Traxler and North believe that teachers should be expected to perform counseling duties. Mathewson (1962) states, “Teachers engage in the appraisal of student characteristics, adjustment of behavior, evaluation of individual performance, etc., and may even undertake some individual counseling. To the extent that these functions are performed professionally, teachers are participating in guidance practice”. But these can only comprise a set of restricted functions of teachers. Most teachers put in considerable effort to cater to individual differences and to assist students to participate in cooperative teacher-student planning. In addition to the above, teachers are expected to help in the counseling services through: 1. Studying and diagnosing children. 2. Identifying and referring students needing special assistance. 3. Preparing and maintaining guidance records. 4. Helping students develop effective study habits. 5. Contributing to students’ educational and vocational planning and placement Wrenn (1962) has summarized the following principles from the personnel view in education: 1. Guidance in education is given upon seeing the learner totally. 2. The philosophy of guitar axiomatically believes in the dignity and integrity of the student and his right to self-fulfillment. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

110 Advanced Counseling Skills - I 3. Guidance should assist the student’s plans for the future as well as enhance the possibility of his living optimally in the present. 4. Guidance is the prime advocate of individual differences in school. differences are to be recognized, taken advantage of and provided with differences in school. These suitable conditions for their full expression. The Impact of Home Environment The impact of the home environment on the individual student is of great significance for school/college learning. The findings reported of Elmtown’s youth are of great interest to educationists as well as counselors. The student benefits from school/college if the school and home complement each other in educating and socializing the student. Most learning problems arise from poor home conditions and lack of understanding on the part of parents as well as teachers. Counselors could render yeoman service by helping parents and teachers understand their children and students better. Counselors could also help the students gain a better understanding of their own needs, aspirations, and cravings and help them plan their educational and vocational goals. Educational counseling could also help harness community resources for the development of youth through optimal referral services. Educational Counseling and the Curriculum The school curriculum is a systematic organization of courses of study and activities designed to further students’ knowledge and competencies. Several types of curricula such as general, business and vocational, and industrial arts are offered at the school level in the West. In India, curricular openings are relatively few with little choice afforded to students. The curriculum is designed to help the individual student achieve his potentialities and become capable of self-direction. Educational counseling is aimed at enhancing the effectiveness with which the student profits from the curriculum. Guidance is also used in the context of helping the student acquire efficient learning skills and practices. The systematic planning of curricular opportunities helps the student by providing experiences that strengthen the feelings of adequacy and belongingness. The curricular activities also provide exploratory avenues through which students develop their interests and abilities. Curricular experiences contribute to the knowledge CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Educational Counseling 111 necessary for educational and vocational planning. Educational counseling contributes to curriculum development in a number of ways, one of which is to make the goals of curricular activities congruent with the needs of students. Another way in which it helps is to enable testing, planning follow-up and other counseling activities to contribute to curricular development, and yet another is to enable the counselors to assist the individual student to understand and to choose different courses to suit his requirements and develop social and vocational competencies needed for successful living in a complex society. Educational counseling also assists the administration in a significant way. The educational administrator is interested in the effective functioning of the school/college and counseling helps in realizing this goal in a more effective manner. However, it should be borne in mind that counseling is primarily concerned with the achievement of individual goals. Several factors interfere with effective programs in schools and colleges. The major areas of friction lie in the differences between the stated promises and the practices adopted. The public in general, and administrators in particular, do not understand the functions of counseling. The administrators naturally demand that the guidance workers help them even when this may clash with the interests of the individual students. The counseling personnel expects the administrators to provide the necessary facilities for the effective organization of counseling services and look forward to sympathetic assistance from the administrators. They expect them to take a positive interest in counseling programs. The administrators, on the other hand, expect the counseling personnel to serve the interests of the administration. Often this causes much tension and friction between the counselors and administrators. The administrators expect counselors the discipline of the institution and to minimize disciplinary problems The counselors believe that such problems could be minimized through organizing extra-curricular activities and encouraging student interests which would be suitable avenues for their expression as well as their cultivation. The Coins believe, and rightly so, that a knowledge of students, an understanding of problems and the optimum use of educational and preventive measures com significantly assist in countering indiscipline and thus help the institutional climate. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

112 Advanced Counseling Skills - I The Challenges of Educational Counseling Some educational counselors may work in group homes, special education or mental health settings with foster children or high-risk adolescents who exhibit severe emotional and behavioral challenges. These educational counselors must have the ability to create concise documentation, produce behavioral assessments and relate to young clients who face severe emotional challenges. These educational counselors must interact in a professional way and communicate in a therapeutic manner with clients who may be violent, demeaning and aggressive. Educational counselors who work in public schools will not face such consistent hostility, but they must understand the psychiatric illness, treatment plans, and intervention techniques. They must verbally communicate with individuals from diverse cultures, disciplines, and backgrounds. As a result, many educational counselors exhibit strong leadership and organization skills as they participate in programs and contribute to quality improvement activities. 7.3 Summary Counseling in the academic context includes a very vital and important part of educational activities. several students at completely different levels of education have been found to perform at levels way below their capacities. counseling assistance would certainly facilitate to brighten the lives of many adolescents. Counseling is a vital dimension of education. It promotes emotional maturity, personality development, self-responsibility, creative thinking and the ability to solve problems. within the complicated contemporary world, counseling is rapidly turning into a vital part of the educational structure. The administration has to take a positive perspective towards counseling and provide the desired facilities to the counselor to function optimally. Home and community resources ought to be meaningfully harnessed for the counseling desires of students. The main brunt of counseling responsibilities will fall on the academicians, at least in the schools. they need mandatory training for acquiring the necessary skills. they have to cultivate a healthy perspective CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Educational Counseling 113 towards counseling. Counseling programs ought to be evaluated from time to time. The specialist skills for making objective evaluations are generally not available with the teacher or even with some trained counselors. However, the importance and need for evaluation cannot be underestimated. 7.4 Key Words/Abbreviations  Education: the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university. / An enlightening experience.  Programs: a set of related measures or activities with a particular long-term aim.  Therapeutic: the branch of medicine concerned with the treatment of disease and the action of remedial agents.  Skills: the ability to do something well.  Vocational guidance: assistance in choosing a career or profession or in making employment or training decisions. 7.5 Learning Activity 1. There is a thin line of difference between educational and vocational counseling. Identify the differences and create a flow chart explaining the same. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7.6 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. Discuss Educational Counseling. 2. What are the responsibilities of educational counselors? 3. State the functions of school counselors in elementary and secondary schools CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

114 Advanced Counseling Skills - I B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. __________ summarized principles from the personnel view in education. (a) Wrenn (b) Mathewson (c) Traxler & North (d) Arbuckle 2. __________ states the functions of school counselors in elementary and secondary school. (a) Wrenn (b) Mathewson (c) Traxler & North (d) Arbuckle 3. Binet was commissioned by __________ to examine reasons of student failure. (a) Indian Education Ministry (b) French Education Ministry (c) German Education Ministry (d) US consulate 4. Counseling is a set of __________ that the institution should legitimately perform. (a) Responsibilities (b) Functions (c) Duties (d) Exercises 5. Most students exhibit vague and agitated reactions usually referred as __________ reactions. (a) Depressive (b) Anxiety (c) Emotional (d) Dysthymic Answers 1. (a), 2. (d), 3. (b), 4. (a), 5. (b) 7.7 References 1. Counseling and guidance, second edition of counseling psychology 2. Educational Counseling: Its Characteristics and Process Ramya Dwivedi and P.C. Mishra, Edited by Nov Rattan Sharma Ashok K. Kalia Akbar Husain  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 8 VOCATIONAL COUNSELING Structure: 8.0 Learning Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Important Definitions 8.3 What is Vocational Counseling? 8.4 History and Development 8.5 Theories of Vocational Guidance 8.6 Duties of a Vocational Psychologist 8.7 Process of Career Counseling 8.8 Benefits of Vocational Guidance 8.9 Summary 8.10 Key Words/Abbreviations 8.11 Learning Activity 8.12 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 8.13 References 8.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the important concepts, history and process of Vocational counseling. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

116 Advanced Counseling Skills - I 8.1 Introduction Vocational counseling is a process of helping an individual develop and accept integrated view of himself/herself and his/her role in terms of academics and occupation. 8.2 Important Definitions 1. Vocation: A type of work that you feel you are suited to doing and to which you give much of your time and energy. (American dictionary) 2. Carer guidance: Can be defined as a comprehensive, developmental program designed to assist individuals in making and implementing informed educational and occupational choices. In simple words, it is a journey on which people develop to make mature and informed decisions. It is the act of guiding or showing the way; it is the act of seeking advice. 3. Vocational guidance: Vocational guidance is assistance in choosing a career or profession or in making employment or training decisions. 8.3 What is Vocational Counseling? Vocational psychology is a specialized field of counseling psychology which studies human behavior with regard to work/occupational concerns. it is most often concerned with pre- employment topics such as how people’s individual skills and aptitudes align with specific job requirements, how people prepare for jobs, how they are selected for jobs, and how they become qualified for jobs. It not only examines the influence of work environments on employee- employee and employee-employer relations but also works towards improving the environment and resolving the concerns Vocational psychology lays on these and other employment issues, such as improving communication, reducing conflict, and helping workers obtain advanced training or education. Issues related to the end of employment, such as retirement or job loss, are also common areas of research and practice for vocational psychologists. It is also known as career counseling. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocational Counseling 117 A strong training component in Vocational counseling or rehabilitation is to prepare an individual to become a productive member of a workplace environment. For some, vocational training will focus on skills that will make it possible for them to be successful during training pursuits at vocation schools, technical schools, community colleges, or universities depending on their career path. Called “transition” services – these programs are designed to prepare students at the end of school and often take place in a secondary education or young adult settings. 8.4 History and Development The history of career guidance has its roots within the late 1800s dawning aurora of the twentieth century. Before the late nineteenth century, very little was offered within career counseling for those trying to seek out employment. Back then, career guidance was referred to as guidance counseling. Most work prospects developed from close community contacts like family, friends and perhaps church. The turn of the twentieth century saw an increase in immigration, leading to an increased need for a more organised effort to assist individuals find jobs. The vocational guidance Movement was the precursor to guidance. It begin in 1907, when Frank Parsons the Founding father of vocational guidance created the first module of career counseling. In 1908 Parson opened the Vocational Bureau at Boston with the aim to guide individuals with regard to their career. In 1990 he wrote “Choosing a Vocation”. His theories were rooted in first improving working conditions, then focusing on the individual worker’ needs. Parsons’ methodology targeted on creating individuals more in tune with their skills and interests, therefore resulting in the correct fit for a career. The mid-20th century brought many changes to the workforce and with it, some changes to the career counseling industry. With the end of war II, more women and veterans were within the work force with higher education levels. Technology development magnified, opening new kinds of jobs and demand for certain skills. The government began placing a higher stress on education and vocational guidance with several acts like the vocational educational Acts of 1963 and therafter the 1964 Education opportunity Act. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

118 Advanced Counseling Skills - I Contemporary Thinking Though the kinds of jobs have modified significantly within the past century, a number of the fundamentals of career guidance remain. The central themes still be developing an awareness of personal skills and interests, and learning about career opportunities and requirements. However, career guidance these days is seen as an ongoing process. Age isn’t any longer the driving force it once was, which has been brought an increased focus on the self at work and work-life balance. 8.5 Theories of Vocational Guidance The development of career guidance and development into a global discipline a set of group of theoretical frameworks with universal validity and applications, likewise as culture-specific models that would justify career development problems and development at a local level. the main focus of this chapter is on the 5 theories of career development that have guided career guidance and counseling practice and research within the past few decades in the USA as well as internationally. These 5 theories are: (a). Theory of Work Adjustment: The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) focuses on how and explains why workers adjust to their work environments. It depicts adjustment as the interaction of person (P) with environment (E). Interaction refers to P and E acting on as well as reacting to every other. P and E interact because, to begin with, each has needs that the other will fill, and each has capabilities to fill the other’s requirements. So long as each is satisfied with the outcomes, the interaction will be maintained. However when one or both are discontented with the outcomes, adjustment will be attempted. The theory of work adjustment asserts that satisfaction and work adjustment rely not so much on P variables or E variables, however on the particular combination of P and E variables (TWA calls the mix P-E correspondence). Thus, in TWA, work adjustment is described and explained by 2 psychological propositions: (a) Satisfaction drives behavior (b) Satisfaction is a function of P and E correspondence. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocational Counseling 119 The theory of work adjustment describes the work adjustment process more by introducing the concept of adjustment style, the distinctive characteristics of adjustment behavior. P’s adjustment style can be described by four variables: flexibility, that refers to the amount of P and E discorrespondence P is typically willing to tolerate before initiating adjustment behavior; activeness, or P’s tendency to act on E to change E to reduce P-E discorrespondence; reactiveness, or P’s tendency to react to E by changing self to reduce P and E discorrespondence; and perseverance, or however long P typically continues adjustment behavior before either giving up or leaving E. to change E means that changing E reinforces and/or E skill requirements, whereas to change P (self) means changing P needs and/or P skills. The aim, then, of adjustment behavior is to alter P and E discorrespondence to P-E correspondence or, at the cognitive level, to alter dissatisfaction to satisfaction. When P-E correspondence or satisfaction is attained, P and E return to maintenance, behavior. (b) Holland’s Theory of vocational Personalities in Work environment: The origin of John L. Holland’s theory of vocational personalities may be traced back to his 1966 publication psychology of vocational choice that was followed by four subsequent editions of making vocational choices. With each edition, Holland designed a more comprehensive theory of career counseling and tackled new problems arising from the complex relationship between human personality and suitable work environments. The theory is formulated around the fundamental observation that individuals possess totally different traits, behaviors, and interests that can be organised according to six groupings or types. The six types are known as Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional (RIASEC), each of which characterizes a type of person who may gravitate to, choose, and enjoy a selected occupation or vocational area. In career counseling circles, it's common to listen to a counselor refer to a Social or investigative type person as a shortcut to explain somebody who possesses clear, recognizable traits, personality characteristics, or behaviors. in a similar vein, the theory acknowledges that work environments, the settings during which individuals work, live, and play, according to be organised in keeping with the RIASEC typologies. It is theoretically appropriate to hear a career counselor describe a work function as a traditional type job or a realistic type activity. Through the use of the typological system and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

120 Advanced Counseling Skills - I through the process of matching people who represent specific types with similar typed environments, career counselors try to enhance the likelihood that their clients can build satisfying career choices that result in career stability and ultimately to career success and accomplishment. (c) The Self-concept Theory of Career Development Donald E. Super’s career development theory is probably the foremost wide well-known life- span view of career development. Developmental theories acknowledge the changes that individuals undergo as they mature, and that they emphasize a life-span approach to career choice and adaptation. These theories typically partition working life into stages, and that they try to specify the typical vocational behaviors at every stage. In the 1950s, when Super began to formulate his theoretical conceptions, differential psychology and also the trait-and-factor theory permeated vocational counseling. The dominant assumption was that differing skills and interests were crucial in determining occupational choice and success. For this reason, vocational counseling was seen primarily as a method of helping people match their skills and different traits with those required by accessible occupations. By applying the matching model, practitioners of vocational guidance assisted their clients in selecting the “right” vocation, that is, the one that's well matched or congruent with an individual’s abilities, interests, and personality traits. Super recognized the valuable contribution of the trait-and-factor theory and also the matching model to vocational theory and guidance practice. However he conjointly believed that they were too static and insufficient in explaining the complexities of vocational behavior. Super stated that activity selection ought to be seen as an unfolding process, not a point-in-the-time decision. Therefore, he proceeded to supplement the trait-and-factor approach by constructing a comprehensive career theory within which (a) career development is seen as a lifelong method unfolding in an exceedingly series of developmental stages and (b) career selection isn’t a one-shot call however the accumulative outcome of a series choices. The most important single idea of Super was his tenet that occupational choice should be seen as an unfolding process. Interestingly enough, his theory building was also an unfolding CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocational Counseling 121 process; he continued to augment and refine his theory throughout his life. Thus his theory also evolved through various stages that can be traced in their name modifications: from the original Career Development Theory to Developmental Self-Concept Theory, and then to the currently prevailing Life-Span, Life-Space Theory. Super incorporated the ideas of many predecessors in his attempt to compile an integrative body of knowledge that comprises various perspectives on career development. The result was a comprehensive but also fragmental theoretical account. Super himself admitted that disparate segments of his theory ought to be cemented together thoroughly. He hoped that this task will be eventually accomplished by future theorists. However, in spite of his reluctance to present a more parsimonious and coherent theoretical statement, his theorizing was most appealing. Together with his followers, he has had, and continues to have, a major impact upon career development research and counseling. (d) Social cognitive Career Theory. Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) could be a comparatively new theory that's geared toward explaining 3 reticulated aspects of career development: (1) how basic academic and career interests develop, (2) how educational and career choices are created, and (3) how academic and career success is obtained. the theory incorporates a variety of concepts (e.g., interests, abilities, values, environmental factors) that seem in earlier career theories and have an effect on found to have an effect on career development. Developed by Robert W. Lent, Steven D. Brown, and Gail Hackett in 1994, SCCT is based on Albert Bandura’s general social cognitive theory, an influential theory of cognitive and motivational processes that has been extended to the study of the many areas of psychosocial functioning, such as academic performance, health behavior, and organizational development. 8.6 Duties of a Vocational Psychologist Vocational psychologists play a number of roles, depending upon the need of their client. Vocational psychologists can fulfill this role in a variety of ways: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

122 Advanced Counseling Skills - I  Academic and career advertisement – counselors’ review educational and experience requirements along with the students to help them align their coursework according to the needs of the career one is interested in.  Administer Career and interest assessments to students along with helping the student make an informed career choice.  Helping students connect with potential employers, identify resources in their area.  Assist students/clients prepare resumes, cover letters and applications.  Administer tests like the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to help the individual develop a better understanding of what their interests and aptitudes are.  Review test data and help clients devise a plan for finding employment that is suitable for them.  Vocational psychologists also work to prepare and distribute job-related literature to businesses as well. 8.7 Process of Career Counseling The process of career counseling can be broadly divided in 5 stages. The process should be gradually taken from step to step in order to attain the best results. Rushing through the process will negatively affect its effectiveness. Stage 1: Initiation The counselor and counselee begin to get to know each other. It is vital that the counselee build rapport. This stage not only involves the counselee but also involves the parents and caregivers. A prime function of counselors is to conduct a detailed history taking session to gather maximum information of the counselee which in turn while facilitate the process of counseling and enhance the credibility of the process. The data can be obtained by using various methods as part of the interview session with the counselee such as questionnaires, observations, behavioural CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocational Counseling 123 assessment and interviews with the informant etc. it is essential that the counselor understands details to what has led to the current situation. Stage 2: Exploration The next stage is the exploration stage. In this stage a detailed analysis will be conducted. The analysis will consist of the counselee’s assessment of personality, career interests and behavioural assessment. With the use of this information, and any other past experiences, the counselor and counselee will then have a one on one interaction which will facilitate the counselee to then become aware of the avenues and paths available. Stage 3: Decision Making By this stage, different methods have been explored, and a choice has to be created. The counselee and counselor, have to then reach a standard ground. Any barriers that are unit stopping counselee for selecting a career are dominated out. The foremost applicable choices are hand- picked for the counselee’s career. Correct direction can explore that path is truly the proper one for you, and not only for your folks. Stage 4: Preparation At this stage, all avenues have been explored and decisions will have been made. At this stage the counselor and counselee prepare a plan of action. This plan facilitates the counselee to go further with the action plan. Resources necessary will be made available at this stage, as well as a backup plan. Stage 5: Implementation At this stage the counselor and counselee mutually discuss the goals and deadlines to be achieved. The counselee then starts working towards the goals and deadlines that have been mutually discussed. At this stage, the counselee may experience excessive stress, which must be addressed by the counselor as soon as it is reported as the counselee must not lose motivation and feel overwhelmed during the process. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

124 Advanced Counseling Skills - I 8.8 Benefits of Vocational Guidance Seeking the help of a job counselor will considerably increase your possibilities of success in your endeavors. A vocational counselor will facilitate to:  Assess job interests, aptitudes and skills.  Address any barriers that might probably impede the counselee’s success.  Develop programme of objectives and work.  Research resources to assist the counselee to get the training one would like or to overcome personal problems that are holding the counselee back. 8.9 Summary Vocational counseling is a process of helping individuals to ascertain, accept, evaluate and apply relevant facts in relation to the occupational world which are ascertained through incidental and planned exploratory activities. The process involves five steps that are building rapport, client assessment, exploring options, narrowing options, and implementing goals. 8.10 Key Words/Abbreviations  Counseling: the provision of professional assistance and guidance in resolving personal or psychological problems  Development: an event constituting a new stage in a changing situation.  Vocation: a strong feeling of suitability for a particular career or occupation.  RIASEC: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional (type of persons in Holland’s Theory of vocational Personalities in Work environment) Guidance. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocational Counseling 125 8.11 Learning Activity 1. With the help of the stages in vocational counseling, along with your friend formulate a comprehensive career plan for yourself. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8.12 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. Discuss the theories of vocational guidance 2. Define: (a) Vocational guidance (b) Vocation (c) Guidance 3. Discuss the history and development of Vocational guidance. 4. Describe the duties of a vocational psychologis B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Stage three in the process of vocational counseling is __________. (a) initiation (b) exploration (c) implementation (d) Decision-making 2. __________ is the founder of Vocational Counseling (a) Frank Parsons (b) William Wundt (c) Jim Parsons (d) Sigmund Freud 3. The Vocational Educational Act came into force in __________. (a) 1963 (b) 1964 (c) 1960 (d) 1973 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

126 Advanced Counseling Skills - I 4. In the year __________ Parson established the Vocational Bureau of Boston (a) 1908 (b) 1900 (c) 1907 (d) 1902 5. Self-concept Theory of Career Development was developed by __________. (a) Donald E. Super (b) William Wundt (c) skinner (d) Aron Beck Answers 1. (d), 2. (a), 3. (a), 4. (a), 5. (a) 8.13 References 1. Gottfredson, G.D., and Holland, J.L. (1991). Position Classification Inventory professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. 2. Holland, J.L. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. 3. http://career.iresearchnet.com/career-development/supers-career-development-theory/ 4. Journal of Career Assessment 2017, Vol. 25(1) 173-180 ª The Author(s) 2016 Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1069072716660061 journals.sagepub.com/home/jca  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 9 TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS Structure: 9.0 Learning Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Transactions Defined 9.3 Summary 9.4 Key Words/Abbreviations 9.5 Learning Activity 9.6 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 9.7 References 9.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain and analyze psychoanalysis prior to the development of transactional analysis and key concepts in TA. 9.1 Introduction Transactional analysis is a form of modern psychology that evaluates a person’s interactions and relationship developed by psychiatrist Eric Berne. Berne combined his own observations of human interaction along with Sigmund Freud’s theories of personality, in order to develop transactional analysis. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

128 Advanced Counseling Skills - I As a form of therapy, TA can be used to address one’s interactions and communications with the purpose of establishing and reinforcing the idea that each individual is valuable and has the capacity for positive change and personal growth. Eric Berne (1910-1970): Founder of Transactional Analysis Eric was a Canadian-born psychiatrist who created the theory of transactional analysis as a way of explaining human behavior. His theory of TA is based on the ideas of Freud. Berne’s viewpoint was that a greater insight could be gained by analysing the patient’s social transactions. Berne was the first psychiatrist to apply game theory to the field of psychiatry. Eric Berne was born on May 10, 1910 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. His father, David Hillel Bernstein was a general practitioner, MD and his mother, Sarah Gordon Bernstein, a professional writer and editor. He also had a sister sibling 5 years younger, Grace. Both his parents graduated from McGill University in Montreal. Berne received his baccalaureate degree in 1931 and an M.D. and C.M. (Master of Surgery) from McGill University Medical School in 1935. In 1935, Berne began an internship at Englewood Hospital in New Jersey. After completing his one-year internship in 1936, he began his psychiatric residency at the Psychiatric Clinic of Yale University School of Medicine, where he worked for two years. Berne became an American citizen, in 1939 and shortened his name from Eric Lennard Bernstein to Eric Berne. In 1949, he was admitted as a Fellow in the American Psychiatric Association. Berne died of a heart attack in Carmel on July 15, 1970. Berne’s Major Publications Year of Publication Book 1947 The mind in action 1957 A layman’s guide to psychiatry and psychoanalysis 1961 Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy 1963 Structure and Dynamics of Organizations and Groups 1964 Games People Play CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Transactional Analysis 129 1966 Principles of Group Treatment 1970 Sex in Human Loving 1971 What do you say after you say hello 1976 Beyond games and scripts 1977 Intuition and Ego States Development of Transactional Analysis Transactional analysis developed in the late 1950’s using transactions to describe the fundamental unit of social intercourse. Transactional analysis is the study of social interactions between individuals. His influences included contemporaries such as René Spitz, Erik Erikson, Paul Federn, Edoardo Weiss, as well as Freud and Wilder Penfield, a Canadian neurosurgeon. Inspired by Freud’s theory of personality—primarily his belief that the human psyche is many-sided which is completely different parts move to provide a spread of emotions, attitudes and complex behaviors—and Penfield’s groundbreaking experiments involving the stimulation of specific brain regions with electrical currents, Berne developed an approach that he described as both neo- and extra-Freudian. Discerning the requirement to build upon the philosophical ideas Sigmund Freud introduced with noticeable data, Berne developed his own observable ego states of Parent, Adult, and Child, following Freud’s proposal of the existence of the Id (emotional and irrational component), Ego (rational component), and Superego (moral component) as completely different and imperceptible factions of personality. Berne also took special note of the complexities of human communication. He highlighted the very fact that facial expressions, gestures, body language, and tone may be regarded as more important by the receiver than any spoken words. In his book Games people Play, he noted that people could sometimes communicate messages underpinned with ulterior motives. Psychoanalysis before Eric Berne While there have been several theories purporting to explain human behavior before Eric Bern, the foremost frequently cited and known is that the work of Freud. Freud emerged within the early twentieth century together with his theories concerning personality. Freud believed that CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

130 Advanced Counseling Skills - I personality had 3 elements, all of that should work along to provide our advanced behaviors. These 3 elements or aspects were the Id, Ego, and therefore the Superego. It absolutely was Freud’s belief that these 3 elements needed to be well-balanced to provide affordable mental state and stability in an individual. According to Freud, the Id functions within the irrational and emotional part of the mind, the Ego functions as the rational part of the mind, and the Superego is thought of as the ethical a part of the mind, a manifestation of societal or parental values. But perhaps Freud’s greatest contribution (and the one that influenced Berne) was the fact that the human personality is multi-faceted. In spite of the classification or name given to a specific space of personality (id, superego, etc.), each individual possesses factions that frequently collide with one another. And it’s these collisions and interactions between these personality factions that manifest themselves as an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Thus, under Freud’s theories, an individual’s behavior may be understood by analyzing and understanding his/her 3 factions. Dr. Berne in a research paper stressed that Freud’s planned structures are “concepts… [and not] phenomenological realities” Another scientist whose contributions impacted Dr. Berne in his development of Transactional Analysis is Dr. Wilder Penfield, a neurosurgeon from McGill University in Montreal. Penfield’s experiments targeted on the application of electrical currents to specific regions of the brain. Penfield discovered that, when applying current to the temporal lobe of live and alert patients, he would stimulate meaningful recollections. Additionally, not only were vivid photos of that person’s past disclosed, but conjointly the sentiments and emotions related to that event were uncovered. These patients would recite these events, even though in several cases they were events that the patients were unable to recollect on their own. Penfield applied these and similar experiments for several years. A number of the key conclusions that he reached that went on to influence Bern in his development of Transactional Analysis include: The human brain acts in many ways as a sort of a camera, vividly recording events. Whereas that event might not essentially be able to be consciously retrieved by the owner, the event invariably exists within the brain. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Transactional Analysis 131 Both the event and the feelings knowledgeable throughout that event are hold on within the brain. The event and the feelings are barred along, and neither one is recalled while not the opposite. When an individual replays his or her experiences, he or she will replay them in such a vivid kind that the individual experiences again identical emotions he or she felt during the particular experience. Individuals are able to exist in 2 states at the same time. Individuals replaying certain events are able to experience the emotions related to those events, however they're conjointly able to objectively talk about the events at the same time. These contributions by Penfield and Sigmund Freud, as well as several others, were utilized by Berne as he developed his theories on Transactional Analysis and games. 9.2 Transactions Defined Prior to the publication of the theories on transactional analysis, Berne formulated the framework of TA. An important aspect to this methodology was a transaction – the fundamental unit of social intercourse. Berne also defined a stroke – the fundamental unit of social action. Although Berne outlined transactions long before he printed Games people Play, his description of transactions in Games is most simply understood in the following manner: 1. A transaction is a unit of social intercourse. 2. A transactional stimulus is one where two or more people encounter each other; eventually one of them will speak or give some indication of acknowledging the presence of others. 3. When the other person responds, either by saying something or through an action is called a transactional response. 4. Transactional analysis is then simply defined as the method for studying interactions between individuals. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

132 Advanced Counseling Skills - I Berne’s approach was way different than Freud’s. Freud and most other psychotherapists took rather simplistic approach of asking the patient about themselves, Berne took an alternate approach to therapy. Berne felt that a therapist could learn what the problem was by simply observing what was communicated (words, body language, facial expressions) in a transaction. So instead of directly asking the patient questions, Berne would frequently observe the patient in a group setting, noting all of the transactions that occurred between the patient and other individuals. Transactional analysis (TA) integrates the theories of psychology and psychotherapy because it has elements of psychoanalytic, humanist and cognitive ideas. According to the International Transactional Analysis Association, TA “is a theory of personality and a systematic psychotherapy for personal growth and personal change”: 1. As a theory of personality, TA describes how people are structured psychologically. It uses what is perhaps its best known model, the ego-state (Parent-Adult-Child) model, to do this. The same model helps explain how people function and express their personality in their behaviour. 2. As Berne set up his psychology, there are four live positions that a person can hold, and holding a particular psychological position has profound implications for how an individual operationalizes his or her life. The positions are stated as: (a) I’m OK and you are OK. This is the healthiest position about life and it means that I feel good about myself and that I feel good about others and their competence. (b) I’m OK and you are not OK. In this position I feel good about myself but I see others as damaged or less than and it is usually not healthy. (c) I'm not OK and you are OK. In this position the person sees him/herself as the weak partner in relationships as the others in life are definitely better than the self. The person who holds this position will unconsciously accept abuse as OK. (d) I’m not OK and you are not OK. This is the worst position to be in as it means that I believe that I am in a terrible state and the rest of the world is as bad. Consequently, there is no hope for any ultimate supports. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Transactional Analysis 133 3. It is a theory of communication that can be extended to the analysis of systems and organisations. 4. It offers a theory for child development by explaining how our adult patterns of life originated in childhood. This explanation is based on the idea of a “Life (or Childhood) Script”: the assumption that we continue to re-play childhood strategies, even when this results in pain or defeat. Thus it claims to offer a theory of psychopathology. 5. In practical application, it can be used in the diagnosis and treatment of many types of psychological disorders and provides a method of therapy for individuals, couples, families and groups. 6. Outside the therapeutic field, it has been used in education to help teachers remain in clear communication at an appropriate level, in counselling and consultancy, in management and communications training and by other bodies. Philosophy  People are OK; thus each person has validity, importance, equality of respect.  Positive reinforcement increases feelings of being OK.  All people have a basic lovable core and a desire for positive growth.  Everyone (with only few exceptions, such as the severely brain-damaged) has the capacity to think.  All of the many facets of an individual have a positive value for them in some way.  People decide their story and destiny; therefore these decisions can be changed.  All emotional difficulties are curable. Key Concepts in Transactional Analysis 1. I'm OK - You're OK: Is probably the known expression of the purpose of transactional analysis: to establish and reinforce the position that acknowledges the worth the value of each person. Transactional analysts regard people as essentially \"OK\" and therefore capable of amendment, growth, and healthy interactions. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

134 Advanced Counseling Skills - I 2. Strokes: It was observed by Berne that people need strokes (units of interpersonal recognition) to survive and thrive. Understanding how individuals offer and receive positive and negative strokes and ever-changing unhealthy patterns of stroke are powerful aspects of work in transactional analysis. 3. Ego States: Eric Berne created complex interpersonal transactions comprehendible when he recognized that the human personality is created from 3 “ego states”. Every ego state is a whole system of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from which we tend to interact with each other. The Parent, Adult and child ego states and the interaction between them forms the base of transactional analysis theory. These concepts have spread into several areas of therapy, education, and consulting as practiced these days. 4. Games People Play: Berne outlined certain socially dysfunctional behavioral patterns as “games.” These repetitive, devious transactions are principally intended to obtain strokes but instead they reinforce negative feelings and self-concepts, and mask the direct expression of thoughts and emotions. Berne labeled these games with such instantly recognizable names as “Why do not You, Yes But,” “Now I’ve Got You, You SOB,” and “I’m solely making an attempt to assist you.” Berne’s book Games People Play achieved wide popular success within the early 60’s. 5. Life Script: Berne suggests that Dysfunctional behavior is a result of self-limiting decisions created in childhood within the interest of survival. Such choices culminate in what Berne referred to as the “life script,” the pre-conscious life plan that governs the way life is lived out. Changing the life script is that the aim of transactional analysis psychotherapy. Replacing violent organizational or societal scripting with cooperative non-violent behavior is that the aim of different applications of transactional analysis. 6. Contracts: Transactional analysis practice relies upon mutual contracting for change. Transactional analysts view individuals as capable of deciding what they require for their lives. Accordingly, transactional analyses will work on a contractual basis between the client and also the therapist, educator, or consultant. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Transactional Analysis 135 Ego States An ego state is a system of feelings accompanied by related set of behaviour patterns: 1. Parent ego state (“exteropsyche”): A set of feelings, attitudes and behaviours taken from the parents and different significant parental figures within the setting. The parent could be a huge collection of recordings within the brain as perceived by the person in roughly 1st 5 years of his life. Everything the child saw his parents say or do is recorded within the child. This information is taken in directly without any editing or questioning. So parental prejudices, preferences, decisions are taken into the child’s belief system and sit in a very state of being referred to as the Parent. If parents, amongst themselves, don’t have consistent views then the recordings within the kid are weakened resulting in a fragmented parent. In this case, since the information recorded from both parents isn’t harmonious, it doesn’t prove to be a strong positive influence within the child’s life. There is a lot of confusion instead of a strong sense of direction. These recordings aren't simply from parents. The parent ego state conjointly has information learnt from older siblings, lecturers and different figures of authority. A lot of parent knowledge seems within the ‘how to’ category. Basically, the way to build a meal, the way to answer individuals, the way to shake hands, etc. The parent ego state contains thousands of rules, most fortified with never and always. Examples of recordings in the Parent include:  “Never talk to strangers”  “Always chew with your mouth closed”  “Look both ways before you cross the street” 2. Child ego state (“archaeopsyche”): Are the archaic feelings, attitudes and behaviours that area unit remnants of the person’s past. Whereas external events area unit being recorded because the body of information referred to as The Parent, the inner events (responses of the small person to what he sees and hears) area unit recorded within the kid. Since the small child doesn’t extremely have a developed vocabulary most of his early experiences area unit recorded as feelings. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

136 Advanced Counseling Skills - I In Adulthood, when the person is faced with tough circumstances it may transport him back to his childhood feelings of frustration, anger or rejection because the child in him replays repressed emotions. The individuals around have modified however the feelings of helplessness, anger and disappointment are similar. It’s a play out of old feelings that were imbibed throughout development. The child conjointly has happy emotions recorded — just like the initial time he played in mud, got wet in the rain, cuddled a pet, etc. creative thinking and curiosity each come back from the child in us. 3. Adult Ego state (“neopsyche”): A state of the ego that is most like artificially intelligent system processing information and creating predictions regarding major emotions that would have an effect on its operation. Learning to strengthen the Adult could be a goal of TA. While an individual is within the Adult ego state, he/she is directed towards an objective appraisal of reality. Is the set of feelings, attitudes, and behaviors that are in direct response to the here-and-now reality? Responses don't seem to be based on the past. The Adult state of being is aware of this, evaluates pros-and-cons, gathers information, asks queries, clarifies, reasons logically and takes responsibility. This ego state starts developing at the age of 10 months. Under excessive stress, the Adult would possibly get impaired and not be able to operate commonly. The boundaries between Parent, Adult and child Ego states are fragile. Within the event of dangerous news, the Adult would possibly get engulfed enough to quit being a problem- solver and become a mere viewer. Like a muscle within the body, the Adult grows and develops through coaching and use. The Adult function develops best through self-work and self- examination. One of the key functions of the Adult is to validate data in the parent. Decisions taken from the Adult are typically useful in problem-solving. For example: once someone is angry with you, rather than teaching them a lesson (Parent Ego state) or crying (Child Ego State), you ask the person what he wants from you (Adult Ego State). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Transactional Analysis 137 Sigmund Freud’s ego, superego, and id, are obvious parallels to Berne’s ego states but don’t directly correspond to each other: Superego/Parent; Ego/Adult; Id/Child. TA practitioners that ego states are consistent for each person and are more observable than Freud’s model. The ego state from which someone is communicating is evident in his or her behaviour, manner and expression. Identifying the different Ego States of the Self One can identify the different ego states through behaviours which are typical of each ego state. Sr. No. Ego State Behaviour 1. Child Ego State One’s voice tone may be one of laughing, screaming, angry, rebellious, whining, helpless, stubborn or playful. 2. Critical Parent Ego The words may be ‘wow! I love you. I hate you. Ace. Amazing. State Incredible, I never do it right. Sorry. 3. Adult Ego State The tone of voice may be harsh, strong, self-righteous, critical, ordering, dogmatic, uncompromising, overbearing. The posture will likely be upright, hands on hips, wagging finger, head upright, invasive, erect. words could be – lots of “would, Should” disappointed in you, upset by your behaviour, eat all your food, children should be seen and not heard. The tone of voice may be measured, clear, precise, crisp, rational, and logical. Words may well be very factual. ‘I see you are well, how long you are in, what time is it, it is a fact it is cold today! Emotional Blackmail Emotional blackmail a term coined by Susan Forward focuses on controlling people in relationships. Fear, Obligation, and Guilt (FOG) are the transactional dynamics at play between the controller and the person being controlled. A clear Understanding of these dynamics are useful in order to extricate from the controlling behavior of another person, and deal with their own compulsions to do things that are uncomfortable, undesirable, burdensome, or self- sacrificing for others. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

138 Advanced Counseling Skills - I Forward and Frazier identify four blackmail types:  Punisher’s threat  Self punisher’s threat  Sufferer’s threat  Tantalizer’s threat The Ego-gram in TA Theory The ego-gram is a representation of the functional ego state parts of one’s personality. It was devised by Jack Dusay. It evaluates the distribution of energy in personality and helps the individual get aware of how much energy is required to be redistributed to other parts of the personality to foster positive changes. Creating an ego-gram is rather simple and involves the following steps: (a) Draw a horizontal line on a piece of paper. Then label the five ego states – adapted child, free child, adult, controlling parent and nurturing parent. (b) One then thinks of a particular time or a specific moment, draw the most energised part of personality using a vertical line. (the highest column) (c) Using intuition, draw the lowest energised part of your personality as it is in comparison with the other. (The lowest column.) (d) Fill in the other states as you see them in comparison with the highest and lowest. An ego-gram helps you analyse your ego state/energies at certain times/situations and help you make changes redistribute energies to resolve concerns in personal life and therapy. 9.3 Summary T.A is a psychoanalytic theory and an approach where social transactions are analysed in order to determine the ego states as a premise to understand behaviour. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Transactional Analysis 139 The client is taught to alter the ego state as a means to resolve emotional problems. The method deviates from the Freudian psychoanalysis which focuses on increasing awareness of the contents of unconsciously held ideas. Eric berne developed the concept in the late 1950’s. 9.4 Key Words/Abbreviations  Ego-gram: A bar graph showing the relationship of the parts of the personality to each other and the amount of psychological energy emanating outward.  Transactions: Unit of social intercourse.  Life script: Meaning that one attributes to the events that happened to him at the early stage of life.  T.A.: Transactional Analysis 9.5 Learning Activity 1. Along with your classmate, create your ego-gram and analyse the ego states. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9.6 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. Discuss the different ego states. 2. Define: (a) Transactions (b) Transactional stimulus (c) Transactional response 3. Explain the Key Concepts in Transactional Analysis. 4. Evaluate psychoanalysis before Eric Berne. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

140 Advanced Counseling Skills - I B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. __________ developed the concept of T.A. in the late 1950’s. (a) Eric Berne (b) Sigmund Freud (c) Penfield (d) Jack dusay 2. The child ego state is also called __________. (a) archaeopsyche (b) neopsyche (c) exterosychye (d) psyche 3. The contribution of __________ + __________ was primarily utilized by Berne in the theories of TA. (a) Freud and penfield (b) Dusay and Freud (c) Penfield and Berne (d) Berne and Dusay 4. In the year 1964, Berne published his book __________. (a) Games people play (b) TA in psychotherapy (c) principles of group therapy (d) sex in human living 5. Berne died on __________. (a) 15th July 1970 (b) august 1970 (c) July 1935 (d) July 1981 Answers 1. (d), 2. (a), 3. (a), 4. (a), 5. (a). 9.7 References 1. Quoted in Stewart and Joines, p3. 2. Berne, Eric (1964). Games People Play – The Basic Hand Book of Transactional Analysis. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-41003-3. 3. Stewart and Joines. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Transactional Analysis 141 4. White, M. and White J. Talking TA. (WPATA Publications, revised 1998). 5. Johnson, R. Skip (August 16, 2014). \"Emotional Blackmail: Fear, Obligation and Guilt (FOG)\". BPDFamily.com. Retrieved October 18, 2014.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 10 ASSERTIVE TRAINING Structure: 10.0 Learning Objectives 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Reasons for Assertiveness Training 10.3 Summary 10.4 Key Words/Abbreviations 10.5 Learning Activity 10.6 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 10.7 References 10.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain and analyse the need, history and techniques in assertive training. 10.1 Introduction Assertiveness training is an effective treatment for certain conditions, like depression, social anxiety, and issues resulting from unspoken anger. Assertiveness training may be helpful for people who want to enhance their interpersonal skills and sense of self-respect. 10.2 Reasons for Assertiveness Training Assertiveness training is based on the principle that all have freedom to express our thoughts, feelings, and needs to others, as long as we do so in a respectful way. The inability to express CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Assertive Training 143 oneself leads to one becoming depressed, anxious, or angry, and his/her sense of self-worth may suffer. Our relationships with others also are likely to suffer because we have a tendency to become resentful when they do not read our minds for not assertive enough to be telling them. There are no strict rules of what assertive behavior is; rather, it's specific to the actual time and scenario. In other words, behavior that’s suitably assertive for one person in one scenario is also either overly passive or too aggressive for somebody else during a completely different scenario. Finally, assertiveness training is based on the idea that assertiveness isn't inborn, however is a learned behavior. Though some individuals could seem to be more naturally assertive than others, anyone can learn to be more assertive. Although these ideas could sound easy and straightforward, behaving assertively will sometimes be tough for almost anyone, and is common often for a few individuals. For this reason, assertiveness training focuses not only on talking about the importance of self- assertiveness, but conjointly on learning assertive behaviors and practicing these behaviors with the help of knowledgeable therapist. Difference between Assertiveness and Aggression Assertiveness Aggression 1. The main goal is to make sure all parties are Such a person is concerned with what they can being respected, including oneself. get out of it and may use fear tactics to get it. Assertiveness means you value yourself equal to others. 2. When someone is being assertive they are Aggression is done from a place of hurting doing so with the intention of hurting no one, another person to get something out of it. including themselves. 3. Not afraid to express their opinion and stand Looks like either attacking people or ignoring up for themselves, even if it won’t be liked. their feelings in favor of one’s own. Done with the intention of fostering mutual respect. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

144 Advanced Counseling Skills - I Joseph Wolpe explored the use of assertiveness as a means of \"reciprocal inhibition\" of anxiety, in his 1958 book on treating neurosis; and it has since been commonly employed as an intervention in behavior therapy. Assertiveness Training (“AT”) was introduced by Andrew Salter (1961) and popularized by Joseph Wolpe. Wolpe's belief was that a person could not be both assertive and anxious at the same time, and thus being assertive would inhibit anxiety. Goals of assertiveness training include:  Increased awareness of personal rights  Differentiation between non-assertiveness and assertiveness  Differentiation between passive–aggressiveness and aggressiveness  Learning both verbal and non-verbal assertiveness skills. Types of Assertiveness  Non-assertive behaviour: I am not ok,you are ok  Assertive behaviour: I am ok, you’re ok  Aggresive behaviour: I am ok,you are not ok  Manipulative behaviour: I am not ok,you are not ok Non assertive Assertive Aggressive Long, rambling statements Statements that are brief, clear and to Excess of ‘I’ statements Fill in words (e.g. ‘maybe’) the point Frequent justifications Apologies and ‘permission ‘I’ statements: ‘I’ d like’ Boastfulness: ‘My’ seekers’ Few ‘I’ statements (often Distinctions between fact and opinion Threatening questions qualified) Suggestions not weighted with device Requests as instructions or Self put-downs (for example, threats ‘I’ m hopeless’) NO ‘shoulds’ or ‘oughts’ Heavily weighted advice in the form of ‘should’ and ‘ought’ Questions to find out the thoughts, Assumptions opinions and wants of others. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)