Generally, the isobars are closely placed to each other showing high-pressure gradients. Normally, it varies between 14-17mb/100 km, but sometimes it can be as high as 60mb/100km. Expansion of the wind belt is about 10-150 km from the centre. 4.5.2 Spatio-Temporal Distribution of Tropic Cyclone in India Owing to its peninsular shape surrounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east and the Arabian Sea in the west, the tropical cyclones in India also originate in these two important locations. Though most of the cyclones originate between 10°-15° north latitudes during the monsoon season, yet in case of the Bay of Bengal, cyclones mostly develop during the months of October and November. Here, they originate between 16°-2° N latitudes and to the west of 92° E. By July the place of origin of these storms shifts to around 18° N latitude and west of 90°E near the Sunder ban Delta. Figure 4.3 Map Showing Wind and Cyclone Zones in India 101 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4.5.3 Consequences of Tropical Cyclones The energy to the tropical cyclone comes from the latent heat released by the warm moist air. Hence, with the increase in distance from the sea, the force of the cyclone decreases. In India, the force of the cyclone decreases with increase in distance from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. So, the coastal areas are often struck by severe cyclonic storms with an average velocity of 180 km/h. Often, this results in abnormal rise in the sea level known as Storm Surge. A Storm Surge is generated due to interaction of air, sea and land. The cyclone provides the driving force in the form of very high horizontal pressure-gradient and very strong surface winds. The sea water flows across the coast along with strong winds and heavy downpour. The downpour due to the cyclone results in the inundation and flooding of human settlements, agricultural fields, damaging crops and destruction of structures created by human beings. 4.6 EARTHQUAKES Earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable and highly destructive of all the natural disasters. Earthquakes that are of tectonic origin have proved to be the most devastating and their area of influence is also quite large. These earthquakes result from a series of earth movements brought about by a sudden release of energy during the tectonic activities in the earth’s crust. The Indian plate is moving at a speed of one centimetre per year towards the north and northeastern direction and this movement of plates is being constantly obstructed by the Eurasian plate from the north. As a result of this, both the plates are said to be locked with each other resulting in accumulation of energy at different points of time. Excessive accumulation of energy results in building up of stress, which ultimately leads to the breaking up of the lock and the sudden release of energy causes earthquakes along the Himalayan arch. Some of the states in India that are most vulnerable to earthquakes are Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, West Bengal and all the seven states of the northeast. As compared to tectonic earthquakes, the earthquakes associated with volcanic eruption, rock fall, landslides, subsidence, particularly in the mining areas, 102 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
impounding of dams and reservoirs, etc. have limited area of influence and the scale of damage. Figure 4.6 Map showing Earth's major tectonic plates with arrows depicting the directions of plate movement. 4.6.1 Seismic Zones of India National Geophysical Laboratory, Geological Survey of India, Department of Meteorology, Government of India, along with the recently formed National Institute of Disaster Management, have made an intensive analysis of more than 1,200 earthquakes that have occurred in India in different years in the past, and based on these, they divided India into the following five earthquake zones or seismic zones: 1. Very high damage risk zone 2. High damage risk zone 3. Moderate damage risk zone 4. Low damage risk zone 5. Very low damage risk zone. Out of these, the first two zones had experienced some of the most devastating earthquakes in India. 103 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Figure 4.7 Seismic Zones and Intensity Map of India 4.6.2 Measurement of Earthquakes The Richter Scale The Richter Scale or the Richter Magnitude Scale is used for measuring the magnitude, or the amount of energy released by an earthquake. To date, the worst recorded quakes have registered a value 9 on this scale. The Modified Mercalli Scale The Modified Mercalli Scale is used for measuring the intensity and amount of shaking of an earthquake, in other words, the effects or damages it causes. It goes from I to XII. 104 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Figure 4.8 Modified Mercalli Scale and Richter Magnitude Scale 4.6.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF EARTHQUAKES The idea of an earthquake is often associated with fear and horror due to the scale, magnitude and suddenness at which it spreads disasters on the surface of the earth without discrimination. It becomes a calamity when it strikes the areas of high density of population. It not only damages and destroys the settlements, infrastructure, transport and communication network, industries and other developmental activities but also robs the population of their material and socio-cultural gains that they have preserved over generations. It renders them homeless, which puts an extra pressure and stress, particularly on the weak economy of the developing countries. 105 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Effects of Earthquakes Earthquakes have all-encompassing disastrous effects on the area of their occurrence. Some of the important ones are listed in table below Table: Effects of Earthquakes On Ground On Manmade Structures On Water Fissures Cracking Settlements Sliding Waves Landslides Overturning Hydro-Dynamic Pressure Liquefaction Buckling Tsunami Earth Pressure Collapse Possible Chain-effects Possible Chain-effects Possible Chain-effects Apart from these, earthquakes also have some serious and far-reaching environmental consequences. Surface seismic waves produce fissures on the upper layers of the earth’s crust through which water and other volatile materials gush out, inundating the neighbouring areas. Earthquakes are also responsible for landslides and often these cause obstructions in the flow of rivers and channels resulting in the formation of reservoirs. Sometimes, rivers also change their course causing floods and other calamities in the affected areas. 4.6.4 EARTHQUAKE HAZARD MITIGATION Unlike other disasters, the damages caused by earthquakes are more devastating. Since it also destroys most of the transport and communication links, providing timely relief to the victims becomes difficult. It is not possible to prevent the occurrence of an earthquake; hence, the next best option is to emphasis on disaster preparedness and mitigation rather than curative measures such as: Establishing earthquake monitoring centres (seismological centres) for regular monitoring and fast dissemination of information among the people in the vulnerable areas. Use of Geographical Positioning System (GPS) can be of great help in monitoring the movement of tectonic plates. Preparing a vulnerability map of the country and dissemination of vulnerability risk information among the people and educating them about the ways and means minimizing the adverse impacts of disasters. 106 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Modifying the house types and building designs in the vulnerable areas and discouraging construction of high-rise buildings, large industrial establishments and big urban centres in such areas. Finally, making it mandatory to adopt earthquake-resistant designs and use light materials in major construction activities in the vulnerable areas. 4.7 LANDSLIDES A form of mass movement in which rock and debris moves rapidly down the slope under the influence of gravity as a result of failure along a shear plane. It affects human life quite adversely: It leads to floods. It leads to loss of life and property. It leads to failure of transport and communication system. It leads to hurdles in economic activities and destruction of natural beauty. 4.7.1 Landslide Prone Regions of India On the basis of past experiences, frequency and certain causal relationships with the controlling factors like geology, geomorphic agents, slope, land-use, vegetation cover and human activities, India has been divided into a number of zones. Very High Vulnerability Zone Highly unstable, relatively young mountainous areas in the Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar, high rainfall regions with steep slopes in the Western Ghats and Nilgiris, the north-eastern regions, along with areas that experience frequent ground-shaking due to earthquakes, etc. and areas of intense human activities, particularly those related to construction of roads, dams, etc. are very highly vulnerable. High Vulnerability Zone Areas that have almost similar conditions to those included in the very high vulnerability zone are also included in this category. All the Himalayan states and the states from the north-eastern regions except the plains of Assam are included in the high vulnerability zones. Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone Areas that receive less precipitation such as Trans-Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti, undulated yet stable relief and low precipitation areas in the Aravalli, rain shadow areas in the Western and Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau also experience occasional landslides. Landslides due to mining and subsidence are most common in states like Jharkhand, Orissa, 107 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala. Other Areas The remaining parts of India, particularly states like Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and Coastal regions of the southern States are safe as far as landslides are concerned. 4.7.2 Consequences of Landslides Landslides have relatively small and localized area of direct influence, but roadblock, destruction of railway lines and channel- blocking due to rock-falls have far-reaching consequences. Diversion of river courses due to landslides can also lead to flood and loss of life and property. It also makes spatial interaction difficult, risky as well as a costly affair, which, in turn, adversely affects the developmental activities in these areas. 4.7.3 Mitigation of Landslides It is always advisable to adopt area- specific measures to deal with landslides, Restriction on the construction and other developmental activities such as roads and dams, limiting agriculture to valleys and areas with moderate slopes, and control on the development of large settlements in the high vulnerability zones, should be enforced. Some positive actions like promoting large-scale afforestation programmes and construction of bunds to reduce the flow of water should be taken. Terrace farming should be encouraged in the north-eastern hill states. 4.8 SUMMARY A disaster is a serious disruption occurring over a short or long period of time that causes widespread human, material, economic or environmental loss which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. Types of disasters include natural disasters, manmade disasters, complex emergencies and global pandemics. Natural disasters are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused either by rapid or slow onset events that have immediate impacts on human health and secondary impacts causing further death and suffering. 108 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Natural disaster can be geophysical, hydrological, climatological, meteorological or biological in nature. Manmade disasters are events that are caused by humans which occur in or close to human settlements often caused as a result of Environmental or Technological Emergencies. The inundation of land and human settlements by the rise of water in the channels and its spill-over presents the condition of flooding. Floods occur commonly when water in the form of surface run-off exceeds the carrying capacity of the river channels and streams and flows into the neighbouring low-lying flood plains. Floods do not only destroy valuable crops every year but these also damage physical infrastructure such as roads, rails, bridges and human settlements. Flood control measures include construction of flood protection embankments and dams in the flood-prone areas, afforestation and discouraging major construction activities in the upper reaches of most of the flood-creating rivers Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure areas confined to the area lying between 30° N and 30° S latitudes, in the atmosphere around which high velocity winds blow. The centre of the cyclone is mostly a warm and low-pressure, cloudless core known as ‘eye’ of the storm. The downpour due to the cyclone results in the inundation and flooding of human settlements, agricultural fields, damaging crops and destruction of structures created by human beings. Tectonic earthquakes result from a series of earth movements brought about by a sudden release of energy during the tectonic activities in the earth’s crust. Earthquakes associated with volcanic eruption, rock fall, landslides, subsidence, particularly in the mining areas, impounding of dams and reservoirs, etc. have limited area of influence and the scale of damage. The Richter Scale or the Richter Magnitude Scale is used for measuring the magnitude, or the amount of energy released by an earthquake. To date, the worst recorded quakes have registered a value 9 on Richter scale. The Modified Mercalli Scale is used for measuring the intensity and amount of shaking of an earthquake, in other words, the effects or damages it causes. It goes from I to XII. It is not possible to prevent the occurrence of an earthquake; hence, the next best option is to emphasis on disaster preparedness and mitigation rather than curative measures A form of mass movement in which rock and debris moves rapidly down the slope under the influence of gravity as a result of failure along a shear plane. 109 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Landslides have relatively small and localized area of direct influence, but roadblock, destruction of railway lines and channel- blocking due to rock-falls have far-reaching consequences. It is always advisable to adopt area- specific measures to deal with landslides. 4.9 KEYWORDS A Natural Disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth; examples include floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, storms, and other geologic processes An Earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves. A Cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure, counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere as viewed from above. Floods are the most frequent type of natural disaster and occur when an overflow of water submerges land that is usually dry A Landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope. 4.10 LEARNING ACTIVITY Observe the environment you live in and prepare a list of changes, which take place over a long period of time and those, which take place within a short period of time. Do you know why somechanges are considered good and others bad? Prepare a list of changes, which you notice in your daily life and give reasons why some of these are considered good and others bad. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4.11UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Describe in detail the various types of disasters with suitable examples. 2. Write short notes on the consequences and control of flood. 3. Explain the spatial distribution and effects of cyclones in India. 4. Discuss the causes, effects and mitigation measures of earthquakes. 110 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5. Identify the Landslide-prone regions of India and suggest some measures to mitigate the disasters caused by these. Long Questions 1. What is a disaster? 2. Differentiate between natural and manmade hazards. 3. How are cyclones formed? 4. State the consequences of earthquakes. 5. List a few ways to control floods. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Under which type of natural hazards do blizzards come? a. Atmospheric b. Terrestrial c. Aquatic d. Biological 2. In how many regions has India been divided on the basis of proneness to earthquake? a. Four b. Five c. Eight d. Ten 3. Which one of the following states receives floods in the winter months? a. Assam b. West Bengal c. Kerala d. Tamil Nadu 4. The centre of the cyclone is mostly a warm and low-pressure, cloudless core known as a. Storm Surge b. Eye of the Storm c. Jet Stream d. Whirlpool 5. Rapid sliding of large mass of bedrocks is called: a. Earthquake b. Erosion c. Landslide d. Tsunami 111 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Answer 1-a, 2-b, 3-d, 4-b, 5-c 4.12 REFERENCES Reference Books Jack Pinkowski, “Disaster Management Handbook” CRC Press, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, New Delhi, 2008. Mrinalini Pandey, “Disaster Management”, Wiley & Sons, New Delhi, 2014. Tushar Bhattacharya, “Disaster Science and Management”, Tata McGraw Hill Education, New Delhi, 2012. Websites https://www.ndma.gov.in https://media.ifrc.org https://www.climate.gov https://www.nationalgeographic.org 112 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT 5: MAN MADE DISASTERS 113 Structure 5.0 Learning objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Reasons for man-made disasters 5.2 Fire 5.2.1 Characteristics of fire 5.2.2 Types of fire 5.2.3 Causes of fire: 5.2.4 Effects of fire: 5.2.5 Precautions 5.2.6 Case study- Australia wildfires (2019 – 2020) 5.3 Industrial pollution 5.3.1 Industrial pollution facts: 5.3.2 Causes of industrial pollution: 5.3.3 Effects of industrial pollution: 5.3.4 Ways to control or reduce industrial pollution: 5.4 Nuclear disaster 5.4.1 Causes of nuclear accidents 5.4.2 Consequences of the accidents: 5.4.3 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (case study) 5.4.4 Prevention 5.5 Biological disasters 5.5.1 Biological warfare/bio terrorism 5.5.2 Causes 5.5.3 Types 5.5.4 Impacts CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.5.5 2003, fearing SARS, New Yorkers avoid china town 5.6 Accidents (air, sea, rail & road) 5.6.1 Types: 5.6.2 Air accidents: 5.6.3 Road: 5.6.4 Rail accidents: 5.7 Structural failures (building and bridge) 5.7.1 Causes and effects: 5.7.2 Consequences 5.7.3 Example: Kolkata road flyover collapse (march 2016). 5.8 War & terrorism 5.8.1 Terrorism 5.8.2 Violence 5.8.3 War 5.9 Summary 5.10 Keywords 5.11 Learning activity 5.12 Unit End Questions 5.13 References 5.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After learning this unit students will be able to: Explain the nature of manmade disasters. Recognize the causes of manmade disaster. Identify the effects of manmade disaster. 5.1 INTRODUCTION A manmade disaster is a disaster resulting from human intent, negligence, or error involving a failure of a man-made system. 114 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Manmade disasters can be both intentional and unintentional. It results in huge loss of life and property. Such man-made disasters are crime, arson, civil disorder, terrorism, fire, industrial pollution, nuclear disaster, accidents, structural failures, war, biological/chemical threat, cyber-attacks, etc. It further affects a person's mental, physical and social well-being. Fig.5.1 Man Made disaster 5.1.1 Reasons for Man-Made Disasters There is multiple factor that may relate to manmade disasters Ignorance Unawareness Illiteracy Carelessly handling danger Chemical Weapons 5.2 FIRE Fire is the one that is both beneficial to man and his environment as well as destructive and deadly. 115 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Man has depended on it for centuries for things from cooking and heating to a major source of lighting. And yet, thousands of people die each year as a result of either house fires or wildfires, with direct property loss estimated at $8.6 billion annually. Fig 5.2 Fire 5.2.1 Characteristics of fire To protect yourself, you should know how fires spread. It spreads quickly; there is no time to gather valuables or make a phone call. In just two minutes, it can become life-threatening. In five minutes, a residence can be engulfed in flames. The heat and smoke can be more dangerous than the flames. Inhaling the super-hot air can sear your lungs. Fire produces poisonous gases that make you disoriented and drowsy. Instead of being awakened by a fire, you may fall into a deeper sleep. Asphyxiation is the leading cause of fire deaths, exceeding burns by a three-to-one ratio. 5.2.2 Types of fire We are going to find fires in two places - indoors or outdoors. Outdoors will be your forest fires or wildfires. 116 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Indoors will be building fires and house fires. Wild fires: Wildfires occur when vegetated areas are set alight and are particularly common during hot and dry periods. They can occur in forests, grasslands, brush and deserts, and with sufficient wind can rapidly spread. Fires can cause devastation to forests and other areas of vegetation. If fires approach or occur near towns or cities it often prompts a precautionary evacuation, as the direction fires may take are unpredictable. House fires: House fire occurs mainly due to ignorance and carelessness of the person involving in that work. They can occur in kitchens, electrical failures and heating systems. This causes the damage to the buildings and also cause damage to the interiors and furniture. Based on the kind of material that is burning. Class Afire is those that include paper, wood, cloth, other textiles and even rubber. Class B fire is those that include gasoline, propane, paint thinner and kitchen grease. Class C fire is those that include electricity, such as computers, panel boxes, car motors and electrical wiring. If the electricity is stopped and the fire continues, the class changes to class A or class B. Class D fire is those that include exotic metals such as magnesium and titanium. Fires can fall into more than one class. 5.2.3 Causes of fire: The most common causes of fires are lightning strikes, sparks during arid conditions, the eruption of volcanoes, and man-made fires arising from deliberate arson or accidents. Electrical accidents or neglect - misuse of wiring and electrical appliances, leaving a curling iron on, or an electric blanket, shorting out of small appliances such as lamps, toasters and even baby monitors. Smoking – a dropped cigarette or children playing with matches and lighters, inadequate ashtray. 117 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Kitchen accidents – unattended pots on the stove or the burner being left on accidentally. Heating equipment – space heaters, gas heaters, wood stoves, and fireplaces, mainly in winter months. Portable heaters can be knocked over or placed too close to flammable materials, or they are inadequately guarded. All heaters could overheat if obstructed. Burning refuse/rubbish – accumulating in work or storage areas. Hazardous goods – materials such as paints, adhesives or other chemicals. Arson – by mischievous children and adults, facilitated by ineffectively secured buildings. Specific hazards –machinery in dusty environments, heated equipment (e.g., Soldering irons), lamps, cutting and welding equipment, flammable liquids. 5.2.4 Effects of fire: A moment of carelessness can destroy a lifetime of treasured mementos and cause serious injury or death. While the actual flames are dangerous, the smoke they produce is the leading cause of death and property damage in a house fire. When a house fire occurs, you need to evacuate your home immediately without worrying about limiting the damage or even calling the fire department. Even if you are in an area of your home where the flames aren’t, your life is in danger. The smoke and fumes created by the fire are extremely dangerous. It is very important for homeowners to create an evacuation plan in case of a fire and practice it with their families to ensure that everyone knows how to evacuate safely. The evacuation plan should include multiple exits because you never know which exit might be blocked by a fire. Once you have evacuated, you can call the fire department. The following are the most dangerous consequences of a house fire: Toxic fumes Smoke inhalation causes more deaths in house fires than actual flames. Carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, and phosgene irritate the lungs and can cause confusion and disorientation, making it more difficult to get out of the burning building. 118 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Smoke fumes are especially dangerous because they consume or replace the oxygen in the air. When escaping the home during a fire, stay as low to the ground as possible to avoid inhaling smoke fumes. The following contents of smoke can incapacitate or kill those who inhale them: Particles: smoke may contain small particles of burned or partially burned substances that can build up in the lungs and irritate eyes. Some particles may be toxic. Vapors: these droplets of liquid are toxic if inhaled and they can also be absorbed through the skin. Toxic gases: carbon monoxide is present in all smoke and it is fatal because it replaces oxygen in the blood stream. Hydrogen cyanide is formed when plastics are burned, and this gas can disrupt cellular respiration. The burning of synthetic materials forms phosgene which can irritate your eyes and throat and cause pulmonary edema. Structural damage Many house fires do not destroy the entire structure, although they do lead to smoke and water damage throughout the house. A cooking fire, for example, may be contained to the kitchen and perhaps one or two adjacent rooms, but that doesn’t mean that the rest of the house will be habitable. Smoke can quickly penetrate other areas of the house, leaving thick deposits on walls and furniture. Smoke can also damage the foundation and structural supports throughout your home, making it vulnerable to collapse. Water damage is a common and unavoidable consequence of a house fire. When firefighters enter your home to put out the flames, they aren’t going to worry about what else gets wet. Their primary concern is containing the fire. As a result, the water used to extinguish the flames will get absorbed by building materials which will further weaken them and increase the risk of collapse. 5.2.5 Precautions There are several safety precautions that you can take to reduce the risk of losses. Wild Fire To reduce the risk, you'll need to consider the topography of your property and the nature of the vegetation close by. Learn about the history of wildfire in your area. 119 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Be aware of recent weather. A long period without rain increases the risk of wildfire. Consider having a professional inspect your property and offer recommendations for reducing the risk. Determine your community's ability to respond to wildfire. Are roads leading to your property clearly marked? Are the roads wide enough to allow emergency equipment to get through? Is your house number visible from the roadside? Home fire: Stay in the kitchen when you are frying, grilling or broiling food. If you leave the kitchen for even a short period of time turn off the stove. Wear short, close-fitting or tightly rolled sleeves when cooking. Keep a fire extinguisher available. Frayed wires can cause fires. Replace all worn, old or damaged appliance cords immediately and do not run cords under rugs or furniture. If an appliance has a three-prong plug, use it only in a three-slot outlet. Never force it to fit into a two-slot outlet or extension cord. Immediately shut off, then professionally replace, light switches that are hot to the touch and lights that flicker. Keep combustible objects at least three feet away from portable heating devices. Check to make the portable heater has a thermostat control mechanism and will switch off automatically if the heater falls over. Take the mystery out of fire play by teaching children that fire is a tool, not a toy. Store matches and lighters out of children's reach and sight, preferably in a locked cabinet. Never leave children unattended near operating stoves or burning candles, even for a short time. 120 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.2.6 Case study- Australia wildfires (2019 – 2020) Australia wildfires in news: Australia has been witnessing worst-ever wildfires for the past four months. According to the various reports, about 50 crore animals and birds have died or been seriously damaged. Thousands of people left their homes and property of millions of dollars were damaged. The worst effect of Australian wildfires has been seen on koalas (a species of animal) as their population drastically decreased due to fire. The mid-northern region of new south wales has the highest number of koalas. Australian prime minister Scott Morrison announced an aid of two billion Australian dollars to provide relief to those who lost their homes and livelihood due to the severe fire in the forests When and where? Three states of Australia – south Australia, Queensland, and Victoria are witnessing this severe wildfire. Fig. 5.3Australia wildfires (2019 – 2020) It is reported that the fire was started in September 2019 but it turned severe in the last week of December 2019. As per the reports, about 15 million hectares of land have been affected by wildfire which is still increasing. What Australia lost in wildfires? 121 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
He ecologists of the university of Sydney has estimated that about 50 crore animals have died due to wildfires. The Australian government has also started a rescue operation to save animals. Kangaroos are fleeing to cities to save their lives. More than 200 houses have also been gutted in the fire. The impact of the fire has now reached Sydney and thousands of people have been evacuated to safer places. The impact of Australia’s forest fire is also being seen in New Zealand. The Australian government has declared a state of emergency in many affected areas Measures The national bushfire recovery agency has formed under the chairmanship of former federal police chief Andrew Colvin. It will help the people of Australia to recover from wildfires. The prime minister announced that the agency would be given an amount of two billion Australian dollars in the initial days to help the families, farmers and others affected by the forest fire. Several NGOs, volunteers, and international agencies are working to save lives from wildfires. 5.3 INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION Any form of pollution that can trace its immediate source to industrial practices is known as industrial pollution. Most of the pollution on the planet can be traced back to industries of some kind. In fact, the issue of industrial pollution has taken on grave importance for agencies trying to fight against environmental degradation. Countries facing sudden and rapid growth of such industries are finding it to be a serious problem that has to be brought under control immediately. Industrial pollution takes on many faces. It contaminates several sources of drinking water, releases unwanted toxins into the air and reduces the quality of soil all over the world. 122 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Major environmental disasters been caused due to industrial mishaps, which have yet to be brought under control. Fig 5.4 Industrial Pollution 5.3.1 Industrial Pollution Facts: Industrial pollution is wreaking havoc on Earth. Every nation is affected, and there are people who are working tirelessly to increase awareness and advocate for change. The activities causing pollution include Burning coal Burning fossil fuels like oil, natural gas and petroleum Chemical solvents used in dyeing and tanning industries Untreated gas and liquid waste being released into the environment Improper disposal of radioactive material. 5.3.2 Causes of industrial pollution: Lack of policies to control pollution: 123 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Lack of effective policies and poor enforcement drive allowed many industries to bypass laws made by the pollution control board, which resulted in mass scale pollution that affected the lives of many people. Unplanned industrial growth: In most industrial townships, unplanned growth took place wherein those companies flouted rules and norms and pollute the environment with both air and water pollution. Use of outdated technologies: Most industries still rely on old technologies to produce products that generate a large amount of waste. To avoid high cost and expenditure, many companies still make use of traditional technologies to produce high end products. Presence of large number of small-scale industries: Many small-scale industries and factories that don’t have enough capital and rely on government grants to run their day-to-day businesses often escape environment regulations and release a large number of toxic gases in the atmosphere. Inefficient waste disposal: Water pollution and soil pollution are often caused directly due to inefficiency in the disposal of waste. Long term exposure to polluted air and water causes chronic health problems, making the issue of industrial pollution into a severe one. It also lowers the air quality in surrounding areas, which causes many respiratory disorders. Leaching of resources from our natural world: Industries do require a large amount of raw material to make them into finished products. This requires the extraction of minerals from beneath the earth. The extracted minerals can cause soil pollution when spilled on the earth. Leaks from vessels can cause oil spills that may prove harmful to marine life. Natural resource use: Raw material is a must for industries, which often requires them even pulling out underground elements. One of the most common forms of leaching from natural resources is fracking for oil. When industries extract minerals, the process causes soil pollution and also causes oil leaks and spills that are harmful and even deadly to people and animals. 124 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Fig 5.5 Air Pollution due to Industry 5.3.3 Effects of Industrial Pollution: Water pollution: The effects of industrial pollution are far-reaching and liable to affect the ecosystem for many years to come. Most industries require large amounts of water for their work. When involved in a series of processes, the water comes into contact with heavy metals, harmful chemicals, radioactive waste and even organic sludge. These are either dumped into the open oceans or rivers. As a result, many of our water sources have a high amount of industrial waste in them, which seriously impacts the health of our ecosystem. The same water is then used by farmers for irrigation purposes, which affects the quality of food that is produced. Water pollution has already rendered many ground waters resources useless for humans and wildlife. It can at best be recycled for further usage in industries. Soil pollution: Soil pollution is creating problems in agriculture and destroying local vegetation. It also causes chronic health issues to the people that come in contact with such soil on a daily basis. Air pollution: 125 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Air pollution has led to a steep increase in various illnesses, and it continues to affect us on a daily basis. With so many small, mid and large-scale industries coming up, air pollution has taken a toll on the health of the people and the environment. Wildlife extinction: By and large, the issue of industrial pollution shows us that it causes natural rhythms and patterns to fail, meaning that the wildlife is getting affected in a severe manner. Habitats are being lost, species are becoming extinct, and it is harder for the environment to recover from each natural disaster. Major industrial accidents like oil spills, fires, the leakage of radioactive materials and damage to property are harder to clean-up as they have a higher impact in a shorter time frame. Global warming: With the rise in industrial pollution, global warming has been increasing at a steady pace. Smoke and greenhouse gases are being released by industries into the air, which causes an increase in global warming. Melting of glaciers, extinction of polar bears, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes are few of the effects of global warming. Biodiversity loss: Industrial pollution continues to cause significant damage to the earth and all of its inhabitants due to chemical wastes, pesticides, radioactive materials etc. It affects wildlife and ecosystems and disrupts natural habitats. Animals are becoming extinct, and habitats are being destroyed. The increasing liquid, solid and hazardous wastes undermine ecosystem health and impact on food, water and health security. Industrial pollution disasters, including oil spills and radioactive leakage, take years to decades to clean up. Atmospheric deposition: Cadmium enrichment of soil can also be associated with industrial pollution. Topsoil’s contaminated by mine spoil showed a wide range of Cd concentrations. Industrial effluents are commonly discharged to surface water drainage systems after clarification in tailing ponds. Recent investigations have disclosed very high concentrations of Cd in the overbank and bottom sediments of the rivers. 126 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.3.4 Ways to control or reduce industrial pollution: The issue of industrial pollution is critical to every nation on the planet. With the increase of the harmful effects of industrial pollution, there are many agencies and individuals who are working to reduce carbon foot prints. However, industrial pollution is still rampant and will take many years for proper control and regulation. Many steps can be taken to seek permanent solutions to the problem. Source Control: Adopting new technology, efficient training of employees for safe use and development of better technology for disposal of waste and being more conscientious about the use of raw materials can help control industrial pollution at the source. Recycling: Recycling as much polluted water in the industries as possible by increased recycling efforts to reduce industrial pollution. Cleaning of resources: Organic methods should be adopted to clean the water and soil, such as using microbes that use heavy metals and waste as feed naturally. Cooling rooms or bins need to be developed that allow industries to recycle the water they need instead of pushing it back into the natural water source it came from. Industry site selection: Consideration of location of the sites and the potential impact on the surrounding environment can help reduce harmful consequences. Proper treatment of industrial waste: By developing and implementing adequate treatment facilities for handling industrial waste and proper habits can reduce pollution Rebuilding habitats and Afforestation: Rebuilding habitats by Planting more trees and plants can help give wildlife back their homes, and the trees can help purify the air with enough oxygen, and act as a buffer against the environment. Sticker laws and enforcement: 127 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) works to correct the damage from industrial pollution. There should be more stringent rules to take action against the companies who do not follow proper protocol and more significant rewards for the companies who operate properly. It requires creating policies that prevent misuse of land. Example: Pollution of Noyyal River due to Dying Industry. Tamil Nadu textile city Tirupur, which has nearly 733 dyeing units, is ranked topmost in terms of generating hazardous waste. The bleaching and dyeing units use large quantities of water, but most of the water used by these units is discharged as effluents containing a variety of dye and chemical (acids, salts, wetting, agents, soaps, oil etc.). These units discharge nearly 90 mld of effluents on land or into the Noyyal River, leading to contamination of the ground and surface water and soil in and around Tirupur and downstream. Fig.5.6 Pollution of Noyyal River due to Dying Industry 5.4 NUCLEAR DISASTER A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic agency as an “event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility”. Examples include lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release to the environment, or “reactor core melt.” An accident taking place in any nuclear facility of the nuclear fuel cycle including the nuclear reactor, or in a facility using radioactive sources, leading to a large-scale release of radioactivity in the environment. 128 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
A ‘criticality’ accident in a nuclear fuel cycle facility where an uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction takes place inadvertently leading to bursts of neutrons and gamma radiation (as had happened at Tokaimura, Japan). A large-scale nuclear disaster resulting from a nuclear weapon attack (as had happened at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan) which would lead to mass casualties and destruction of large areas and properties. 5.4.1 Causes of Nuclear Accidents Nuclear Meltdown: A nuclear meltdown is a severe nuclear reactor accident that results in reactor core damage from overheating. It has been defined as the accidental melting of the core of a nuclear reactor, and refers to the core's either complete or partial collapse. A core melt accident occurs when the heat generated by a nuclear reactor exceeds the heat removed by the cooling systems to the point where at least one nuclear fuel element exceeds its melting point. This differs from a fuel element failure, which is not caused by high temperatures. A meltdown may be caused by a loss of coolant, loss of coolant pressure, or low coolant flow rate or be the result of a criticality excursion in which the reactor is operated at a power level that exceeds its design limits. Alternately, in a reactor plant such as the RBMK-1000, an external fire may endanger the core, leading to a meltdown. Criticality accidents: A criticality accident (also sometimes referred to as an \"excursion\" or \"power excursion\") occurs when a nuclear chain reaction is accidentally allowed to occur in fissile material, such as enriched uranium or plutonium. The Chernobyl accident is not universally regarded an example of a criticality accident, because it occurred in an operating reactor at a power plant. The reactor was supposed to be in a controlled critical state, but control of the chain reaction was lost. The accident destroyed the reactor and left a large geographic area uninhabitable. In a smaller scale accident at Sarov a technician working with highly enriched uranium was irradiated while preparing an experiment involving a sphere of fissile material. The Sarov accident is interesting because the system remained critical for many days before it could be stopped, though safely located in a shielded experimental hall. This is an example of a limited scope accident where only a few people can be harmed, while no release of radioactivity into the environment occurred. Decay heat: 129 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Decay heat accidents are where the heat generated by the radioactive decay causes harm. In a large nuclear reactor, a loss of coolant accident can damage the core: for example, at Three Mile Island a recently shutdown (scramed) PWR reactor was left for a length of time without cooling water. As a result, the nuclear fuel was damaged, and the core partially melted. The removal of the decay heat is a significant reactor safety concern, especially shortly after shutdown. Failure to remove decay heat may cause the reactor core temperature to rise to dangerous levels and has caused nuclear accidents. Transport: Transport accidents can cause a release of radioactivity resulting in contamination or shielding to be damaged resulting in direct irradiation. In Cochabamba a defective gamma radiography set was transported in a passenger bus as cargo. The gamma source was outside the shielding, and it irradiated some bus passengers. Equipment Failure: Equipment failure is one possible type of accident. In Białystok, Poland, in 2001 the electronics associated with a particle accelerator used for the treatment of cancer suffered a malfunction.[119] This then led to the overexposure of at least one patient. While the initial failure was the simple failure of a semiconductor diode, it set in motion a series of events which led to a radiation injury. A related cause of accidents is failure of control software, as in the cases involving the Therac-25 medical radiotherapy equipment: the elimination of a hardware safety interlock in a new design model exposed a previously undetected bug in the control software, which could have led to patients receiving massive overdoses under a specific set of conditions. Human Error: Many of the major nuclear accidents have been directly attributable to operator or human error. This was obviously the case in the analysis of both the Chernobyl and TMI-2 accidents. At Chernobyl, a test procedure was being conducted prior to the accident. The leaders of the test permitted operators to disable and ignore key protection circuits and warnings that would have normally shut the reactor down. At TMI-2, operators permitted thousands of gallons of water to escape from the reactor plant before observing that the coolant pumps were behaving abnormally. The coolant pumps were thus turned off to protect the pumps, which in turn led to the destruction of the reactor itself as cooling was completely lost within the core. A detailed investigation into SL-1 determined that one operator (perhaps inadvertently) manually pulled the 84-pound (38 kg) central control rod out about 26 inches rather than the maintenance procedure's intention of about 4 inches. 130 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.4.2Consequences of the accidents: Environmental Consequence: The radioactive fallout caused radioactive material to deposit itself over large areas of ground. It has an effect over most of the northern hemisphere in one way or another. In some local ecosystems within a 6-mile (10 km) radius of the power plant the radiation is lethally high especially in small mammals such as mice and coniferous trees. Luckily within 4 years of the accident nature began to restore itself, but genetically these plants may be scarred for life. Psychological consequences: There has been an increase in psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, helplessness and other disorders which lead to mental stress. These disorders are not a consequence of radiation, but a consequence from the stress of evacuation, the lack of information given after the accident and the stress of knowing that their health and their children’s health could be affected. Economic, political and social consequences: The worst contaminated areas were economically, socially and politically declining as the birth rate had decreased and emigration numbers had substantially risen which had caused a shortage in labour force. These areas could not evolve industrially or agriculturally because of strict rules that were introduced because the area was too contaminated. The few products made were hard to sell or export because people were aware that it had come from the affected parts and so were scared of being affected, this caused a further economic decline. Socially people have been limited on their activities making everyday life very difficult. 5.4.3 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster (Case study) The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster was a series of equipment failures, nuclear meltdowns, and releases of radioactive materials at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, following the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March, 2011. It is the largest nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster of 1986. The plant comprises six separate boiling water reactors originally designed by General Electric (GE), and maintained by the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO). At the time of the quake, Reactor 4 had been de-fuelled while 5 and 6 were in cold shutdown for planned maintenance. 131 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
The remaining reactors shut down automatically after the earthquake, and emergency generators came online to control electronics and coolant systems. The tsunami resulted in flooding of the rooms containing the emergency generators. Consequently, those generators ceased working, causing eventual power loss to the pumps that circulate coolant water in the reactor. The pumps then stopped working, causing the reactors to overheat due to the high decay heat that normally continues for a short time, even after a nuclear reactor shut down. The flooding and earthquake damage hindered external assistance. In the hours and days that followed. Reactors 1, 2 and 3 experienced full meltdowns. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogens- air chemical explosions occurred. Fig 5.7Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster The hydrogen gas was produced by high heat in the reactors causing a hydrogen-producing reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the water surrounding them. The government ordered that seawater be used to attempt to cool the reactors this had the effect of ruining the reactors entirely. As the water levels in the fuel rods pools dropped, they began to overheat. Fears of radioactivity releases led to a 20 km (12 mi)-radius evacuation around the plant. 132 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
During the early days of the accident workers were temporarily evacuated at various times for radiation safety reasons. Electrical power was slowly restored for some of the reactors, allowing for automated cooling. 5.4.4 Prevention To prevent this kind of nuclear disaster from happening again, both the nuclear industry and government officials worldwide must seriously consider making at least five major changes to the safety systems at nuclear power plants, as well as to security measures and international agreements. Stabilize the electricity supply system. The Fukushima nuclear accident is said to have been caused by an unprecedented natural disaster: a tremendous earthquake followed by a tsunami. What really caused the accident, however, was that the power plant simply ran out of electricity. Offsite power was cut off by the earthquake and tsunami; onsite emergency diesel generators malfunctioned; and batteries were empty within hours. With no electricity, there was no way to operate the emergency core-cooling systems for the reactors. The water inside the reactors boiled away, exposing the fuel, which then overheated and reacted with steam to produce combustible hydrogen gas. Hydrogen explosions tore through the reactor containment buildings and released radioactive gases — including cesium 137, the principal radioactive isotope released by the Chernobyl accident — from the damaged fuel. To prevent such a power loss in the future, plant operators should install multiple connections to the offsite power grid; station emergency diesel generators on high ground; and deploy plenty of mobile emergency diesel generators. Store spent fuel in dry casks. The Fukushima accident was a vivid reminder that fuel storage pools are vulnerable when cooling systems fail. Like the fuel inside the reactor cores, some of the fuel stored in pools at Fukushima probably melted as water levels dropped, releasing radioactive gases into the atmosphere. To minimize the risks of a similar situation happening again, plant operators should remove spent fuel from pools after five years. By that time, the fuel is cool enough to be stored in dry casks, which are sealed metal cylinders surrounded by concrete or other materials. These casks provide robust protection against physical damage, and are expected to maintain their integrity for 100 years or more. More than 400 fuel assemblies — about three percent of the total amount of spent fuel — are already stored in dry casks at Fukushima Daiichi, and they apparently survived the earthquake and tsunami without any significant damage. Dry-cask storage also helps to alleviate shortages of storage-pool capacity, which some countries are facing. Install filtered vent systems. In an accident like the one at Fukushima, a filtered vent system could reduce the possibility of containment-building explosions, by releasing radioactive gases to the atmosphere through a large filter system. This system traps the most dangerous radioactive species, including caesium 137, and prevents them from spreading beyond the 133 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
containment building. A group of nuclear engineers at the University of California originally suggested this idea in 1977, and Frank von Hippel and Jan Beyea reintroduced the idea in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists in 1982. Some countries — including France, Sweden, and Germany — have installed filtered vent system at their reactors. But Japan, the United States, and many other countries with nuclear power plants have not adopted them. Ratify a treaty to prohibit military attacks. At Fukushima, water continues to leak from spent-fuel pools that were damaged by hydrogen explosions in mid-March. This poses a threat of radioactive gas releases from damaged fuel in the pools. A military attack on a nuclear facility could also cause this kind of damage — and radioactive releases. The consequences could be grave and could spread beyond national boundaries. Therefore, it is urgent that global communities ratify a treaty prohibiting the use of military forces against civilian nuclear facilities in IAEA member states. India and Pakistan already have a bilateral agreement not to attack each other’s nuclear facilities, entered into force in 1991. The agreement defines nuclear facilities as “nuclear power and research reactors, fuel fabrication, uranium enrichment, isotopes separation and reprocessing facilities as well as any other installations with fresh or irradiated nuclear fuel and materials in any form and establishments storing significant quantities of radioactive materials.” A multilateral non- attack treaty should be on the agenda for the Seoul Nuclear Security Summit. 134 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.5 BIOLOGICAL DISASTER: A biological attack means the release of germs or other biological substances. Such substances can enter the body through inhalation, cuts in the skin and food and make one sick. In comparison to other weapons work instantly, but the symptoms may not be visible immediately. This makes it difficult to diagnose the cause of sickness, as the biological agents or germs take time to manifest. The germs can infect even the attending medical and paramedical staff. Fig 5.8 a Swine flu Fig 5.8 b Covid-19 Biological disasters may be in the form of: - Epidemic Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of individuals within a population, community, or region at the same time, examples being Cholera, Plague, Japanese Encephalitis (JE)/Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) Pandemic Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a continent, or even worldwide of existing, emerging or re-emerging diseases and pestilences, example being Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu). Biological agents: Biological agents are living organisms or their toxic products that can kill or incapacitate people, livestockand plants. 135 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
For example, bacteria, viruses, and toxins Bacteria Bacteria are microscopic living organisms, usually one-celled, that can be found everywhere. They can be dangerous, such as when they cause infection, or beneficial, as in the process of fermentation (such as in wine) and that of decomposition. Viruses Virus, an infectious agent of small size and simple composition that can multiply only in living cells of animals, plants, or bacteria. The name is from a Latin word meaning “slimy liquid” or “poison.” Toxins Poisonous substance, especially a protein, that is produced by living cells or organisms and is capable of causing disease when introduced into the body tissues but is often also capable of inducing neutralizing antibodies or antitoxins. 5.5.1 Biological Warfare/Bio Terrorism Bio-terrorism can be defined as the use of biological agents to cause death, disability or damage mainly to human beings. Bio-terrorism is a method of terrorist activity to prevail mass panic and slow mass casualties. For example: Japan used plague bacilli in China during 1932-1945causing 260,000 Deaths. Dispersal of anthrax spores due to accident in production unit in USSR (Union of Soviet Socialistrepublics) caused 68 deaths in 1979. 5.5.2 CAUSES There are number of causes why biological weapons are potentially more powerful agents to mass casualties leading to civil disruptions. To attract widespread attention and to harm a selected target, these outfits can utilize possibly any biological material, which fulfils some of the criteria of bio-weapons. Biological agents can be disseminated with readily available technology. Common agricultural spray devices can be adopted to disseminate biological pathogens of the proper particle size to cause infection in human population over great distances. The perpetrators can use natural weather conditions, such as wind and temperature inversions as well as existing building infrastructures (e.g., ventilation system) or air 136 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
movement related to transportation (e.g., subway cars passing through tunnels) to disseminate these agents and thus, to infect or intoxicate a large number of people. The expense of producing biological weapons is far less than that of other weapon systems. The method of bio-agents dissemination and delivery techniques include: Aerosols - biological agents are dispersed into the air, forming afine mist that may drift for miles. Inhaling the agent may causeepidemic diseases in human beings or animals. Animals – some diseases are spread by insects and animals, such as fleas, mice, flies, mosquitoes, and livestock. Food and water contamination - some pathogenic organisms and toxins may persist in food and water supplies. Most microbes can be killed, and toxins deactivated, by cooking food and boiling water, but some require longer. Person-to-person - spread of a few infectious agents is also possible. Humans have been the source of infection for smallpox, plague, and the Lassa viruses. 5.5.3 TYPES There are various categories of biological agent’s potential enough to cause mass casualties. Anthrax Smallpox Plague Botulism Tularemia ANTHRAX Anthrax is a serious infectious disease caused by gram-positive, rod shaped bacteria known as Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax can be found naturally in soil and commonly affects domestic and wild animals around the world. Although it is rare, people can get sick with anthrax if they come in contact with infected animals or contaminated animal products. Contact with anthrax can cause severe illness in both humans and animals. Anthrax is not contagious, which means you can’t catch it like the cold or flu. SMALLPOX 137 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
What is smallpox? Smallpox is a very serious illness caused by a virus called thevariola virus. Smallpox gets its name from thepus-filled blisters (or pocks) that form during the illness. Although people are concerned that the smallpox virus might be used as a weapon, this would be difficult for anyone to do. How is smallpox spread? Smallpox is contagious. That means the virus can spread to others. It spreads through tiny drops of an infected person's saliva (spit) when the person coughs, talks, or sneezes. Smallpox usually passes from person to person during close, face-to-face contact. How is it diagnosed? If someone does get smallpox, a doctor can recognize the disease because it causes a special kind of rash. The rash shows up as blisters on the skin that fill with fluid and crust over. This might sound like chickenpox, but the blisters look different from the blisters that chickenpox causes. The other symptoms of smallpox are like those of many other less serious illnesses: fever, headache, backache, and feeling tired. Are there medicines to take for smallpox? There are no pills that can treat smallpox, but scientists are doing research to try to develop medicine for the disease. If someone does become infected with the smallpox virus, getting the vaccine within a few days of becoming infected can lessen the disease's symptoms. PLAGUE It is a disease that results from infection by non-motile, gram-negative coccobacillusYersinia pestis. 5.5.4 IMPACTS Even a small-scale biological attack with a weapon grade agent on an urban centre could cause massive morbidity and mortality rapidly overwhelming the local medical capabilities. 138 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
For example, an aerosolized release of little as 100kg of anthrax spores upwind of a metro city of a size of Washington D C has been estimated to have the potential to cause up to three million Of deaths. 5.5.5 2003, Fearing SARS, New Yorkers avoid China Town Despite the fact that the number of potential SARS cases in New York City was few during the 2003 outbreak, fear of the disease kept many people away from the usually bustling Chinatown neighborhood. Acting on the presumption that Chinatown residents and merchants traveled back and forth frequently to Asia and therefore posed a greater risk for transmitting SARS, New York City residents and tourists avoided Chinatown in an effort to protect themselves. Local businesses felt the impact; in late April 2003, nearly 2 months after the disease was first Fig 5.9 SARS identified in Asia, 84% of surveyed Chinatown businesses reported a drop in business because of the SARS crisis. Many proprietors reported drops of 30% or more. Restaurants, grocers and the garment industry suffered, but travel agencies were the hardest hit -- some nearly went out of business. Reference: Asian American Business Development Council. \"Double Impact: Chinatown Businesses Still Struggling from the Impact of September 11th only to be Hit Again with the SARS Crisis.\" April 28, 2003. Accessed online 4/29/03. 139 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.6 ACCIDENTS An accident is an unplanned event that sometimes has inconvenient or undesirable consequences, other times being inconsequential. The occurrence of such an event may or may not have unrecognized or unaddressed risks contributing to its cause. 5.6.1 Types: Physical Non physical Physical examples of accidents include unintended motor vehicle collisions or falls, being injured by touching something sharp, hot, dropping a plate, accidentally kicking the leg of a chair while walking, unintentionally biting one's tongue while eating, accidentally tipping over a glass of water, contacting electricity or ingesting poison. Non-physical examples are unintentionally revealing a secret or otherwise saying something incorrectly, accidental deletion of data, forgetting an appointment etc. Accidents by activity Accidents during the execution of work or arising out of it are called work accidents. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), more than 337 million accidents happen on the job each year, resulting, together with occupational diseases, in more than 2.3 million deaths annually. In contrast, leisure-related accidents are mainly sports injuries. 5.6.2 Air Accidents: Air crash is also known as an aviation accident and incident. Much of the aviation such as airplane, helicopter, air balloon and jet plane are design involves ensuring with a high level of safety. However, aviation accidents do happen in anytime and harm human life. It is unpredictable and unpreventable accident with the resulting loss of life tragic. We understand that there is no amount of money can replace who has been lost in any type of accident or any destruction. 140 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Fig 5.10 Air Accidents Causes and effects: 1. Pilot Error – Pilot error is the most common cause of aviation accidents. While airline manufacturers can use technology to engineer as many risks as possible out of flying, it ultimately comes down to the pilot flying the aircraft to execute a safe take-off and landing, respond to mechanical problems, and navigate the aircraft through inclement weather. In addition to those responsibilities, a pilot must also maintain proper fuels levels, utilize the plane's de-icing system, follow instruction from air traffic control, maintain proper speed and altitude during the flight, and perform a host of other tasks. Even a slight error or delay in handling any one of these tasks correctly could result in a disaster. 2. Mechanical Error – Mechanical errors are the second leading cause of aviation accidents, accounting for 22% of all crashes. Mechanical errors could occur because of a flaw inherent in the aircraft's design or because a mechanical part was not properly installed or maintained. Outside forces such as birds flying into plane engines have also been known to cause mechanical failures. 3. Inclement Weather – Inclement weather is the cause of 12% of aviation accidents. While pilots and airlines monitor weather conditions and avoid rough patches of weather or refrain from flying in extreme weather conditions, weather can often be unpredictable. Lightning strikes are a particularly dangerous hazard for airplanes, as they can cause electrical failures or ignite fuel tanks and pipes. Other weather conditions that can cause aviation accidents are strong winds, heavy storms, and thick fog that limit a pilot's line of sight during takeoff or landing. 4. Air Traffic Controller Error – Air traffic controllers have one of the most stressful jobs in the world. They are responsible for controlling the flow of all air traffic and ensuring 141 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
that aircraft maintain proper distance from each other and take off and land safely. They are often dealing with dozens of aircraft at once, all while making countless split-second decisions regarding variables such as equipment, configuration, weather, and traffic levels. Any misstep or failure to follow proper air traffic control procedures can lead to a fatal plane crash. Fatal Airplane Crash In 2010, a runway crash at a Libyan airport resulted in 103 people killed, the majority of which were Dutch citizens. As a result of meetings with the airline, a Kenyon client, and the Libyan Government, Kenyon was requested to conduct a full operational response including deceased victim identification, family assistance centre and support, deceased repatriation and management of personal effects. Kenyon also opened its Emergency Management Centre (EMC) in the UK to support the operation. 5.6.3 Road: A road traffic accident (RTA) is any injury due to crashes originating from, terminating with or involving a vehicle partially or fully on a public road. It is projected that road traffic injuries will move up to the third position by the year 2020 among leading causes of the global disease burden. They are considerable economic losses to victims, their families, and to countries as a whole. The Global status report on road safety 2013 indicates that worldwide the total number of road traffic deaths remain unacceptably high at 1.24 million per year. Road traffic injuries are the leading cause of death among young people, aged 15–29 years. Children, pedestrians, cyclists and older people are among the most vulnerable of road users constituting half of those dying on the world’s roads. Majority of the world's fatalities on the roads occur in low-income and middle-income countries, even though these countries have approximately half of the world's vehicles. India is no exception and data showed that more than 1.3 lakh people died on Indian roads, giving India the dubious honor of topping the global list of fatalities from road crashes. Rapid urbanization, motorization, lack of appropriate road engineering, poor awareness levels, non-existent injury prevention programmes, and poor enforcement of traffic laws has exacerbated the situation. Causes 142 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Road accident is most unwanted thing to happen to a road user, though they happen quite often. Most of the road users are quite well aware of the general rules and safety measures while using roads but it is only the laxity on part of road users, which cause accidents and crashes. Main cause of accidents and crashes are due to human errors. We are elaborating some of the common behavior of humans which results in accident. 1. Over Speeding 2. Drunken Driving 3. Distractions to Driver 4. Red Light Jumping 5. Avoiding Safety Gears like Seat belts and Helmets 6. Non-adherence to lane driving and overtaking in a wrong manner Over Speeding: Most of the fatal accidents occur due to over speeding. It is a natural psyche of humans to excel. If given a chance man is sure to achieve infinity in speed. But when we are sharing the road with other users, we will always remain behind some or another vehicle. Increase in speed multiplies the risk of accident and severity of injury during accident. Faster vehicles are more prone to accident than the slower one and the severity of accident will also be more in case of faster the severity of accident will also be more in case of faster vehicles. Higher the speed, greater the risk. At high speed the vehicle needs greater distance to stop i.e., braking distance. A slower vehicle comes to halt immediately while faster one takes long way to stop and also skids a long distance due to law of notion. A vehicle moving on high speed will have greater impact during the crash and hence will cause more injuries. The ability to judge the forthcoming events also gets reduced while driving at faster speed which causes error in judgment and finally a crash. Drunk and Driving: Consumption of alcohol to celebrate any occasion is common. But when mixed with driving it turns celebration into a misfortune. Alcohol reduces concentration. It decreases reaction time of a human body. Limbs take more to react to the instructions of brain. It hampers vision due to dizziness. Alcohol dampens fear and incite humans to take risks. All these factors while driving cause accidents and many at times it proves fatal. For every increase of 0.05 blood alcohol concentration, the risk of accident doubles. Apart from alcohol many drugs, medicines also affect the skills and concentration necessary for 143 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
driving. First of all, we recommend not to consume alcohol. But if you feel your merrymaking is not complete without booze, do not drive under the influence of alcohol. Ask a teetotaler friend to drop you home. Distraction to driver: Though distraction while driving could be minor but it can cause major accidents. Distractions could be outside or inside the vehicle. The major distraction now a days is talking on mobile phone while driving. Act of talking on phone occupies major portion of brain and the smaller part handles the driving skills. This division of brain hamper’s reaction time and ability of judgement. This becomes one of the reasons of crashes. One should not attend to telephone calls while driving. If the call is urgent one should pull out beside the road and attend the call. Some of the distractions on road are: Adjusting mirrors while driving Stereo/Radio in vehicle Animals on the road Banners and billboards. The driver should not be distracted due to these things and reduce speed to remain safe during diversions and other kind of outside distractions. Red Light Jumping: It is a common sight at road intersections that vehicles cross without caring for the light. The main motive behind Red light jumping is saving time. The common conception is that stopping at red signal is wastage of time and fuel. Studies have shown that traffic signals followed properly by all drivers saves time and commuters reach destination safely and timely. A red- light jumper not only jeopardizes his life but also the safety of other road users. This act by one driver incites other driver to attempt it and finally causes chaos at crossing. This chaos at intersection is the main cause of traffic jams. Eventually everybody gets late to their destinations. It has also been seen that the red-light jumper crosses the intersection with greater speed to avoid crash and challan but it hampers his ability to judge the ongoing traffic and quite often crashes. Avoid safety gears like seat belts and helmets: 144 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Use of seat belt in four-wheeler is now mandatory and not wearing seat belt invites penalty, same in the case of helmets for two-wheeler drivers. Wearing seat belts and helmet has been brought under law after proven studies that these two things reduce the severity of injury during accidents. Wearing seat belts and helmets doubles the chances of survival in a serious accident. Safety Gears keep you intact and safe in case of accidents. Two-wheeler deaths have been drastically reduced after use of helmet has been made mandatory. One should use safety gears of prescribed standard and tie them properly for optimum safety. Effects of Traffic on Environment 1. Safety 2. Noise 3. Land Consumption 4. Air Pollution 5. Degrading the Aesthetics Preventive Measures Helmets for two-wheeler riders: Setting and enforcing mandatory helmet use is an effective intervention for reducing injuries and fatalities among two-wheeler users. Wearing a helmet decreases the risk and severity of injuries by about 72% and likelihood of death by 39% as per WHO road safety manual on use of helmets. Seat-belts and child restraints: It should be mandatory to wear seatbelts both for the front and rear occupants of the car. Wearing a seat-belt reduces the risk of a fatality among front-seat passengers by 40–50% and of rear-seat passengers by between 25–75%. Children of any age should not be seated in the front seat and should have child restraints. The latter is also effective in reducing injuries that can occur during non-crash events, such as a sudden stop, a swerving evasive manoeuvre or a door opening during vehicle movement. Setting and enforcing speed limits: Pedestrians have a 90% chance of survival if hit by a car travelling at a speed of 30km/h or below, but less than a 50% chance of surviving an impact of 45km/h or above. Speed-monitoring cameras and radars and speed-limiting governors in vehicles are useful devices in enforcing the speed limit. 145 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Setting and enforcing alcohol limits: Drinking and driving is one of the main causes of road crashes worldwide. Laws that establish blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.05g/dl or below are effective at reducing the number of alcohol-related crashes. Banning drivers from using hand-held mobile phones: Drivers using a mobile phone are approximately four times more likely to be involved in a crash than when a driver does not use a phone. Car hits pedelec rider: (Nov 2020) Sequence of events: A 78-year-old pedaled rider and her husband, who was also on a pedaled, wanted to cross a country road. Having reached the road, they initially stopped to check for traffic. While her husband waited, the pedaled rider rode on and was hit by a car coming from the right at high speed, which had right of way. The pedaled rider was landed on the hood of the car, and her shoulder and head broke through the car’s windshield. The pedaled became entangled with the front of the car and was dragged along with it. As the incident continued, the car veered off the right-hand side of the road and crashed into a tree trunk. This impact threw the pedaled rider off the car, whereupon she flew forward and landed in her final position. Fig. 5.11 Car hits pedaled rider Persons involved in the accident: One pedaled rider and one car driver Consequences/injuries: The pedaled rider suffered fatal injuries and died at the scene of the accident. The car driver was severely injured. Cause/problem: The cause of the accident was a miscalculation of the traffic situation on the part of the pedaled rider. The pedaled rider rode into the danger zone – the lane in which the car was driving – approximately one second before the collision. The investigation also revealed that 146 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
the car driver was traveling at a speed of between 75 and 85 km/h instead of the local 70 km/h speed limit. Avoidance measures, mitigation of consequences/ strategy for road safety measures: The accident could have been prevented if the pedaled rider had reacted to the car coming from her right and waited accordingly. The car driver would not have been able to prevent the collision by keeping to the local speed limit. However, observing the speed limit would have enabled him to completely prevent the subsequent collision with the tree. Accordingly, this would also have significantly reduced the risk of injury to the car driver. 5.6.4 Rail Accidents: Train accidents aren’t as common as other transportation accidents, which perhaps is why they aren’t viewed as a major threat. Although railroads aren’t used as often as they were in centuries past, they still remain quite active. In fact, trains are still quite common in the US – particularly subways, commuter trains, trams, etc. Train accident Statistics According to the Federal Railroad Administration, in 2014 there were 11,896 train accidents at railroad crossings, resulting in 804 fatalities and thousands of injuries over the course of that year. Trains are estimated to kill 1 person every 100 minutes. Each year nearly 1,000 people are killed in train related accidents. More than half of all railroad accidents occur at unprotected crossings. More than 80 percent of crossings lack adequate warning devices such as lights and gates. Occupants of vehicles that collide with a train are 40 times more likely to die than if they had collided with another vehicle of comparable size. Every two weeks a train carrying hazardous materials derails in the United States. The great Train Wreck of 1918 147 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Fig 5.12Nashville train accident 1918 Tennessee has a particularly troubling history when it comes to train accidents. The Great Train Wreck of 1918, which happened near Nashville on July 9, 1918, is widely considered to be the worst rail accident disaster. Over 100 people died and at least another 170 were injured when two passenger trains, operated by the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway (\"NC&stl\"), collided head-on at 50 to 60 miles per hour. When the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) investigated the cause of the accident, they determined several factors were to blame such critical errors made by the crew and tower operators. The ICC also placed some of the blame for the high number of fatalities on the lack of a system for accurately determining train positions and the wooden construction of the cars. Causes of train accidents: There are a variety of reasons why train accidents occur – most of which take place at crossings when cars try to \"beat\" the train. When these accidents occur, they often involve the passengers, driver, and some passers-by. While every case is unique, the most common causes of train accidents include: Negligence Human error 148 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Reckless pedestrians and drivers Mechanical failure Speedy trains Defective tracks Derailments Unprotected railroad crossings Stalled cars on the track Suicides 1. Negligence Railroad accidents due to negligence can be blamed on different groups. Some may be the fault of the railway company itself, whereas others are because a conductor or railroad employee was negligent. Some accidents are even caused by the neglect of a government agency. Or perhaps an equipment manufacturer can be a reason why the accident happened. One example of railway negligence is when a crossing arm is operated incorrectly. Another careless mistake is if the operator forgot or failed to turn on the signal light, which should have provided adequate warning. 2. Human Error If the conductor is inexperienced, train accidents can easily happen. Even those who have been working in the railroad industry for quite some time may make a mistake that harms other people, including passengers. Another growing problem with both experienced and new conductors is fatigue. They cannot operate the train safely if they’re exhausted, yet they do so anyway due to pressure they face from their supervisors and company. Human error has always been one of the most common reasons for any accident. From poor judgment to vision issues to impaired reactions, these factors can (and do) contribute to train disasters. 3. Reckless Pedestrians & Drivers Train accidents aren’t always the fault of the train operator or company. Sometimes, a reckless or distracted pedestrian can cause a collision by standing on or crossing the tracks at the wrong time. In other scenarios, the driver of a car, truck, motorcycle or other motor 149 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
vehicle can cause an accident by leaving their vehicle parked on a train track or trying to beat the train across a crossing. 4. Mechanical Failure The train operator, railway employees and the company itself can do everything within their ability to follow all the required safety procedures, but a train accident can still happen. Mechanical failure and defective parts are more rare than other common causes of train collisions, but they do occasionally happen. Trains are large machines with complex systems and many moving parts. All of the different systems must work together perfectly to provide locomotive and electric power. If some piece of guidance equipment (such as a rail switch) or safety equipment (such as a rail signal) fails, it can cause a deadly accident. 5. Speedy Trains Time and again, car accident data proves that driving recklessly fast can lead to serious injuries and deaths. Trains are no exception. Many train accidents in recent years showed that the faster the train, the worse the consequences become in the event of a crash and the higher likelihood of derailment. 6. Defective Tracks Obstruction is a common issue with the tracks and can cause train derailment. Foreign objects left inadvertently at the site where the train will pass can be deadly. Conductors should be aware of their surroundings at all times to manage a potentially dangerous situation quickly and safely. However, in some cases, a conductor fails to see these obstacles at all or in time to stop a collision. 7. Derailments A derailment is when a train runs off its rail, either because of a collision with another object, a conductor error, mechanical track failure, broken rails, or defective wheels. A derailment doesn’t necessarily mean the train leaves the tracks – some may be minor. However, a serious derailment can be catastrophic if it occurs while the train is moving at a high rate of speed. 8. Unprotected railroad crossings More than 80 percent of crossings lack adequate warning devices such as lights and gates, and more than half of all railroad accidents occur at unprotected crossings. Tennessee residents know well that there are many unprotected railroad crossings across the state. Accidents at unprotected railroad crossings are most often caused by: 150 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
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