communities were labelled criminals by the state simply on account of being born into that tribe or community. This led to severe stigma being attached to such tribes that continues to this day. The colonial state attempted to justify its labelling by pointing to higher crime figures attributed to members of the criminal tribes, in what can be perceived of as simply a cycle of self-fulfilling prophecies. In present day India, such tribes are referred to with the only marginally less stigmatizing label of “denotified tribes” or “ex-criminal tribes” – a stark reminder of the lasting effects of institutional labeling. Thus, even though the post-colonial state has attempted to reverse the labeling applied by the colonial state, it can only do so by once again drawing attention to, and thus reinforcing the original act of negative labeling. If the colonial state “notified” certain tribes as criminal, and the postcolonial state attempts to reverse this action by “denotifying” them, the permanence of the original act of negative institutional labeling persists. Chronic Speech Disorders People may develop chronic speech disorders if we label them as stutterers. Edwin Lemert (1912-1996) in his study of primary and secondary deviance presented a case study of Inuit communities on the pacific coast of Canada among whom stuttering was uncommonly prevalent. Lemert (1967) pointed out that in Inuit culture, ceremonial speeches were an important ritual, and thus the ability to speak clearly and eloquently in front of an audience without the slightest slip of the tongue was a marker of social prestige. At the same time, stuttering had an uncommonly high rate of prevalence in the Inuit community. Lemert attributed this apparent contradiction to the prevalence of secondary deviance. Given the great importance attached to clearly enunciated speech in Inuit communities, someone with even the slightest speech disorder is likely to be considered a deviant. Thus children, unable to enunciate clearly under social pressure may be considered deviants and labelled as stutterers and stammeres despite the fact they only stuttered in some situations. Over time, children may internalize this image of themselves as stutterers, resulting in the stuttering becoming chronic, and not just during public speaking. 51 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
3.4.3 Moving from primary deviance to secondary deviance This pathway from primary deviance to secondary deviance is illustrated as follows: Primary deviance Others label act as deviant Actor internalizes deviant label Secondary deviance Figure 3.4: Process of primary deviance to secondary deviance The transition from primary to secondary deviance represents a process of development. Increasingly stronger deviance is followed by ever stronger social reactions, which ensure that deviance solidifies. 3.5 LABELLING THEORY Labelling theory indicates that society's assigning of labels to individuals or certain groups can have an effect on their behavior. This theory, in relation to sociology, criminology, and psychology, has shown that labeling someone as a criminal can lead to bad conduct. The theory purports that society's establishing someone as a criminal based on deviant behavior (action perceived to violate society's normal standards) may lead others to mistreat the person labeled as a criminal. In other words, individuals may face stigma, discrimination against them because of the criminal label. Therefore, the person might become a criminal. Thus, the focus of the labeling theory is to show that society's perception and treatment of others can cause them to commit wrong acts. Therefore, the person might, in turn, become a criminal. The labeling theory of deviance establishes that people possess deviant behaviors due to others forcing that identity on them. This theory suggests that for this process to be successful, stigmatization must be in play. In order to effectively apply a deviant model on a person, others must disgrace them to make them realize the bad behavior faster. Therefore, this theory establishes how society plays a significant role in creating some behaviors in individuals. In contrast, the control theory indicates how social ties limit an 52 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
individual's chances of getting into criminal activities since society depicts the issues of criminality. Instead of making individuals criminals by labeling them, the control theory finds society reduces destructive behaviors by highlighting their effects. 3.6 STRENGTHS OF THE LABELLING THEORY Those who support the theory see its strengths in: 1. Making it easier to understand deviant behaviour. This way, the labelling theory plays a role in strengthening society’s structure. 2. Helping make knowledgeable predictions. For instance, an individual who has been labelled a felon can’t be part of a jury and can’t vote in many states. He’s also expected to report whenever he applies for a job. Being a felon follows them through their life. Labelling theory can predict recidivism or the tendency of labelled individuals to re-offend. 3. The formulation of a more understanding environment for people with disabilities. Research about labelling theory helps other individuals develop consideration for the mentally ill as they are not simply labelled but actually battling illnesses. 4. Building communication for advocacy efforts. Whenever there are social concerns for a labelled person, the problem can be identified and resolved easier. 3.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE LABELLING THEORY The limitations of the labelling theory include: 1. There’s no empirical proof that labelling increases deviance. Despite it gaining popularity in the 1960s and 1970s, the labelling theory slowly started to decline because of the mixed results of empirical research. 2. Not all who do deviant acts are labelled deviant. Such as when the labelling perspectives differ from each state based on the laws passed in that area. 53 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
3.8 SUMMARY Labelling theory is a theory to understand deviance in the society, this theory is focused more on trying to understand how people react to behaviour that happens around them and label it as ‘deviant’ or ‘nondeviant’. This theory was given by Howard Becker who tried to understand, not in the causes behind the deviant behaviour but rather which behaviour was considered ‘deviant’ and what impact it had on the individual engaging in that behaviour. There are two kinds of deviance that are recognized; primary and secondary. These become important to understand as they were given as an extension of Howard’s theory by Edwin Lemert. Primary deviance refers to those acts which receive a little reaction from the society and do not have long term consequences, e.g. when while playing cricket a child may break a window or a vase. Secondary deviance, on the other hand, refers to acts that are labeled by the society as deviant and attached to one’s identity thus affecting one’s self-concept. 3.9 KEY WORDS Deviance: The word deviance connotes odd or unacceptable behavior, but in the sociological sense of the word, deviance is simply any violation of society's norms. Deviance can range from something minor, such as a traffic violation, to something major, such as murder. Label: A label is an abstract concept in sociology used to group people together based on perceived or held identity. Labelling theory:Labelling theory posits that self-identity and the behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them. Primary Deviance: Primary Deviance is the initial stage in defining deviant behaviour Secondary deviance: Secondary deviance includes things people do that are abnormal and have become seen as central to their identity. 3.10 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define microfinance? 54 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. State the principles of microfinance? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS 55 A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Who was Howard Becker? 2. Name the four categories of behaviour as described by Howard Becker. 3. What is deviance? 4. Name the two types of deviance. 5. What is a social label? Long Questions 1. What is the main contribution of Howard Becker? 2. Explain the labelling theory. 3. Explain the types of deviance according to Howard Becker. 4. What are the strengths of the labelling theory? 5. What are the limitations of labelling theory? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Socialization is the process through which an individual internalizes? a. Cultural norms b. Social processes c. Sense of interaction d. None of these CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
2. Basic personality characteristics of the individual are formed within________________. a. family b. Friends c. Classroom d. None of these 3. Totality of behavior of an individual with a given tendency system interacting with a sequence of situations” is termed as ____________. a. Behaviour b. Role c. Personality d. None of these 4. Sorokin emphasizes that the group difference is mainly affected by differences in______________________. a. Biological factors b. Social factors c. Physical environment d. Social Environment 5. What is an example of primary deviance? a. A teenager starts skipping school and then drops out b. A husband and wife can't decide about how to raise their child c. A girl seriously considers taking something from a store, but decides not to d. A teenager decides to skip school one day Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-c. 4-c, 5-d 56 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
3.12 REFERENCES References books Turner, Jonathan H., 1987; The Structure of Sociological Theory, Fourth Edition, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Henry, Kenneth, 1978, Social Problems: Institutional and Interpersonal Perspectives, Scott, Fopresman and Company, Illinois, London. Kothari, Rajani, 1988, Transformation and Survival, Ajanta Publications, Delhi. Lerner, Daniel, 1964, The Passing of Traditional Society, The Free Press, London. Polanyi, Karl, 1957, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origin of our Time, Beacon Press, Boston. Merton, Robert K. & Nisbet, Robert, 1976, Contemporary Social Problems, Hercourt Brace Iovanovich, International Editing, New York, Chicago. Singh, Yogendra, 1988, Modernizations of Indian Tradition, Reprint, Rawat Publication, Jaipur. Ancel, Marc (1965), Social Defence – A Modern Approach to Criminal Problems, Routlege and Kegan Paul, London. Bhattacharya, S.K. (1981), “The Concept and Areas of Social Defence”, in Readings in Social Defence edited by N.C. Joshi and V.B. Bhatia, Wheeler Publishing, Allahabad. Government of India (Ministry of Social Welfare) (1974), Social Defence in India, National Institute of Social Defence, New Delhi. Government of India (Ministry of Social Welfare) (1980), National Institute of Social Defence: A Perspective, NISD Publication, New Delhi. Srivastava, S.P., April (2000), “Explaining the Concept of Social Defence”, Social Defence, Vol. 49, No. 144. 57 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Textbook references Ahuja, Ram (1992), Social Problems in India, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Keneth, Henry (1978), Social Problems: Institutional and Interpersonal Perspectives, Scott, Fopresman and Company, Illinois, London. Merton, Robert K, and Robert Nisbet (1971), Contemporary Social Problems, Fourth Edition, Harcourt Brace and Co., New York. Memoria, Dr. C.B. (1960), Social Problems and Social Disorganisation in India, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad. Annual Report 2003, National Commission for Women, New Delhi. Annual Report 2002-2003, Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India. Cooley, C.H. (1902), Human Nature and Social order, Scribner, New York. Crime in India (2003), Annual Report, National Crime Records Bureau, New Delhi. Merton, (1957), R.K., Social Theory and Social Structure, Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois. Ram, Ahuja (1997), Social Problems in India, Rawat Publications, New Delhi. William, Scott (1988), Dictionary of Sociology, Goyl Saab Publishers, New Delhi. Website https://open.lib.umn.edu. https://www.sociologylens.in/2021/03/social-problems.html https://academic.oup.com/socpro https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/ 58 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT-4 SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON 59 SOCIAL PROBLEMS: ANOMIE (DURKHEIM) STRUCTURE 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Emile Durkheim 4.3 Formation of Collective Consciousness 4.4 Durkheim and Modernity 4.5 Organic versus Mechanical Solidarity 4.6 Suicide 4.6.1 Egoistic suicide 4.6.2 Altruistic suicide 4.6.3 Anomie suicide 4.6.4 Fatalistic suicide 4.7 Summary 4.8 Key Words 4.9 Learning Activity 4.10 Unit End Questions 4.11 References 4.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to; Describe the contribution of Emile Durkheim in the field of sociology Elaborate on the influence of functionalism on Emile Durkheim Describe the theory of the anomie theory Explain the key features of the anomie theory CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Describe the relationship between social disorganization and anomie theory Elaborate on impact of anomie on human life and social interactions Explain the strengths and limitations of anomie theory 4.1 INTRODUCTION A sociological theory is a set of ideas that provides an explanation for human society. Theories are selective in terms of their priorities and perspectives and the data they define as significant. As a result they provide a particular and partial view of reality. Sociological theories can be grouped together according to a variety of criteria. The most important of these is the distinction between Structural and Social action theories. Structural, or macro perspectives analyses the way society as a whole fit together. Structural theory sees society as a system of relationships that creates the structure of the society in which we live. It is this structure that determines our lives and characters. Structured sets of social relationships are the ‘reality’ that lie below the appearance of ‘the free individual’ of western individualism. Structuralism focuses on the particular set of ‘structural laws’ that apply in any one society. Despite their differences, both functionalism and Marxism use a model of how society as a whole works. Many functionalists base their model of society around the assumption of basic needs and go to explain how different parts of society help to meet those needs. Marxists, on the other hand, see society as resting upon an economic base or infrastructure, with a superstructure above it. They see society as divided into social classes which have the potential to be in conflict with each other. 4.2 EMILE DURKHEIM Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) was born in Épinal, France, on April 15, 1858, to a devout French Jewish family. Durkheim became interested in a scientific approach to society very early on in his career, which meant the first of many conflicts with the French academic system—which had no social science curriculum at the time. Durkheim found humanistic studies uninteresting, turning his attention from psychology and philosophy to ethics and eventually, sociology. He graduated with a degree in philosophy in 1882. 60 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Figure 4.1 Emile Durkheim Along with Karl Marx and Max Weber, he is credited as being one of the principal founders of modern sociology. Chief among his claims is that society is a sui generis reality, or a reality unique to itself and irreducible to its composing parts. It is created when individual consciences interact and fuse together to create a synthetic reality that is completely new and greater than the sum of its parts. This reality can only be understood in sociological terms, and cannot be reduced to biological or psychological explanations. The fact that social life has this quality would form the foundation of another of Durkheim’s claims, that human societies could be studied scientifically. For this purpose he developed a new methodology, which focuses on what Durkheim calls “social facts,” or elements of collective life that exist independently of and are able to exert an influence on the individual. Using this method, he published influential works on a number of topics. He is most well known as the author of On the Division of Social Labor, The Rules of Sociological Method, Suicide, and The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. However, Durkheim also published a voluminous number of articles and reviews, and has had several of his lecture courses published posthumously. When Durkheim began writing, sociology was not recognized as an independent field of study. As part of the campaign to change this he went to great lengths to separate sociology from all other disciplines, especially philosophy. In consequence, while Durkheim’s influence in the social sciences has been extensive, his relationship with philosophy remains ambiguous. 61 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Nevertheless, Durkheim maintained that sociology and philosophy are in many ways complementary, going so far as to say that sociology has an advantage over philosophy, since his sociological method provides the means to study philosophical questions empirically, rather than metaphysically or theoretically. As a result, Durkheim often used sociology to approach topics that have traditionally been reserved for philosophical investigation. Along with Marx and Weber, French sociologist Emile Durkheim is considered one of the founders of sociology. One of Durkheim’s primary goals was to analyze how modern societies could maintain social integration after the traditional bonds of family and church were replaced by modern economic relations. Durkheim believed that society exerted a powerful force on individuals. People’s norms, beliefs, and values make up a collective consciousness, or a shared way of understanding and behaving in the world. The collective consciousness binds individuals together and creates social integration. For Durkheim, the collective consciousness was crucial in explaining the existence of society: it produces society and holds it together. At the same time, the collective consciousness is produced by individuals through their actions and interactions. Society is a social product created by the actions of individuals that then exerts a coercive social force back on those individuals. Through their collective consciousness, Durkheim argued, human beings become aware of one another as social beings, not just animals. 4.3 FORMATION OF COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS According to Durkheim, the collective consciousness is formed through social interactions. In particular, Durkheim thought of the close-knit interactions between families and small communities, groups of people who share a common religion, who may eat together, work together, and spend leisure time together. Yet all around him, Durkheim observed evidence of rapid social change and the withering away of these groups. He saw increasing population density and population growth as key factors in the evolution of society and the advent of modernity. As the number of people in a given area increase, he posited, so does the number of interactions, and the society becomes more complex. Population growth creates competition and incentives to trade and further the division of labor. But as people engage in more economic activity with neighbors or distant traders, they begin to loosen the traditional bonds of family, religion, and moral solidarity that had previously ensured social integration. Durkheim worried that modernity might herald the disintegration of society. 62 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4.4 DURKHEIM AND MODERNITY Following a socioevolutionary approach reminiscent of Comte, Durkheim described the evolution of society from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity. Simpler societies, he argued, are based on mechanical solidarity, in which self-sufficient people are connected to others by close personal ties and traditions (e.g., family and religion). Also, in such societies, people have far fewer options in life. Modern societies, on the other hand, are based on organic solidarity, in which people are connected by their reliance on others in the division of labor. Modernization, Durkheim argued, is based first on population growth and increasing population density, second on increasing “moral density” (that is, the development of more complex social interactions), and third, on the increasing specialization in work (i.e., the division of labor). Because modern society is complex, and because the work that individuals do is so specialized, individuals can no longer be self-sufficient and must rely on others to survive. Thus, although modern society may undermine the traditional bonds of mechanical solidarity, it replaces them with the bonds of organic solidarity. 4.5 ORGANIC VERSUS MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY Further, Durkheim argued, the organic solidarity of modern societies might have advantages over traditional mechanical solidarity. In traditional societies, people are self-sufficient, and therefore society has little need for cooperation and interdependence. Institutions that require cooperation and agreement must often resort to force and repression to keep society together. Traditional mechanical solidarity may tend, therefore, to be authoritarian and coercive. In modern societies, under organic solidarity, people are necessarily much more interdependent. Specialization and the division of labor require cooperation. Thus, solidarity and social integration are necessary for survival and do not require the same sort of coercion as under mechanical solidarity. In organic solidarity, the individual is considered vitally important, even sacred. In organic solidarity, the individual, rather than the collective, becomes the focus of rights and responsibilities, the center of public and private rituals holding the society together—a function once performed by the religion. To stress the importance of this concept, Durkheim talked of the ” cult of the individual. ” However, he made clear that the cult of the individual is itself a social fact, socially produced; reverence for the individual is not an inherent human trait, but a social fact that arises in certain societies at certain times. 63 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
In Durkheim’s view, there are four types of suicide, based on the degree of imbalance between the two social forces of social integration and moral regulation. Durkheim pointed out the impact of various crises on social groups. For example, a war that led to an increase in altruism, an economic boom, or a catastrophe that caused anomie. 4.6 SUICIDE According to Durkheim, suicide is not a personal act. It is caused by a power beyond the individual or the super individual. He believed that “we know the consequences of all kinds of deaths, either directly or indirectly, resulting from the victim’s own positive or negative behaviour.” After defining the phenomenon, Durkheim rejected the psychological explanation. Many doctors and psychologists theorize that the majority of those who take their lives are in a morbid state. However, Durkheim emphasised that the power to drive suicide is social rather than psychological. He concluded that suicide results from social turmoil or lack of social integration or social solidarity. Durkheim’s theory of suicide greatly contributes to the understanding of the phenomenon because it emphasises social factors rather than biological or personal factors. However, this is also the main drawback of Emile Durkheim’s suicide theory. He overemphasized only social factors and overlooked other factors. Therefore, his theory of suicide is said to be highly flawed and unilateral. The four types of suicide as mentioned in the theory of suicide are as follows: 4.6.1 Egoistic suicide Egoistic suicide reflects a lasting feeling of being integrated into the community and not belonging. It comes from suicidal ideation that an individual doesn’t have a chain. This absence can lead to meaninglessness, indifference, and depression. Durkheim calls it distant “excessive personalisation”. It is generally seen that individuals who commit suicide are not attached to society, are left out and receive little social support or guidance. Durkheim found that suicide is more common among unmarried people, especially unmarried men, as there is less need to restrain them or tie them to stable social norms and goals. 4.6.2 Altruistic suicide Altruistic suicide is marked by the feeling of being overwhelmed by the group’s goals and beliefs. It occurs in a highly integrated society where the needs of individuals are considered 64 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
less important than the needs of society as a whole. Durkheim explained that there would not be any significant motivation for people to commit an act as heinous as suicide in an altruistic society, as personal interests were considered important. However, he provided one exception-when an individual is expected to commit suicide in the name of society, for example, in military service. 4.6.3 Anomie suicide Anomie suicide reflects an individual’s moral turmoil and lack of social orientation associated with dramatic social and economic upheavals. It is the product of a failure to define legitimate aspirations through moral deregulation and restraint of social ethics that can impose meaning and order on an individual’s conscience. Anomie suicide is a sign of the failure of economic development and the division of labour to create organic solidarity, as mentioned by Durkheim. In this condition, people do not know whether they are suitable for society. Durkheim explains that anomie suicide is a state of moral disability in which people are unaware of the limits of their desires and are always in a state of disappointment. Anomie suicide can happen when they experience extreme wealth changes due to economic or natural phenomena. In either case, the expectations of the previous life are set aside, and new expectations are needed before assessing the situations associated with the new frontier. 4.6.4 Fatalistic suicide Fatalistic suicide occurs when a person is over-regulated, their future is constantly hampered, and repressive discipline causes intense choking of passion. It is the opposite of anomie suicide, which happens in an oppressive society where its inhabitants want to die rather than live. For example, some prisoners may want to die rather than live in prisons with constant abuse and over-regulation. Unlike the other concepts he developed, Durkheim thought that fatalistic suicide was only a theoretical concept and highly unlikely to exist in reality. 4.7 SUMMARY Durkheim believed that society exerted a powerful force on individuals. According to Durkheim, people’s norms, beliefs, and values make up a collective consciousness, or a shared way of understanding and behaving in the world. The collective consciousness binds individuals together and creates social integration. 65 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Durkheim saw increasing population density as a key factor in the advent of modernity. As the number of people in a given area increase, so does the number of interactions, and the society becomes more complex. As people engage in more economic activity with neighbors or distant traders, they begin to loosen the traditional bonds of family, religion, and moral solidarity that had previously ensured social integration. Durkheim worried that modernity might herald the disintegration of society. Simpler societies are based on mechanical solidarity, in which self-sufficient people are connected to others by close personal ties and traditions. Modern societies are based on organic solidarity, in which people are connected by their reliance on others in the division of labor. Although modern society may undermine the traditional bonds of mechanical solidarity, it replaces them with the bonds of organic solidarity. In the Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Durkheim presented a theory of the function of religion in aboriginal and modern societies and described the phenomenon of collective effervescence and collective consciousness. Durkheim has been called a structural functionalist because his theories focus on the function certain institutions (e.g., religion) play in maintaining social solidarity or social structure. 4.8 KEY WORDS Altruistic suicide: Altruistic suicide describes when individuals kill themselves in order to benefit other people. Anomic suicide: Anomic suicide stems from sudden and unexpected changes in situations. Egoistic suicide: Egoistic suicide is seen as stemming from the absence of social integration. It is committed by individuals who are social outcast and see themselves as being alone or an outsider. Fatalistic suicide:Fatalistic suicide occurs when a person is excessively regulated, when their futures are pitilessly blocked and passions violently choked by oppressive discipline. 66 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
organic solidarity: It is social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals have on each other in more advanced societies. mechanical solidarity: It normally operates in “traditional” and small scale societies. In simpler societies (e.g., tribal), solidarity is usually based on kinship ties of familial networks. Suicide: Suicide is death caused by injuring oneself with the intent to die. Suicide Attempt: A suicide attempt is when someone harms themselves with any intent to end their life, but they do not die as a result of their actions. 4.9 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define suicide? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2.State the types of suicide? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS 67 A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Who was Emile Durkheim? 2. Name the types of suicide according to Emile Durkheim. 3. Define collective consciousness 4. Define modernity 5. What are the types of solidarity? Long Questions 1. What is the contribution of Emile Durkheim? 2. Explain the types of suicides CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
3. Explain the concept of collective consciousness 4. What does Durkheim explain about modernity? 5. Explain the two types of solidarity. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. 1. Émile Durkheim's endeavor to establish sociology as a separate academic discipline centered on his efforts to: a. Develop an all-encompassing synthesis of major sociological perspectives. b. Demonstrate the influence of social forces on people's behaviour. c. Show how an understanding of sociological principles could be used to solve social problems. d. Chart the evolution of major social institutions 2. Durkheim's research suggested that a. Catholics had much higher suicide rates than Protestants. b. There seemed to higher rates of suicide in times of peace than in times of war and revolution. c. civilians were more likely to take their lives than soldiers. d. suicide is a solitary act, unrelated to group life 3. Which sociologist introduced the concept of anomie to the discipline? a. Max Weber b. Herbert Spencer c. Émile Durkheim d. D. C. Wright Mills. 4. When Émile Durkheim studied suicide rates, he was not primarily interested in discovering ways to eliminate suicide. In this sense, his research was an example of what kind of sociology? a. clinical sociology b. basic sociology c. conflict sociology 68 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
d. applied sociology 5. Which Anomie refers to a. a construct, or a made-up model that serves as a measuring rod against which actual cases can be evaluated. b. the study of small groups. c. the loss of direction that a society feels when social control of individual behaviour has become ineffective. d. a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behaviour Answers 1-b, 2-b, 3-c. 4-b, 5-d 4.11 REFERENCES References books Turner, Jonathan H., 1987; The Structure of Sociological Theory, Fourth Edition, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Henry, Kenneth, 1978, Social Problems: Institutional and Interpersonal Perspectives, Scott, Fopresman and Company, Illinois, London. Kothari, Rajani, 1988, Transformation and Survival, Ajanta Publications, Delhi. Lerner, Daniel, 1964, The Passing of Traditional Society, The Free Press, London. Polanyi, Karl, 1957, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origin of our Time, Beacon Press, Boston. Merton, Robert K. & Nisbet, Robert, 1976, Contemporary Social Problems, Hercourt Brace Iovanovich, International Editing, New York, Chicago. Singh, Yogendra, 1988, Modernizations of Indian Tradition, Reprint, Rawat Publication, Jaipur. Ancel, Marc (1965), Social Defence – A Modern Approach to Criminal Problems, Routlege and Kegan Paul, London. 69 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Bhattacharya, S.K. (1981), “The Concept and Areas of Social Defence”, in Readings in Social Defence edited by N.C. Joshi and V.B. Bhatia, Wheeler Publishing, Allahabad. Government of India (Ministry of Social Welfare) (1974), Social Defence in India, National Institute of Social Defence, New Delhi. Government of India (Ministry of Social Welfare) (1980), National Institute of Social Defence: A Perspective, NISD Publication, New Delhi. Srivastava, S.P., April (2000), “Explaining the Concept of Social Defence”, Social Defence, Vol. 49, No. 144. Textbook references Ahuja, Ram (1992), Social Problems in India, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Keneth, Henry (1978), Social Problems: Institutional and Interpersonal Perspectives, Scott, Fopresman and Company, Illinois, London. Merton, Robert K, and Robert Nisbet (1971), Contemporary Social Problems, Fourth Edition, Harcourt Brace and Co., New York. Memoria, Dr. C.B. (1960), Social Problems and Social Disorganisation in India, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad. Annual Report 2003, National Commission for Women, New Delhi. Annual Report 2002-2003, Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India. Cooley, C.H. (1902), Human Nature and Social order, Scribner, New York. Crime in India (2003), Annual Report, National Crime Records Bureau, New Delhi. Merton, (1957), R.K., Social Theory and Social Structure, Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois. Ram, Ahuja (1997), Social Problems in India, Rawat Publications, New Delhi. William, Scott (1988), Dictionary of Sociology, Goyl Saab Publishers, New Delhi. Website 70 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
https://open.lib.umn.edu. https://www.sociologylens.in/2021/03/social-problems.html https://academic.oup.com/socpro https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/ 71 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT-5 SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL PROBLEMS: DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION (SUTHERLAND) STRUCTURE 5.0 Learning Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Sociological theories 5.3 Edwin Sutherland 5.4 White Collar Crime 5.5 Differential Association Theory 5.6 Nine Propositions of Differential Association Theory 5.7 Examples Of Differential Association Theory 5.7.1 Organized Crime Families 5.7.2 Public Corruption 5.9 Strengths Of Differential Association Theory 5.9.1 Explains Crime Irrespective of Age 5.9.2Explains White Collar and Organized Crime – 5.10 Criticisms Of Differential Association Theory 5.10.1 An Overreliance on Association 5.10.2 Intimate Association May Not Always be a Precondition 5.10.3 Assumes Lack of Agency 5.11 Summary 5.12 Key Words 5.13 Learning Activity 5.14 Unit End Questions 5.15 References 72 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to; Describe the contribution of Edwin Sutherland to the field of sociology Explain the influence of learning theories on the work of Edwin Sutherland Describe the differential association theory as proposed by Edwin Sutherland Explain the key features of the differential association theory Describe the explanation provided by Edwin Sutherland to describe deviant behaviour Explain the strengths and limitations of differential association theory 5.1 INTRODUCTION Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and how people interact within these contexts. Since all human behavior is social, the subject matter of sociology ranges from the intimate family to the hostile mob; from organized crime to religious cults; from the divisions of race, gender and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture; and from the sociology of work to the sociology of sports. In fact, few fields have such broad scope and relevance for research, theory, and application of knowledge. Sociology provides many distinctive perspectives on the world, generating new ideas and critiquing the old. The field also offers a range of research techniques that can be applied to virtually any aspect of social life: street crime and delinquency, corporate downsizing, how people express emotions, welfare or education reform, how families differ and flourish, or problems of peace and war. Because sociology addresses the most challenging issues of our time, it is a rapidly expanding field whose potential is increasingly tapped by those who craft policies and create programs. Sociologists understand social inequality, patterns of behavior, forces for social change and resistance, and how social systems work. As the following pages convey, sociology is an exciting discipline with expanding opportunities for a wide range of career paths. 73 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.2 SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and how people interact within these contexts. Since all human behavior is social, the subject matter of sociology ranges from the intimate family to the hostile mob; from organized crime to religious cults; from the divisions of race, gender and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture; and from the sociology of work to the sociology of sports. In fact, few fields have such broad scope and relevance for research, theory, and application of knowledge. Sociology provides many distinctive perspectives on the world, generating new ideas and critiquing the old. The field also offers a range of research techniques that can be applied to virtually any aspect of social life: street crime and delinquency, corporate downsizing, how people express emotions, welfare or education reform, how families differ and flourish, or problems of peace and war. Because sociology addresses the most challenging issues of our time, it is a rapidly expanding field whose potential is increasingly tapped by those who craft policies and create programs. Sociologists understand social inequality, patterns of behavior, forces for social change and resistance, and how social systems work. As the following pages convey, sociology is an exciting discipline with expanding opportunities for a wide range of career paths. The three major sociological theories that new students learn about are the interactionist perspective, the conflict perspective, and the functionalist perspective. And each has its own distinct way of explaining various aspects of society and the human behavior within it. 5.3 EDWIN SUTHERLAND Edwin Sutherland was born on August 13, 1883 in Gibbon, Nebraska in USA. He was an American criminologist, best known for his development of the differential association theory of crime. In recognition of his influence, the most important annual award of the American Society of Criminology is given in his name. Sutherland received his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago in 1913 with a double major in sociology and political economy. In 1935, after having taught at various other universities, including the University of Illinois and the University of Chicago, he took a position at Indiana University, where he remained until his death. 74 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Figure 5.1 Edwin Sutherland Sutherland, like many of the leading sociologists, as already noted, came to sociology from another field. Like Odum, he was teaching Latin and Greek in a small college. He had planned to take graduate work in history, but found that a course in sociology was a prerequisite for graduate work in history, and consequently he took a correspondence course in sociology to meet this requirement. From this he decided to select sociology as a minor while keeping history as a major. Following his A.B. at Grand Island College in 1904, Sutherland entered the University of Chicago and took one course in sociology during the summer of 1906. From this he became interested in sociology and decided to make sociology the major rather than the minor. He completed his Ph.D. degree work at the University of Chicago in 1913, at thirty years of age. Throughout his career, he published a number of highly influential articles and books that continue to inspire how sociologists think about issues of crime and deviance, even though Sutherland died in 1950. Let's talk about some of Sutherland's major contributions to sociology. 5.4 WHITE COLLAR CRIME Sutherland remains an important figure in criminology. In fact, he wrote one of the first textbooks on the subject in 1924, called Criminology, and is considered a father of the field. He was also one of the first scholars in the field of criminology who theorized that crime was not an individual failing or a personal or character defect but was connected to things like socialization, which refers to the dominant norms and values we learn. Before Sutherland, 75 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
people who studied crime assumed that it had some kind of biological basis, and that criminals committed crimes because they were somehow biologically different or deficient. Sutherland also wanted to change criminology's emphasis on crime as something that only is committed by people in the lower class. The work that came before Sutherland's focused on things like street crimes in low-income neighborhoods, but Sutherland pointed out that crime happens among middle class people as well. In particular, he wrote about the occurrence of white-collar crime, or the crimes committed by people in business and government. In Sutherland's definition, white-collar crimes are committed by people who are part of a class generally considered 'respectable.' These crimes are typically financial in nature and include things like embezzling money from a company. Sutherland was one of the first theorists to draw attention to these kinds of crimes and argue that white-collar criminals were not much different from people in the so-called lower classes who committed crimes of theft. Sutherland pointed out that, in fact, white-collar crime resulted in a much greater financial loss. While criminologists had long assumed that crime and poverty were directly related, Sutherland was key in showing that this was a myth: People from all social classes commit crimes. In opposition to the dominant biological and psychological explanations, Sutherland maintained that criminal behaviour is a product of normal learning through social interaction. He claimed that individual behaviour is learned through peers and that, if an individual’s peer group is delinquent, he will identify that behaviour as normal. Normal learning occurs through both verbal and nonverbal communication and helps to determine whether the attitudes an individual internalizes are favourable or unfavourable to law violation. Through the normal learning process, those individuals disposed toward breaking the law also develop motivations and rationalizations for engaging in criminal activity. Maintaining that individuals commit criminal acts when there is an excess of attitudes favourable to lawbreaking, Sutherland also acknowledged the existence of a criminal life cycle, which he defined in terms of the ways in which these attitudes vary in content and intensity throughout the criminal’s life. 76 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.5 DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY The differential association is a theory proposed by Sutherland in 1939. It explains that people learn to become offenders from their environment. Through interactions with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, methods and motives for criminal behavior. Differential Association Theory is one of Sutherland's major contributions to the field of criminology. It has to do with the socialization process that accounts for why people commit crimes. Let's go over some of the finer points of the theory. In criminology, a differential association refers to what happens when we learn different values and behaviors based on interacting with people. Think of it like this: Different kinds of associations lead to different kinds of behaviors. Sutherland saw criminal activity as a learned behavior. Based on our interactions with other people, we essentially learn how to commit crimes. It is through our interactions with other people that we learn different sets of values and, if we're spending time with people who are committing crimes, we're going to learn that behavior from them. Generally, this learning takes place among people we're close to. 5.6 NINE PROPOSITIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY The first explicit statement of the theory of differential association appears in the 1939 edition of Principles of Criminology and in the fourth edition of it, he presented his final theory. His theory has 9 basic postulates. 1. Criminal behaviour is learned. This means that criminal behaviour is not inherited, as such; also the person who is not already trained in crime does not invent criminal behaviour. 2. Criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. This communication is verbal in many cases but includes gestures. 3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal groups. Negatively, this means the impersonal communication, such as movies or newspaper play a relatively unimportant part in committing criminal behaviour. 77 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4. When criminal behaviour is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very simple; (b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. 5. The specific direction of the motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favourable or unfavourable. This different context of situation usually is found in US where culture conflict in relation to the legal code exists. 6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favourable to violation of law over definitions unfavourable to violation of law. This is the principle of differential association. When people become criminal, they do so not only because of contacts with criminal patterns but also because of isolation from anticriminal patterns. Negatively, this means that association which are neutral so far as crime is concerned have little or no effect on the genesis of criminal behaviour. 7. Differential association may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. Priority seems to be important principally through its selective influence and intensity has to do with such things as the prestige of the source of a criminal or anticriminal pattern and with emotional reactions related to the association. These modalities would be rated in quantitative form and mathematical ratio but development of formula in this sense has not been developed and would be very difficult. 8. The process of learning criminal behaviour by association with criminal and anti- criminal 3. patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. Negatively, this means that the learning of criminal behaviour is not restricted to the process of imitation. A person who is seduced, for instance, learns criminal behaviour by association, but this would not be ordinarily described as imitation. 9. While criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values since non-criminal behaviour is an expression of the same needs and values. Thieves generally steal in order to secure money, but likewise honest laborers work in order to money. The attempts to explain criminal behaviour by general drives and values such as the money motive have been, and must completely to be, futile, since they explain lawful behaviour as completely as they explain criminal behaviour. 78 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.7 EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY 5.7.1 Organized Crime Families An example of differential association theory is the mafia: people become mafia members by growing up within its culture. Organized crime families exist in almost all parts of the world, although the Italian-American Mafia is the most commonly known due to its depiction in popular culture. Organized crime is an area that other theories in criminology such as cultural deviance theory and social disorganization theory have proved inadequate to explain. How does one explain the fact that not all members of crime families join in the criminal network despite having that cultural influence? In fact, at the peak of Mafia activity in America in the 1960s and 1970s, a significant proportion of the NYPD was made of Italian- Americans, with it not being unheard of for members of the same family to join either the NYPD or a crime family. The differential association theory provides a clear answer to such divergent choices by individuals subject to the same cultural and social influences: Individuals whose total intimate associations with those who transgress the law exceed the associations with those who respect the law, are more likely to become criminals. To quote Sutherland (1950) “A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violations of law.” 5.7.2 Public Corruption The differential association theory convincingly explains white collar crimes, while most other deviance theories such as cultural deviance and social disorganization only focus on blue collar crimes. For instance, in a public office or a large corporation there might not exist a general culture of corruption. Far from it, there would be a constant motivation and exhortation to all employees to stick to the highest standards of moral and ethical conduct. Most employees therefore might be hardworking and upright. Thus, there is no cultural influence for delinquency. Also, given the high entry barriers to white collar jobs in the form of educational qualifications and social/cultural capital, most employees are unlikely to be first generation lower-class immigrants or products of any form of social disorganization. 79 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
A new employee in such an organization then has two spheres of influence – the larger organizational culture which is followed by most of the employees, and which is one of being earnest, upright, ethical, and a small subculture in which a tiny coterie of influential people are engaged in minor acts of transgression of the law. But, according to differential association theory, if a new employee is sufficiently negatively influenced by a sub-culture within the workplace, the new employee might find themselves on the right or wrong side of the law. Since an act of public corruption requires a very high level of technical acumen (for instance cooking the account books) that can only be learned in close, intimate contact with someone or a handful of people in a position of privilege and power, the transformation is a slow and gradual process that involves constant rationalizations and justifications to the self. For instance, the employee might see others around him/her indulge in a minor transgressive act or a victimless crime such as using public/company funds for personal use and then replacing them before anyone notices. Over time, the new employee will learn, depending on the frequency, intimacy, and duration of their association with the perpetrators of such acts two things: 1) They will learn to justify criminal transgressions both to the self and to others, and 2) They will learn the techniques, often highly complex, to carry out delicate whitecollar crimes without detection. 5.9 STRENGTHS OF DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY 5.9.1 Explains Crime Irrespective of Age The differential association theory is applicable to not just juveniles and lowerclass individuals but to people of all age groups. This was a major drawback of the cultural deviance and social disorganization theories that could only be applied to juvenile delinquents. 5.9.2 Explains White Collar and Organized Crime – Most other sociological theories of crime fail to explain white collar and organized crime. However, the differential association theory succeeds where others fail. 80 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.10 CRITICISMS OF DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY 5.10.1 An Overreliance on Association A prominent criticism of the differential association theory is its assertion that criminal behaviour can only be learned through association with other criminals. It ignores cases where people can be self-motivated and individualistic and still be moved to crime. It also ignores cases where the motivation may be psychological/biological such as kleptomania or crimes of passion (Cressey, 1952). 5.10.2 Intimate Association May Not Always be a Precondition Sutherland believed that the acquisition of criminal behavior happens in small and intimate groups, and thus by implication, less through mass media. However, in the age of social media that we live, this may have changed. 5.10.3 Assumes Lack of Agency People can be around negative influences and still have the moral and critical reasoning to reject them. 5.11 SUMMARY In his differential association theory Edwin Sutherland proposes that criminal behaviour is learned. A person will be delinquent if there are prior attitudes that favour violations of the law, as opposed to attitudes that negatively evaluate violations of the law. Edwin Sutherland’s theory of differential association assumes that criminal behavior is learned through contact with individuals who are themselves criminal. It is therefore also called the “theory of differential contacts”. The term “association”, however, refines this idea by the realization that it is not sufficient to merely contact criminal persons, but that during these contacts the criminal definitions and attitudes must also be successfully conveyed. The basic thesis here is that criminal behaviour is learned when more attitudes are learned that favour violations of the law than those that negatively evaluate violations of the law. 81 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Conversely, learning criminal attitudes, motives and definitions becomes all the more likely the more contact there is with people and groups who violate the law and the less contact there is with people and groups who live according to the rules. In simple terms, one could say that contact with criminals leads to one’s own criminal behaviour by learning the corresponding behaviour in a model manner. This becomes even more likey when there is fewer contact to non-criminals. Sutherland’s theory of differential association stands for a rehabilitative ideal. Since criminal attitudes and activities can be learnt, these can be logically deduced and re- learned, or compliant behaviour, attitudes and rationalisation can be achieved in the first place. In the sense of the ultimately decisive imbalance in theory between associated attitudes that favour violations of the law and attitudes that evaluate violations of the law negatively, it must therefore be the goal of justice and society to surround criminals with non-criminals or to dissolve social spaces in which predominantly people with deviant motives and patterns of action live. 5.12 KEY WORDS Association: An association can be called a group of people who come together to achieve any particular purpose or goal and that too for a limited period of time Sociologists:Sociologists study human behavior, interaction, and organization. They observe the activity of social, religious, political, and economic groups, organizations, and institutions. They examine the effect of social influences, including organizations and institutions, on different individuals and groups. Downsizing:The three common downsizing strategies are workforce reduction, work redesign, and systemic strategy. Delinquent: A person who fails to perform a legal or contractual obligation, or who is guilty of illegal or disorderly behavior. 5.13 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define white collar crime? 82 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. State the principles of differential association theory? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 5.14 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Who was Edwin Sutherland? 2. What is white collar crime? 3. Give one example of white-collar crime. 4. Define association. 5. Name any two proposition of Differential association theory. Long Questions 1. What is contribution of Edwin Sutherland? 2. Explain the Differential association theory 3. What are the examples of Differential association theory 4. What are the strengths of Differential association theory 5. What are the limitations of Differential association theory B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Who defined crime as the intentional Act in violation of the criminal law committed defense of excuse and penalized by the state a. Paul Tappan b. Lombroso c. Edwin Sutherland 83 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
d. Howard 2. Differential association theory of crime was developed by________________. a. George Ritzer b. Howard Becker c. Edwin Sutherland d. Lombroso 3. …………. crime is used to mean Socio-economic crimes?. a. White collar b. Public property c. Cyber d. Private property 4. The person who commits a crime is known as ……….. a. Gambler b. Criminal c. Prisoner d. Accused 5. What is white collar crime? a. White collar crime is a form of street crime that involve drug distribution. b. White collar crime is a crime of deception for the purpose of financial gain. c. White collar crime is a minor infraction committed by those in respectable positions. d. White collar crime is a crime that involves gang violence. Answers 84 1-a, 2-c, 3-a. 4-b, 5-d CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.15 REFERENCES References books Cressey, D.R. (1952) Application and verification of the differential association theory. Journal of criminal law and criminology. 43(1), pp.3-51. Cressey, D.R. (1960) The theory of differential association: An introduction. Social problems 8(1), pp.2-6. Sutherland, E.H. (1950). White collar crime. New York: Dryden Press Sutherland, E.H. (1983) White collar crime. Connecticut: Yale University Press. Turner, Jonathan H., 1987; The Structure of Sociological Theory, Fourth Edition, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Henry, Kenneth, 1978, Social Problems: Institutional and Interpersonal Perspectives, Scott, Fopresman and Company, Illinois, London. Kothari, Rajani, 1988, Transformation and Survival, Ajanta Publications, Delhi. Lerner, Daniel, 1964, The Passing of Traditional Society, The Free Press, London. Polanyi, Karl, 1957, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origin of our Time, Beacon Press, Boston. Merton, Robert K. & Nisbet, Robert, 1976, Contemporary Social Problems, Hercourt Brace Iovanovich, International Editing, New York, Chicago. Singh, Yogendra, 1988, Modernizations of Indian Tradition, Reprint, Rawat Publication, Jaipur. Ancel, Marc (1965), Social Defence – A Modern Approach to Criminal Problems, Routlege and Kegan Paul, London. Bhattacharya, S.K. (1981), “The Concept and Areas of Social Defence”, in Readings in Social Defence edited by N.C. Joshi and V.B. Bhatia, Wheeler Publishing, Allahabad. Government of India (Ministry of Social Welfare) (1974), Social Defence in India, National Institute of Social Defence, New Delhi. 85 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Government of India (Ministry of Social Welfare) (1980), National Institute of Social Defence: A Perspective, NISD Publication, New Delhi. Srivastava, S.P., April (2000), “Explaining the Concept of Social Defence”, Social Defence, Vol. 49, No. 144. Textbook references Ahuja, Ram (1992), Social Problems in India, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Keneth, Henry (1978), Social Problems: Institutional and Interpersonal Perspectives, Scott, Fopresman and Company, Illinois, London. Merton, Robert K, and Robert Nisbet (1971), Contemporary Social Problems, Fourth Edition, Harcourt Brace and Co., New York. Memoria, Dr. C.B. (1960), Social Problems and Social Disorganisation in India, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad. Annual Report 2003, National Commission for Women, New Delhi. Annual Report 2002-2003, Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India. Cooley, C.H. (1902), Human Nature and Social order, Scribner, New York. Crime in India (2003), Annual Report, National Crime Records Bureau, New Delhi. Merton, (1957), R.K., Social Theory and Social Structure, Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois. Ram, Ahuja (1997), Social Problems in India, Rawat Publications, New Delhi. William, Scott (1988), Dictionary of Sociology, Goyl Saab Publishers, New Delhi. Website https://open.lib.umn.edu. https://www.sociologylens.in/2021/03/social-problems.html https://academic.oup.com/socpro https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/ 86 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT- 6 DRUG ADDICTION: DEFINITION; CAUSES STRUCTURE 6.0 Learning Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Definition of Addiction 6.3 Concepts related to Addiction 6.3.1 Abuse and Misuse 6.3.2 Recreational or Casual Drug Use 6.3.3 Intoxication 6.3.4 Habit and Habituation 6.3.5 Addiction and Dependence 6.3.6 Tolerance and Sensitization 6.3.7 Withdrawal Symptoms 6.4 Addictive Substances 6.4.1 Depressants 6.4.2 Hallucinogens 6.4.3 Marijuana 6.4.4 Narcotics 6.4.5 Stimulants 6.4.6 Legal Drugs 6.4.7 Alcohol 6.4.8 Tobacco and Nicotine 6.5 Causes of Addiction 6.6 Biological Causes 6.7 Psychological Causes 6.8 Environmental Causes 6.9 Summary 6.10 Key Words 87 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
6.10 Learning Activity 6.11 Unit End Questions 6.12 References 6.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to; Explain the concept of drug addiction Describe the concepts related to addiction Describe the different drugs that are potentially addictive Describe the theories of drug addiction Explain the causes of drugs addiction 6.1 INTRODUCTION Substance abuse and addictions results from the misuse of harmful or addictive substances which include, alcohol, illegal or street drugs, prescription and over-the-counter medicines, and volatile chemicals. The resultant problems include both mental and physical illnesses, and family, housing, employment, and legal difficulties. Treatment of substance abuse disorder is complex and challenging as the reason for substance abuse and addiction is unique for each abuser. Further, the family environment and situation of each abuser is unique. Treatment and management of substance abuse need to take into account all these. Both psychological and pharmacological interventions are used that may include detoxification and substitute prescribing. The use and misuse of drugs is increasing and affecting our children, youth, men and women, and the elderly also. In this Unit, you will learn about the substance abuse disorder, various drugs used, and the assessment and treatment of substance abuse. 6.2 DEFINITION OF ADDICTION Addiction is a treatable, chronic medical disease involving complex interactions among brain circuits, genetics, the environment, and an individual’s life experiences. People with addiction use substances or engage in behaviors that become compulsive and often continue despite harmful consequences.Addiction is the repeated involvement with a substance or 88 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
activity, despite the substantial harm it now causes, because that involvement was (and may continue to be) pleasurable and/or valuable. There are four key parts to this definition of addiction: 1. Addiction includes both substances and activities (such as sex and gambling). 2. Addiction leads to substantial harm. 3. Addiction is repeated involvement despite substantial harm. 4. Addiction continues because it was, or is, pleasurable and/or valuable. Addiction is the state of being compulsively committed to a habit or practice or to something that is psychologically or physically habit-forming, as narcotics, to such an extent that its cessation causes severe trauma. 6.3 CONCEPTS RELATED TO ADDICTION 6.3.1 Abuse and Misuse The best general definition of drug abuse is the use of any drug in a manner that deviates from the approved medical or social patterns within a given culture at a given time. Substance abuse means essentially the same as drug abuse, except that the term \"substance\" (shortened form of psychoactive substance) avoids any misunderstanding about the meaning of \"drug\". Many people regard as drugs only those compounds that are, or could be, used for the treatment of disease, whereas \"substances\" would also include materials such as organic solvents, Morning Glory Seeds or toad venoms, that have no medical applications at present but are \"abused\" in one or more of the senses defined above. As applied to drugs, however, the term is difficult to define and carries different meanings in different contexts. In relation to therapeutic agents such as Benzondiazepines or Morphine, the term drug abuse is applied to their use for other than medical purposes, or in unnecessarily large quantities. With reference to licit but non-therapeutic substances such as Alcohol, it is understood to mean a level of use that is hazardous or damaging, either to the user or to others. When applied to illicit substances that have no recognized medical applications, such as Phencyclidine (PCP) or Mescaline, any use is generally regarded as abuse. The term misuse refers more narrowly to the use of a therapeutic drug in any way other than what is regarded as good medical practice. 89 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
6.3.2 Recreational or Casual Drug Use These two terms are generally understood to refer to drug use that is small in amount, infrequent, and without adverse consequences, but these characteristics are not in fact necessary parts of the definitions. However, recreational use really refers only to the motive for use, which is to obtain effects that the user regards as pleasurable or rewarding in some way, even if that use also carries some potential risks. Casual use refers to occasional as opposed to regular use, and therefore implies that the user is not dependent or addicted (see below), but it carries no necessary implications with respect to motive for use or the amount used on any occasion. Thus, a casual user might become intoxicated (see below) or suffer an acute adverse effect on occasions, even if these are infrequent. Occasional use may also be circumstantial or utilitarian, if employed to achieve some specific short-term benefit under special circumstances. The use of Amphetamines to increase endurance and postpone fatigue by students studying for examinations, truck drivers on long hauls, athletes competing in endurance events, or military personnel on long missions, are all instances of such utilitarian use. Most observers also consider the first three of these to be abuse or misuse, but many would not regard the fourth example as abuse because it is or was prescribed by military authorities under unusual circumstances, for necessary combat goals. Nevertheless, in all four instances the same drug effect is sought for the same purpose (i.e., to increase endurance). This illustrates the complexities and ambiguities of definitions in the field of drug use. 6.3.3 Intoxication This is the state of functional impairment resulting from the actions of a drug. It may be acute, i.e., caused by consumption of a high dose of drug on one occasion; it may be chronic, i.e., caused by repeated use of large enough doses to maintain an excessive drug concentration in the body over a long period of time. The characteristic pattern of intoxication varies from one drug to another, depending upon the mechanisms of action of the different substances. For example, intoxication by alcohol or barbiturates typically includes disturbances of neuromuscular coordination, speech, sensory functions, memory, reaction time, reflexes, judgment of speeds and distances, and appropriate control of emotional expression and behavior. In contrast, intoxication by amphetamine or cocaine usually includes raised blood pressure and heart rate, elevation of body temperature, intense hyperactivity, mental disturbances such 90 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
as hallucinations and paranoid delusions, and sometimes convulsions. The term may be considered equivalent to overdosage, in that the signs of intoxication usually arise at higher doses than the pleasurable subjective effects for which the drug is usually taken. 6.3.4 Habit and Habituation A habit is a customary behavior, especially one that has become largely automatic or unconscious as a result of frequent repetition of the same act. In itself, the word is simply descriptive, carrying no fixed connotation of good or bad. As applied to drug use, however, it is somewhat more judgmental. It refers to regular persistent use of a drug, in amounts that may create some risk for the user, and over which the user does not have complete voluntary control. Habituation refers either to the process of acquiring a drug habit, or to the state of the habitual user. Since habitual users frequently show increased tolerance (decreased sensitivity to the effects of the drug; see below), habituation is also used in the earlier literature to mean an acquired increase in tolerance. Drugs were classified according to whether they caused habituation or addiction. These distinctions were later recognized to be based on misconception, because (1) psychological (or psychic) dependence is even more important than physical dependence with respect to the genesis of addiction; (2) any drug that can damage the user is also capable of causing harm to others and to society at large; and (3) the same drug could cause effects that might be classed as \"habituation\" in one user and \"addiction\" in another. 6.3.5 Addiction and Dependence When people use the term “dependence,” they are usually referring to a physical dependence on a substance. Dependence is characterized by the symptoms of tolerance and withdrawal. While it is possible to have a physical dependence without being addicted, addiction is usually right around the corner. Addiction is marked by a change in behavior caused by the biochemical changes in the brain after continued substance abuse. Substance use becomes the main priority of the addict, regardless of the harm they may cause to themselves or others. An addiction causes people to act irrationally when they don’t have the substance they are addicted to in their system. Substance dependence, also known as drug dependence, is a biopsychological situation whereby an individual's functionality is dependent on the necessitated re-consumption of a psychoactive substance because of an adaptive state that has developed within the individual 91 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
from psychoactive substance consumption that results in the experience of withdrawal and that necessitates the re-consumption of the drug. 6.3.6 Tolerance and Sensitization The term tolerance, which has long held a prominent place in the literature on drug dependence, has a number of different meanings. All of them relate to the degree of sensitivity or susceptibility of an individual to the effects of a drug. Initial tolerance refers to the degree of sensitivity or resistance displayed on the first exposure to the drug; it is expressed in terms of the degree of effect (as measured on some specified test) produced by a given dose of the drug, or by the concentration of drug in the body tissues or fluids resulting from that dose: the smaller the effect produced by that dose or concentration, the greater is the tolerance. Initial tolerance can vary markedly from one individual to another, or from one species to another, as a result of genetic differences, constitutional factors, or environmental circumstances. Sensitization refers to a change opposite to tolerance, that occurs with respect to certain effects of a few drugs (most notably, central stimulant drugs such as cocaine and amphetamine, or low doses of alcohol that produce behavioral stimulation rather than sedation) when these are given repeatedly. The degree of effect produced by the same dose or concentration grows larger rather than smaller. For example, after repeated administration of amphetamine a dose that initially produced only a slight increase in physical activity can come to elicit very marked hyperactivity, and a convulsion can be produced by a dose that did not initially do so. This does not apply to all effects of the drug, however; tolerance can occur towards some effects (such as the inhibition of appetite) at the same time that sensitization develops to others. 6.3.7 Withdrawal Symptoms Drug withdrawal is a physiological response to the sudden quitting or slowing of use of a substance to which the body has grown dependent on. The various types of drug withdrawal syndromes may involve different combinations of physical, mental, and emotional symptoms—some of which can prove dangerous if left unmanaged. In people who develop significant levels of dependence, withdrawal is often an inevitable response to the sudden absence or declining blood concentration of a given substance. Withdrawal symptoms may develop when a substance-dependent person quits a substance “cold turkey” or substantially reduces how much they are using. During withdrawal, the body 92 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
attempts to reach a new state of homeostasis as it rids itself of any lingering chemical influence of the drug in question. This can result in temporary disruptions in brain chemistry and may be accompanied by significant mental and physical health repercussions. 6.4 ADDICTIVE SUBSTANCES Drugs are commonly classified into certain categories according to their physiological effects. All drugs may make us feel good, but they do so in different ways. Because some drugs are much more potent than other drugs, there is much variation within each category. Partly because many drugs have multiple effects, many different classifications of drugs exist. A common classification includes the following categories: depressants, hallucinogens, marijuana, narcotics, and stimulants. 6.4.1 Depressants Depressants slow down the activity of the central nervous system. Depending on the specific drug, they help induce drowsiness and relaxation, and they can reduce anxiety and pain. Several types of depressants exist. Analgesics reduce pain and include over-the-counter products such as aspirin, acetaminophen (the major ingredient in Tylenol), and ibuprofen (the major ingredient in Advil and Motrin), and many prescription medicines that contain acetaminophen. Sedatives help people relax and include alcohol, barbiturates, and sleep medicine such as Sominex and Tylenol PM (both over-the-counter) and Ambien and Valium (both prescription). Large doses of depressants may lead to physical dependence and sometimes death. 6.4.2 Hallucinogens Hallucinogens are mind-altering drugs that cause delusions or hallucinations. Their ranks include ecstasy, LSD, mescaline, and PCP. Many people who use a hallucinogen report that the mind-altering effects of the drug provide them a truly wonderful experience, but many also find the effects to be troubling at best and horrible and terrifying at worst. Long-term effects include hallucinations that occur without any drug use preceding them. 6.4.3 Marijuana Because marijuana’s effects do not fit neatly into any other category of drug, marijuana (along with its close cousin, hashish) is often considered to be its own category. As we will see later, it is by far the most popular illegal drug in the United States. Its effects include distortion of time and space, euphoria, hunger, increased sensory perception, and relaxation. 93 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
6.4.4 Narcotics Narcotics are sometimes classified under depressants because they slow down the central nervous system, but they are often still considered as their own category. They are highly effective at relieving pain and are a common substance in prescription medicines for severe pain. By definition, all narcotics are derived from opium, either in its natural form or in a synthesized form. Examples of narcotics include codeine, heroin, methadone, and morphine. In addition to relieving pain, narcotics may induce drowsiness, euphoria, and relaxation. Although narcotics do not damage bodily organs, they are very physically addictive, and high doses can be fatal. 6.4.5 Stimulants Stimulants have the opposite effect of depressants by speeding up the central nervous system. They increase alertness and energy and can produce euphoria or anxiety. Some are legal and some are illegal, and many very different drugs are all considered stimulants: caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamine and other amphetamines, nicotine (tobacco), and Ritalin. Stimulants can be very physically addictive, and nicotine is thought to be more addictive than heroin. While caffeine is very safe as long as someone does not have too many cups of coffee daily, many other stimulants may have dangerous short-term or long-term side effects on the cardiovascular system. Not all drugs can be discussed in one chapter. In choosing which drugs to discuss in a book on social problems, it makes sense to discuss the drugs that probably concern Americans the most. We thus focus in the remainder of this section mostly on alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, cocaine, and heroin. 6.4.6 Legal Drugs As noted earlier, alcohol and tobacco (nicotine) are two legal drugs that are very common and that together kill hundreds of thousands of Americans annually. According to national survey evidence collected by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) of the federal government, most people 12 and older (as well as many younger than 18) have tried alcohol, and over half the public drinks currently (defined as having had at least one drink in the past month). While many people have tried tobacco, only slightly more than one-fourth of the public uses it currently (at least once during the past month). 6.4.7 Alcohol Moderate alcohol use (more than one drink per day for an adult female and two drinks per day for an adult male) is relatively safe for most people and may even have health benefits 94 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
(Harvard School of Public Health, 2012). The problem is that many people drink much more than moderately. As the Harvard School of Public Health (2012) explains, “If all drinkers limited themselves to a single drink a day, we probably wouldn’t need as many cardiologists, liver specialists, mental health professionals, and substance abuse counselors. But not everyone who likes to drink alcohol stops at just one. While most people drink in moderation, some don’t.” 6.4.8 Tobacco and Nicotine Nicotine, the major drug in tobacco, is another legal but very dangerous drug. As we saw earlier, its use kills four times as many people every year as those killed by alcohol use. Tobacco is a slow poison. If it were not already a legal drug used by millions, and a company had just manufactured cigarettes for the first time, the Food and Drug Administration would never approve this product. Fortunately for tobacco companies, nicotine does not distort perception the way that alcohol and many other psychoactive drugs do. Someone smoking or otherwise using tobacco can safely drive a car, operate machinery, and so forth, and someone “under the influence” of tobacco does not become violent 6.5 CAUSES OF ADDICTION Causes of Addiction 1.Genetics or individual biology 1.Family history of addiction 1.Peer pressure 1.Co-occurring mental health conditions 1.Experimentation with substance use at a young age 1.Questionable prescribing practices Figure no 6.1 Causes of Addiction 95 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
6.6 BIOLOGICAL CAUSES Physiological causes refer to the biological factors responsible for a particular condition. In the first unit, we have seen in detail the various aspects of human body like genetics, hormones, nervous system and their impact on our mental health. Here we will focus on the hereditary basis of addiction. Children often learn certain behaviour by observing their parents. Hence when we observe people suffering from addiction, we often derive that exposure to addictive substances is the prime reasons of the children being addicted to that substance. However, from a scientific point of view there is much more to this part of addiction. Genetics as discussed in the earlier unit, refers to the fact that certain traits are passed on from parents to children. Some of these traits manifest themselves as dominant genes where as some of them are recessive genes. Often dominant traits result in visible characteristics and behaviour. However, recessive genes still show themselves in some form. It has been found that if both parents of a child are addicted, the child has greater chances of developing addition. While this does not mean that children of all addicts will become addicts, it suggests a greater possibility. Alcoholism, in particular, tends to run in the family, suggesting that the predisposition to be an addict may be inherited. Along with genetics there are many other physiological factors are responsible for addiction. It is also observed that using a drug or alcohol over a period of time results in changes in way the brain processes behaviours and rewards them. Changes in the brain reward circuits often means that the person uses the substance to reward himself or herself. Hence, even though the substance may be harmful to the body, our mind perceives using them as followed by positive reinforcement. This means that additive behaviour increases in frequency despite its apparent negative consequences. 6.7 PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSES Addiction is not something simple that would be passes on from parents to children through genes. There are several instances where the parents do not use alcohol or drugs but their children are addicted to them. Similarly, a completely contrasting situation is also possible. Thus, a person getting addicted to alcohol or drugs is a result of a number of factors interacting with each other. When we talk of individual or psychological factors, we refer to group if causes that vary from person to person. These factors include personality traits, childhood experiences, personality problems, initial experiences with the substance and mental illnesses. Personality traits reflect people's characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The major personality traits are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness and neuroticism. 96 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
People with certain personality traits are more likely to engage in risk taking behaviours, which could be harmful to the individual. Such individuals are also more likely to experiment with substances or behaviours that could result in addiction. They are also more likely to be addicted to more than one substance. People who have faced negative experiences as a child have very low self-esteem. They have not developed long-term and trustworthy relationships with people around them. People who are neglected or abused as a child do not develop positive attachment with their caregivers. Those who have been bullied by their peers or classmates do not develop self-confidence. They are more likely to turn to alcohol or drugs to reduce the negative emotions and feeling associated with their experiences. As they grow up, people with negative experiences are unable to develop long term healthy relationships. They are also more likely top suffer from deep personality problems, feelings of inadequacy, dependency, powerlessness, isolation and low self-respect. These people try to hide their negative self-perception by using alcohol or drugs. They are also more likely to get addicted to these substances. Finally, mental illnesses are also one of factors associated with substance use addiction. Alcohol and drug condition is considered as a mental illness. People with certain personality disorders are more likely to suffer from addiction. It is seen that people suffering from anxiety disorders, mood disorders and even schizophrenia are also more likely to suffer from substance use disorder. However, it is not clear whether or not, the specific mental illness precedes the substance use or the substance use preceded the mental illness. The third aspect to the relationship between mental illness and substance use disorder is the fact that long term use of substances leads to changes to semi-permanent or permanent changes in the brain and neural circuits. A person who uses drugs is likely to develop delirium, hallucinations and paranoia as the result of consuming drugs. Long term alcohol use results in Korsakoff’s syndrome. Korsakoff syndrome or Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome is a memory disorder that results from vitamin B1 deficiency and is associated with alcoholism. Korsakoff's syndrome damages nerve cells and supporting cells in the brain and spinal cord, as well as the part of the brain involved with memory. 6.8 ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES According to the sociocultural model, the cultural standards of a society and the negative effects of culture and society on individual behavior, cause addiction. Many cultural standards are quite subtle but the effect is powerful nonetheless. For example, people in the United States not only tolerate intoxication, but also consider it humorous. Audiences find it entertaining when television sit-coms, movies, and comedians depict intoxicated characters in a humorous manner. 97 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Several theories are offered today which claim that addiction has sociocultural origins. People in societies that view that consumption of drugs and/or alcohol a acceptable, and where drugs are easily and cheaply available are likely to have high consumption of drugs/alcohol. In some tribal societies, the consumption of alcohol is a part of religious rituals and ceremonies. Such regular consumption may cause some people to become addicted. This does not mean that only availability and acceptance encourages addiction. In societies where this consumption is not accepted, some people turn to drugs/ alcohol because they suffer normlessness. Youth often take drugs as a rebellion against adult norms and values. The cultural defiance theory thus, indicates that drug addiction develops because of these emotional and social ties, with a nonconventional group. Especially among contemporary youths, many individuals struggle to relate to peers. The stress of socializing can be a major reason why individuals turn to intoxicants as a means of curbing social anxiety. The legal status of the addicting substance is also an important factor in determining the incidence of addiction. Whether a culture accepts the consumption of a drug or punishes it, is also believed to be closely related to the extent of addiction in that culture. Thus, both legal and cultural approval of drugs are believed to increase rates of addiction. However, if milder forms of drugs are 1egally permitted, the number of persons addicted to “hard” drugs will reduce. Such persons hold that classifying all drugs into one broad category has had a negative impact on attempts at preventing addiction. Peer group influence in initiating drug abuse and encouraging it to the point of addiction is even more decisive, as mentioned earlier. Socialization determines the extent to which people choose to conform to the larger social norms or to break the social bonds and choose deviance, living a life of addiction. Among young people, growing up is a stage of proving oneself to one’s peer i.e. those in the same age group, who help to shape one’s sense of identity. Since ability to tolerate alcohol is equated with one’s manhood, boys often begin to consume alcohol and at times drugs at a young age, due to peer pressure. Another common reason people overindulge is for the sense of relief from the stresses of daily life. Have you ever heard someone say that their drug of choice is “an outlet” or their means of temporarily “escaping reality”? This typical, yet harmful, justification of frequent intoxication is common and frequently a precursor to full-blown addiction. 6.9 SUMMARY Substance abuse disorder, or addiction, is a disease that affects the brain and behavior and leads to peoples’ inability to control their use of certain addictive substances. 98 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Substance abuse definitions can be misleading because they often infer that only illegal substances can be abused when people can abuse all kinds of substances, including legal ones. Alcohol, over-the-counter medications, opiates, stimulants, and prescription drugs are some of the most commonly abused substances in America. Substance abuse is characterized by the steady need to increase dosage and usage of a particular drug or drugs to experience its effects and the need to use the drug regularly to feel good. Common symptoms are having intense urges that block other thoughts, spending excessive amounts of money on the drug (even if you know you can’t afford it) continuing to use the substance even if it causes problems in your life, taking risks to obtain the drug you normally wouldn’t, the inability to stop using it, experiencing withdrawal symptoms when you stop using the drug, and more. 6.10 KEY WORDS Caffeine: A central nervous system stimulant that increases alertness and motor activity and combats fatigue; found in a number of different products, including coffee, tea, chocolate and some over the-counter cold remedies and weight-loss aids. Controlled drinking: A variant of BSCT in which emphasis is put on controlled use rather than complete abstinence. Controlled drug user: A long-term drug user who has never been in specialized treatment and who displays levels of occupational status and educational achievement similar to the general population. Depression: Depression is a common mental health problem that involves a low mood and a loss of interest in activities. Drug-prevention schemes: Community-based services whose purpose is to try to prevent first use of a drug or to prevent experimentation with a drug developing into regular use – usually through information about the effects of drugs and through developing communication and peer-education skills. Foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): \"An example of maternal drug abuse causing childhood intellectual disabilities. Whenever a pregnant mother drinks alcohol, it 99 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
enters the foetus’s bloodstream, slowing down its metabolism and affecting development. If this occurs on a regular basis, then development of the foetus will be severely impaired.\" Passive smoking: The breathing in of air that contains other people’s smoke. Peer influences: A term describing a person’s changes in or temptations to change attitude, behaviour and morals as directly influenced by his or her peer group Peer-pressure resistance training: A strategy used by drug prevention schemes where students learn assertive refusal skills when confronted with drugs. Substance use disorder (SUD): A substance use disorder (SUD) is a mental disorder that affects a person's brain and behavior, leading to a person's inability to control their use of substances such as legal or illegal drugs, alcohol, or medications. Tolerance: Tolerance is a physiological phenomenon that requires the individual to use more and more of the drug in repeated efforts to achieve the same effect. Withdrawal: Where the body requires the drug in order to maintain physical stability, and lack of the drug causes a range of negative and aversive physical consequences (e.g. anxiety, tremors and, in extreme cases, death). 6.10 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define addictive substances? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. What is substance abuse? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 6.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS 100 A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Define Addiction? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Search
Read the Text Version
- 1
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 7
- 8
- 9
- 10
- 11
- 12
- 13
- 14
- 15
- 16
- 17
- 18
- 19
- 20
- 21
- 22
- 23
- 24
- 25
- 26
- 27
- 28
- 29
- 30
- 31
- 32
- 33
- 34
- 35
- 36
- 37
- 38
- 39
- 40
- 41
- 42
- 43
- 44
- 45
- 46
- 47
- 48
- 49
- 50
- 51
- 52
- 53
- 54
- 55
- 56
- 57
- 58
- 59
- 60
- 61
- 62
- 63
- 64
- 65
- 66
- 67
- 68
- 69
- 70
- 71
- 72
- 73
- 74
- 75
- 76
- 77
- 78
- 79
- 80
- 81
- 82
- 83
- 84
- 85
- 86
- 87
- 88
- 89
- 90
- 91
- 92
- 93
- 94
- 95
- 96
- 97
- 98
- 99
- 100
- 101
- 102
- 103
- 104
- 105
- 106
- 107
- 108
- 109
- 110
- 111
- 112
- 113
- 114
- 115
- 116
- 117
- 118
- 119
- 120
- 121
- 122
- 123
- 124
- 125
- 126
- 127
- 128
- 129
- 130
- 131
- 132
- 133
- 134
- 135
- 136
- 137
- 138
- 139
- 140
- 141
- 142
- 143
- 144
- 145
- 146
- 147
- 148
- 149
- 150
- 151
- 152
- 153
- 154
- 155
- 156
- 157
- 158
- 159
- 160
- 161
- 162
- 163
- 164
- 165
- 166
- 167
- 168
- 169
- 170
- 171
- 172
- 173
- 174
- 175
- 176
- 177
- 178
- 179
- 180
- 181
- 182
- 183
- 184
- 185
- 186
- 187
- 188
- 189
- 190
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
- 205
- 206
- 207
- 208
- 209
- 210
- 211
- 212
- 213
- 214
- 215
- 216
- 217
- 218
- 219
- 220
- 221
- 222
- 223
- 224
- 225
- 226
- 227
- 228
- 229
- 230
- 231
- 232
- 233
- 234
- 235
- 236
- 237
- 238
- 239
- 240
- 241
- 242
- 243
- 244
- 245
- 246
- 247
- 248
- 249
- 250
- 251
- 252
- 253
- 254
- 255
- 256
- 257
- 258
- 259
- 260
- 261
- 262
- 263
- 264
