reference to the extraordinary diversity of the Indonesian population that has emerged from the ongoing confluence of peoples, languages, and cultures. The country includes more than 300 different ethnic groups and more than twice as many distinct languages, and most of the major world religions, as well as a wide range of indigenous ones, are practiced there. Notwithstanding this diversity, most of the people are of Malay ancestry, speak Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) languages, and profess Islam. 3.2.1 Ethnic groups The barriers of the mountains and the sea have protected the character and traditions of many groups. Away from the major cities and areas of dense population, there are significant variations from one valley to the next and almost from one village to the next. In many cases the highland groups of the larger islands—Borneo, Sumatra, and Celebes—were relatively untouched by international influences until the arrival of Christian missionaries during the 19th century; these upland peoples continue to reflect great cultural diversity. Each island or group of islands east of Java also has maintained its own distinct character, in many cases strongly influenced by different religions. In particular, Bali—with its long tradition of Hindu and Buddhist influences rooted in local religious practices—is quite different in character and customs from any other part of Indonesia. 3.2.2 Western islands The diverse ethnic populations of western Indonesia generally may be grouped into three broad categories. These are the inland wet-rice (irrigated rice) societies, the coastal trading, farming, and fishing peoples, and the inland societies of shifting cultivators. The first group, the historically Hinduized (but now primarily Muslim) wet-rice growers of inland Java, Madura, and Bali, make up nearly three-fifths of the national population. With an ancient culture informed by strong social and agricultural traditions, it includes the Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, and Balinese peoples. The Javanese constitute Indonesia’s largest ethnic group, accounting for roughly one-third of the total population. Most Javanese live in the densely settled, irrigated agricultural regions of central and eastern Java—the most populous parts of the country. The cities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta (Solo), in the center of the island, are strongholds of Javanese culture and 51 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
maintain traditional rulers, although these leaders have no real political power. Java’s western region, including the city of Bandung, is the homeland of the Sundanese, who are related to but quite distinct from the Javanese in language and tradition. The Sundanese are the second largest ethnic group in Indonesia. The island of Madura, northeast of Java, is the homeland of the Madurese, Indonesia’s third largest ethnic group. In addition to cultivating wet-rice paddies, many Madurese raise cattle. The Balinese, who live just to the east of Java on Bali, are known for their intricate irrigation systems and terraced rice fields. Of the historically Hinduized communities in Indonesia, the Balinese are the only nonimmigrant practitioners of Hinduism. The second group, the more strongly Islamized coastal peoples, is ethnically heterogeneous and includes the Malays from Sumatra and, from southern Celebes, the Makassarese and Bugis. The Sumatran Malays inhabit Aceh, a strongly Muslim region at the extreme northern tip of Sumatra that has long been noted for its resistance to European influence; a rich plantation area to the south of Aceh, along Sumatra’s northern coast; and Bangka and Belitung (Billiton), two primarily agricultural islands off the southeastern coast of Sumatra. The Makassarese and Bugis live primarily in the coastal regions of southern Celebes. Like most Indonesian peoples, they are rice farmers; however, they are also maritime peoples with a strong tradition of boat making. The Makassarese and Bugis have a pronounced presence in coastal towns throughout Indonesia, although their influence has been strongest outside Java. The third group, the inland shifting cultivators, plant swiddens—fields that are cleared, cultivated for a few seasons, and then abandoned for several years to allow the soil to regenerate—in areas where the climate will not support wet-rice farming. These communities tend to be small and relatively isolated, and they represent a wide array of cultures. The most prominent of the swiddeners are the Toraja of southern Celebes, the Batak of the highlands of northern Sumatra, and the various communities of the interior of Kalimantan, such as the Kenyah, Kayan, Ngaju, and Embaloh, who officially (and collectively) are called Dayak. There are two major ethnic groups in the western islands of Indonesia that do not fit into this broad scheme of cultural categorization. The Minangkabau, a community of devout Muslim wet-rice farmers in west-central Sumatra, hold a unique position in Indonesia as a matrilineal society, whereby inheritance and descent are reckoned through the female line. The 52 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Menadonese (Minahasan) of northern Celebes are also atypical in that they are a historically Hinduized, predominantly Christian coastal community. 3.2.3 Eastern islands Eastern Indonesia is characterized by the traditional Melanesian cultural division between coastal, or “beach,” peoples and interior, or “bush,” peoples. The Moluccas reflect this pattern, although their proximity to the western islands makes them a more complex ethnographic and linguistic area. The islands are populated by a number of distinct ethnic groups. Typical of the coastal peoples are the Ambonese, who live along the coasts of Ambon and neighbouring islands, including western Ceram. Some of the people living in the mountainous interior regions have been relocated to coastal areas, but—unlike the coastal peoples—they do not usually engage in fishing activities. The distinction between coastal and interior peoples is especially salient in western New Guinea, where maritime trading communities live along the coast, while agrarian, noncommercial societies with strongly developed and highly localized customs inhabit the interior. Those in the foothills and on the coast have affinities with other Melanesian cultures to the east and south of New Guinea. In addition, Indonesians from the western islands have mixed with indigenous peoples in the coastal trading settlements. The people of the interior, such as the Asmat and the Dani, on the other hand, remained isolated for a longer period of time. Some groups continue to live in remote areas, where interaction with peoples and cultures beyond their proximate surroundings is limited. Most Papuans of the interior regions live in small communities and maintain a complex of dialects, customs, and social structures that is distinct from that of the coastal peoples. 3.3 LANGUAGES Most of the several hundred languages spoken in Indonesia have an Austronesian base. The major exceptions are found in western New Guinea and some of the Moluccas, where different Papuan languages are used. The Austronesian language family is broken into several major groups within which languages are closely related though distinctly different. On Java there are three major languages—Javanese, Sundanese, and Madurese—while on Sumatra there are dozens, many of which are divided into distinct dialects. Within the Toraja group, a 53 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
relatively small population in the interior of Celebes, several languages are spoken. In eastern Indonesia each island has its own language, which is often not understood on the neighbouring islands. Similarly, languages often differ from one village to the next in the interior of Kalimantan. Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia) is the national language. It evolved from a literary style of Malay language that was used in the royal houses of the Riau-Jambi area of eastern Sumatra, but it also has much in common with other Malay dialects that have long served as regional lingua francas. The differences between standard Malay and standard Indonesian reside largely in their idioms and in certain items of vocabulary. In 1972 Indonesia and Malaysia agreed on a uniform revised spelling of the language so that communications could be improved and literature more freely exchanged between the two countries. Because it has no distinctive expressions based on social hierarchy and is not associated with one of the dominant ethnic groups, the Indonesian language has been accepted without serious question and has served as a strong force of national unification. Since the early 20th century, it has been the main language of print in different parts of the country; it also served as the medium of political communication among members of the nationalist movement leading up to the revolution and declaration of independence in 1945. Writers of ethnic Chinese and Sumatran origins produced novels, plays, and poetry in the language, from which a modern Indonesian literature was born. Today the Indonesian language is the mother tongue for some city dwellers and a second language for most Indonesians. It is the medium of instruction in universities, and it is used in scientific, philosophical, and legal writings and debates. Radio stations, television channels, and films employ it (they rarely use local languages), and most popular songs with a national audience are written in the Indonesian language as well. (There are, however, locally popular groups that write and perform songs in regional languages and dialects.) 3.4 DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS The distribution and density of the population in Indonesia vary considerably from region to region; the bulk of the population lives on the western islands of Java, Bali, and Madura. Overall, the population nearly doubled between the mid-20th and the early 21st century, with a moderately high rate of growth. There have been, however, significant regional contrasts in 54 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
this rate. In Java, for example, population growth has been significantly less than in the outer islands. A sharp decline in fertility rates also has been evident throughout Indonesia, attributable largely to an increase in the age when people marry and the widespread availability of birth control products. Lower fertility has been especially conspicuous in central Java. Mortality rates have declined substantially since the mid-20th century, largely because of improved health care, better dietary and nutrition practices, and improvements in housing and water quality. The rates of infant and child mortality also have dropped. At the beginning of the 21st century, Indonesia’s age structure was becoming more evenly distributed. More than one-third of Indonesia’s population was under age 15 in 1990, but the proportion has been decreasing steadily since that time. Conversely, the older component of the population has been increasing, but the average life expectancy and the proportion of those age 65 or older have remained lower than in wealthier countries in Southeast Asia. Two major migration patterns have become prominent in Indonesia. The first involves the growing flow of rural people into urban areas, particularly Jakarta, which has resulted in an overall increase in the proportion of the population living in cities. Temporary, or “circular,” migration between rural and urban areas in connection with employment also has become common. The second pattern is that of people leaving Java for the outer islands. The central government facilitated much of this movement (called transmigration), especially in the last quarter of the 20th century, by sponsoring a program of resettling landless Javanese in sparsely populated areas, such as Kalimantan. The program was terminated in 2000 because of political and administrative constraints. 3.5 CULTURAL LIFE 3.5.1 Cultural milieu Indonesia exhibits a rich diversity of cultural practices and products. The remote interior regions of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and western New Guinea feature ritualized speech and local epic narrative traditions, while in Java and Bali the visual and performing arts are heavily influenced by the Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. In the cities, the mellifluous calls to prayer radiating from mosques, many of which display a markedly Muslim architectural 55 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
style, coexist with the flashing lights and vibrant sounds of urban popular culture. These are just a few examples of Indonesia’s truly complex heritage. The aura of long-gone Hindu-Buddhist empires lingers in many parts of Indonesia, particularly in Java, Sumatra, and Bali. From the 8th through the 10th century CE, extensive temple complexes (candi) were built in central Java. Most of these were buried or in ruins, but the government has actively engaged in their restoration. The remains of the first of the great central Javanese monuments, the Shaivite temple of the Diyeng (Dieng) Plateau, date to the early 8th century. The Shailendra dynasty, which ruled Java and Sumatra (8th–9th centuries), built the great Mahayana Buddhist monuments, including that of Borobudur. Late in the 9th century the kings of Mataram built the Hindu monuments around Prambanan. Commonly called Prambanan Temple, the complex consists of six main temples; the three large ones along the west, dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma, contain fine statues. Of the three smaller temples along the east, the middle one contains a statue of Nandi, the bull of Shiva. The main temples are heavily ornamented with stone carvings of the gods and other heavenly beings, and there is a series of relief panels depicting the Ramayana. Borobudur, designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1991, is one of the finest Buddhist monuments in the world. It stands on a hill about 20 miles (32 km) northwest of Yogyakarta and rises to a height of approximately 115 feet (35 metres) from its square base, which measures 403 feet (123 metres) on each side. The monument consists of a lower structure of six square terraces (including its base) and an upper structure of three circular terraces, combining the ancient symbols of the circle for the heavens and the square for the earth. In the center of each side of the square terraces is a staircase leading to the next level. The inner wall on each level has niches containing statues of Buddha. Bas-reliefs covering the inner walls and the balustrades depict stories from Buddhist teachings; many of the images symbolize phases of human life, moving from the sensual stage at the lower level to the spiritual stage at the top. The circular terraces are not decorated but contain 72 bell-shaped stupas, each housing a statue of Buddha. In the center of the upper terrace is the main stupa, which stands 23 feet (7 metres) high. It contains no statues, other visual images, or relics of any kind. Between the 10th and 16th centuries, the center of power in the archipelago shifted to eastern 56 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Java, and Buddhism merged with Hinduism, which later gave way to Islam. Literature in old Javanese (kawi) flourished during this period, and a number of large temple complexes were constructed, none of which, however, approached the grandeur of Borobudur or Prambanan. The most imposing complex is Panataran Temple near Blitar, which was constructed at the peak of the Majapahit empire in the 14th century. With the ascendancy of Islam through the 15th and 16th centuries, the temples fell into ruins, and Hindu culture shifted to Bali, where it remains today. 3.5.2 Literature Indonesia possesses a wealth of verbal art. Much of this material, such as the didong poetry of Aceh or the tekena’ epic tales of the Kenyah of Kalimantan, is transmitted through oral- traditional performance, as opposed to printed text. A largely nonwritten tradition of reciting expressive, often witty quatrains called pantun is common in most Malay areas throughout the archipelago. Some pantun performances are narrative; the kentrung traditions of central and eastern Java, for instance, use pantun structure to recount religious or local historical tales to the accompaniment of a drum. In central Java macapat, a metric and melodic form, is used to present tales from ancient Hindu-Javanese literature as well as stories, images, and ideas from local sources; the songs may be performed solo or with instrumental accompaniment. Indeed, much of Indonesia’s traditional literature forms the foundation of complex mixed-genre performances, such as the randai of the Minangkabau of western Sumatra, which blends instrumental music, dance, drama, and martial arts in ceremonial settings. Contemporary Indonesian literature was initiated in the early 1930s by a small group of young writers, who created the journal Poedjangga Baroe (“The New Writer”). Published in the Indonesian language, as opposed to Dutch, this literary periodical was devoted to disseminating new ideas and expressions that ran counter to the type of writing sanctioned by the colonial government. Under the intellectual leadership of S. Takdir Alisjahbana, a poet, novelist, and philosopher, the contributors to Poedjangga Baroe were committed to the nationalist cause—to the establishment of a new, modern Indonesia, free from the constraints of local patterns of cultural expression. The true modernist temper, however, emerged in the works of Indonesian poets of the early 57 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
1940s, with Chairil Anwar as the leading figure. Although he died young, Chairil transformed the Indonesian literary scene through the intense imagery of his poetry and through his rebellious stance toward religion and social convention. The growth of Indonesian literature suffered some setbacks in the second half of the 20th century under the Sukarno and Suharto regimes, both of which imposed restrictions on literary activity. Some writers, such as the internationally recognized novelist and journalist Mochtar Lubis, were jailed for their nonconformity to governmental ideals and policies. A cinematic work based on a novel by Alisjahbana was prohibited; Alisjahbana later left the country to live in Malaysia. Especially during the first half of the Suharto administration, politically liberal writers were imprisoned; the renowned novelist Pramoedya Ananta Toer was detained for more than a decade. Despite some tumultuous moments in its history, Indonesian literature has remained vibrant. Literary groups in the larger cities often publish local poetic works. Jakarta produces two of the most prestigious journals of letters and ideas: Horison (“Horizon”), published since 1966, and Kalam (“The Word”), published since 1994. 3.5.3 Theatre and dance Most of Indonesia’s oldest theatre forms are linked directly to local literary traditions (oral and written). The prominent puppet theatres—wayang golek (wooden rod-puppet play) of the Sundanese and wayang kulit (leather shadow-puppet play) of the Javanese and Balinese— draw much of their repertoire from indigenized versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. These tales also provide source material for the wayang wong (human theatre) of Java and Bali, which uses actors. Some wayang golek performances, however, also present Muslim stories, called menak. In puppet performances the narrator (dalang) is also the puppeteer and the principal artist of the show. To animate the characters, the dalang uses an array of vocal qualities and speech styles, from the most refined and lyrical to the most coarse and colloquial. An evening of wayang golek or wayang kulit is inevitably a mixture of poetic elegance and base humour. Javanese and Sundanese performances normally last all night, starting about 8:00 PM and ending near dawn. Balinese performances are usually shorter. 58 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Playwrights trained in the Western tradition have worked to broaden Indonesians’ experience with theatre. In the 1960s the company of Willibrordus Rendra was instrumental in inaugurating a stream of innovative, modernist, and controversial theatre performances that were based to a large extent on Western models. Much of Rendra’s work involved the adaptation for Indonesian audiences of works by Western playwrights such as Sophocles, William Shakespeare, Federico García Lorca, Berthold Brecht, and Samuel Beckett. Some theatrical traditions incorporate dance to such an extent that they are typically termed “dance-dramas.” Of these traditions, the wayang wong and wayang toping (masked theatre) of Java and Bali, as well as the Balinese plays recounting the tale of the witch Calendaring, are among the most widely known. Since independence, Indonesian choreographers trained at the country’s performing arts academies have been well versed in Western classical ballet and modern dance, in addition to local styles. Consequently, some have adapted local dance- dramatic works for contemporary audiences. The sendratari, for example, is essentially an updated form of traditional dance-drama that combines elements of local theatrical genres (including puppet theatre) with movements, staging, and costumes derived from contemporary styles; in Java, the form is associated with the Prambanan Temple. Apart from its crucial role in dance-dramas, Indonesian dance serves many diverse functions, from the ritual to the purely recreational. Performances may be subtle and stylized like the female court genres of pakarena in southern Celebes and srimpi in central Java, graceful yet masculine like the seudati of Aceh and the kancet laki of the Kenyah of eastern Kalimantan, or demonstrative, dynamic, and interactive like the Balinese jangger, which is performed by a mixed group of men and women. The vigorous silat (martial arts) traditions, for which the Minangkabau of western Sumatra and the Sundanese of western Java are renowned, also embody an element of dance, in that they are performed to a particular type of music and use conventional movements and choreographies. 3.5.4 Music Puppet theatre, dance-drama, and some nondance theatrical performances are typically accompanied in Java and Bali by a gamelan, a metallic percussion ensemble consisting mainly of gongs, metallophones, xylophones, and drums. Some ensembles also include one or more flutes, zithers, bowed lutes, and vocalists. When present, one or two kendang 59 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
(drums) lead the ensemble, giving cues and tempi to the musicians, while also articulating the movements of the puppets or dancers. Female singers, in Java called pesinden, sit among the musicians and create the mood for different parts of the narrative. Male singers typically form a chorus called gerong. In all-night performances, the pesinden usually banter with the puppeteer during the comic interlude around midnight; the audience also may request particular musical pieces at that time. Although performances of the metallic gamelan ensembles of Java and Bali are the most nationally and internationally prominent of Indonesia’s musical traditions, a great variety of other traditions are found throughout the archipelago. While some of these traditions are, like the gamelan, gong-based, others are centred on stringed instruments, wooden or bamboo wind instruments, or drums, xylophones, or other nonmetallic percussion instruments. For instance, a matrix of related plucked lute traditions—most known by a term similar to sampé’ or kacapi—stretches from Sumatra through Kalimantan to Celebes. The Toba Batak people of Sumatra are known for their tuned drum ensembles, gondang. In eastern Kalimantan, xylophone-based dance music is a favorite among Kenyah communities. Many well-established musical traditions of Indonesia incorporate instrumental and vocal elements from international sources. The gamelan ensemble accompanying a wayang kulit performance may use horns to signal the battle scene. The Batak in northern Sumatra and the Ambonese in the Moluccas, both widely recognized for their vocal virtuosity, use the guitar to accompany most of their singing. Kroncong music, which flourished during the colonial era and retained its popularity following independence, was a product of the confluence of western European (particularly Portuguese) and Indonesian cultures; while the guitar and other Western string instruments constituted the core of kroncong, the manner in which these instruments were played was reminiscent of gamelan music. Contemporary Indonesian popular music, consumed mostly (but not entirely) by the young, has made kroncong a thing of the past. Dangdut, a synthesis of Indian film music, a type of Sumatran Malay music called orkes Melayu (Malay orchestra), kroncong, and Euro- American popular music, was pioneered in the 1970s primarily by the former rock-and-roll musician Rhoma Irama. The style has continued to develop and has retained a broad following not only in Indonesia but also in Malaysia. As a type of recreational dance music, 60 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
dangdut animates city pubs and various rural festivities across the country. Encompassing sculpture and carving, painting, textile design, beadwork, basketry, and other forms, the visual arts of Indonesia are as abundant as they are diverse. Some of these forms have been shaped by ancient cultures of Asia, including those of late Zhou dynasty China (12th–3rd centuries BCE) and of Dong Son Indochina (3rd century BCE). Others have drawn influences from more-recent cultural contacts. Such interaction, combined with local artistic and aesthetic sensibilities, has produced a spectrum of styles that are unique to the various peoples and regions of the country. Carving and painting are among the best known of Indonesia’s visual art traditions. Bali long has been of special interest culturally because it has maintained Hindu traditions for centuries within a predominantly Muslim environment. Carvings are visible at nearly every turn; images depicting natural and supernatural entities from Hindu and indigenous traditions adorn temple entrances, animate masked-dance and puppet performances, overlook the grounds of offices and homes, and populate the shelves and walls of galleries in the towns and cities. In Java the leather puppets for wayang kulit performances are fastidiously carved and painted so as to cast a lightly tinted, lacelike shadow when held against an illuminated screen. In the Dayak villages of Kalimantan some of the important structures are elaborately and colourfully decorated with dense patterns of intertwined curls. Since the late 20th century, the carved wooden shields, statues, paddles, and drums of the Asmat people in the interior of western New Guinea have gained international recognition. Javanese leather shadow puppets, wayang kulit, against an illuminated screen. Javanese leather shadow puppets, wayang kulit, against an illuminated screen. Indonesia also has an especially rich and varied tradition of textile design. Batik making, practiced almost exclusively on Java, involves a complex wax-resistance process in which all parts of a cloth that are not to be dyed are coated on both sides with wax before the cloth is dipped into the dye. Using a penlike wax holder called a canting, it is possible to create intricate designs. It is a time-consuming process, and batik fabrics that are patterned entirely by hand take several weeks to complete. To speed up the process and lower the cost, a copper stamp (cap) may be used in lieu of the canting to apply the wax. Large-scale production of 61 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
such stamped batik has become an economically viable business. On woven fabric, which is made everywhere from Sumatra through the eastern islands, the most characteristic element is the key-shaped figure combined with other geometric figures. The rhombus (an equilateral parallelogram usually having oblique angles) frequently occurs together with straight lines, equilateral triangles, squares, or circles, which permit an enormous number of variations, including stylized representations of human beings and animals. Each island or region has its characteristic patterns, which serve to identify the area in which the cloth is made. The art of weaving is highly developed. It includes the famous ikat method, in which the thread is dyed selectively before weaving by binding fibres around groups of threads so that they will not take up colour when the thread is dipped in the dyebath. This process may be applied to the warp (foundation threads running lengthwise), which is most common and is found in Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sumba. Weft (threads running widthwise) ikat is found mainly in south Sumatra, and the complex process of double ikat is still carried on in Tenganan in Bali, where such cloth has great ceremonial significance. 3.6 MAJOR ATTRACTIONS OF INDONESIA Indonesia is a huge country, in both population and land area, with significant cultural and geological diversity. With 18,110 islands, 6,000 of them inhabited, it is the largest archipelago in the world. The population of around 240 million people is derived from 300 ethnic groups who speak over 250 different languages. While Bali is usually the destination most familiar to foreign visitors, there is a wealth of other top tourist attractions in Indonesia to discover in this vast and varied country. Lake Toba Lake Toba on the island of Sumatra is an immense volcanic lake about 100 kilometers long and 30 kilometers wide. Formed by a gigantic volcanic eruption some 70,000 years ago, it is the largest resurgent caldera on Earth. Genetic estimates suggest that there were only a few thousand humans that survived the catastrophe. The island in the middle – Pulau Samosir – is the largest island within an island and contains two lakes. Besides visiting “a lake on an island within a lake on an island” tourist also come here to kick back and relax and swim in 62 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
the volcanically warmed waters. Tanjung Puting The Tanjung Puting National Park is located on the island of Borneo in the Indonesian province of Central Kalimantan. The park is a popular ecotourism destination, with many local tour companies offering multi-day boat tours to view wildlife and visit the research centers. Wildlife include gibbons, macaques, clouded leopards, sun bears, pythons, crocodiles and – most famously – orangutans. Unfortunately, the park is heavily threatened by illegal logging and forest clearing for agricultural uses. Baliem Valley The Baliem Valley in the highlands of Western New Guinea offers a glimpse into what was recently a stone-age world. The valley was not known to the outside world until 1938 when an aerial reconnaissance flight southward from Hollandia (now Jayapura) discovered a large agricultural population. Wamena is the starting point for most visitors who come nowadays to marvel at the mountain views, roaring rivers, tribal villages and at the tough but sweet spirit of the warm Dani people. Mount Bromo Gunung Bromo is an active volcano and part of the Tengger massif, in East Java. At 2,329 meters (7,641 feet) it is not the highest peak of the massif, but it is the most well-known. The area is one of the most visited tourist attractions in Indonesia and Java. The top of the volcano has been blown off and the crater inside constantly belches white smoke. It is surrounded by the Sea of Sand of fine volcanic sand. The overall effect is unsettlingly unearthly. Bunaken Located at the north of the island of Sulawesi, Bunaken is one of Indonesia’s most famous dive and snorkeling areas. The island is part of the Bunaken Marine Park where you can see more than 70% of all fish species that live in the western Pacific Ocean. The best time for diving in Bunaken is between the months of April and November. Torajaland Torajaland (Tana Toraja) is a highland region of South Sulawesi, home of the Toraja people. 63 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Torajans are famous for their massive peaked-roof houses known as tongkonan and spectacular but gruesome funeral rites. After a person’s death, the body is kept – often for several years – until the actual funeral ceremony which can last for several days. The deceased is then finally buried in a small cave or in a hollow tree. Gili Islands Find Hotels Lombok’s most popular tourist destination, the Gili Islands are an archipelago of three small islands: Gili Trawangan, Gili Meno and Gili Air. The islands are very relaxed and laid-back, with countless little beachside cafes still playing reggae and no cars or motorbikes to disturb the peace. Note that the name “Gili Islands” is rather redundant as gili simply means “small island” in Sasak and there are many other islands around the coast of Lombok with Gili in their names. Komodo National Park The Komodo National Park is a national park located within the Lesser Sunda Islands that includes the three larger islands Komodo, Padar and Rincah, and 26 smaller ones. The park is named after the Komodo Dragon, the world’s largest living reptile that can reach 3 meters or more in length and weigh over 70kg. Although Komodo dragons eat mostly carcass of dead animals, they are formidable predators and will also hunt prey including birds, and mammals. Attacks against humans are very rare. Borobudur Find Hotels Located 40 km (25 miles) northwest of Yogyakarta on Java, the Borobudur is the one of the most famous Buddhist temples in the world. The Borobudur was built over a period of some 75 years in the 8th and 9th centuries by the kingdom of Sailendra, out of an estimated 2 million blocks of stone. It was abandoned in the 14th century for reasons that still remain a mystery and for centuries lay hidden in the jungle under layers of volcanic ash. Today it is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Indonesia. Ubud Find Hotels Perched among stunning terraced rice fields, Ubud is considered the cultural heart of Bali and one of the top tourist attractions in Indonesia. There are dance and music performances every day throughout the city as well as numerous art galleries and craft shops to explore. Although 64 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Ubud has long been valued as a great place to learn about Balinese culture, tourism in Ubud boomed exponentially in the last decades. Fortunately, it only takes a short walk or bicycle ride to escape from the crowds and commercialism. 3.7 MALAYSIA-INTRODUCTION Malaysia, country of Southeast Asia, lying just north of the Equator, that is composed of two noncontiguous regions: Peninsular Malaysia (Semenanjung Malaysia), also called West Malaysia (Malaysia Barat), which is on the Malay Peninsula, and East Malaysia (Malaysia Timur), which is on the island of Borneo. The Malaysian capital, Kuala Lumpur, lies in the western part of the peninsula, about 25 miles (40 km) from the coast; the administrative center, Putrajaya, is located about 16 miles (25 km) south of the capital. Malaysia, a member of the Commonwealth, represents the political marriage of territories that were formerly under British rule. When it was established on September 16, 1963, Malaysia comprised the territories of Malaya (now Peninsular Malaysia), the island of Singapore, and the colonies of Sarawak and Sabah in northern Borneo. In August 1965 Singapore seceded from the federation and became an independent republic. 3.8 PEOPLE-MALAYSIA The people of Malaysia are unevenly distributed between Peninsular and East Malaysia, with the vast majority living in Peninsular Malaysia. The population shows great ethnic, linguistic, cultural, and religious diversity. Within this diversity, a significant distinction is made for administrative purposes between indigenous peoples (including Malays), collectively called bumiputra, and immigrant populations (primarily Chinese and South Asians), called non- bumiputra. 3.8.1 Ethnic groups and languages The Malay Peninsula and the northern coast of Borneo, both situated at the nexus of one of the major maritime trade routes of the world, have long been the meeting place of peoples from other parts of Asia. As a result, the population of Malaysia, like that of Southeast Asia as a whole, shows great ethnographic complexity. Helping to unite this diversity of peoples is the national language, a standardized form of Malay, officially called Bahasa Malaysia 65 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
(formerly Bahasa Melayu). It is spoken to some degree by most communities, and it is the main medium of instruction in public primary and secondary schools. 3.8.2 Peninsular Malaysia In general, peninsular Malaysians can be divided into four groups. In the order of their appearance in the region, these include the various Orang Asli (“Original People”) aboriginal peoples, the Malays, the Chinese, and the South Asians. In addition, there are small numbers of Europeans, Americans, Eurasians, Arabs, and Thai. The Orang Asli constitute the smallest group and can be classified ethnically into the Jakun, who speak a dialect of Malay, and the Semang and Senoi, who speak languages of the Mon-Khmer language family. 3.9 CULTURAL LIFE 3.9.1 Cultural milieu Malaysia is a point of convergence of several major cultural traditions that stem from archipelagic Southeast Asia as well as from China, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West. Malay culture, the Orang Asli cultures of Peninsular Malaysia, and many of the cultures of East Malaysia are indigenous to the area. In the first one and a half millennia CE, indigenous Malay culture in the Malay Peninsula and in other parts of Southeast Asia was strongly marked by pre-Islamic Indian and early Islamic influences. Indian contact with the Malay Peninsula, which extended from about the 2nd or 3rd century to the late 14th century, exerted a profound influence on religion (through Hinduism and Buddhism), art, and literature. Islam, introduced to Malacca (now Melaka) in the 15th century, soon became the dominant religion of the Malays. Western cultural influences, especially since the 19th century, also have affected many aspects of Malay life, particularly in the realms of technology, law, social organization, and economics. Contemporary Malay culture is thus multifaceted, consisting of many strands—indigenous, early Hindu, early and modern Islamic, and, especially in the cities, Western—interwoven to yield a pattern that is distinct from other cultures yet recognizably Malay. The early Chinese traders who settled in Malacca and on the island of Penang were partially assimilated (at least to the extent of adopting the Malay language). By contrast, the Chinese who emigrated in large numbers to the Malay Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th 66 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
centuries were both a more heterogeneous group and a largely transient population that tended to establish self-contained communities. Chinese cultural influence in this region, then, has been less pronounced. Most of the Indians and Pakistanis originally came as labourers to work in the coffee and rubber plantations from the mid-19th to the early 20th centuries. Like the Chinese, they also were mainly transients (until World War II), living in closed communities and remaining relatively unassimilated. The communities of Malaysia have been affected profoundly by British colonial rule and Western cultural influences, especially in education and institutional forms. The rural areas— particularly in eastern Peninsular Malaysia and in the interior of East Malaysia—have been least affected, while the cities have been the focus of the most-rapid cultural changes. However, extraordinary economic growth and development since the mid-20th century increasingly has allowed a cosmopolitan outlook, carried largely from the urban centres by an expanding middle class, to penetrate smaller towns and even newer rural settlements. 3.9.2 Daily life and social customs Malaysia has a rich cultural life, much of which revolves around the traditional festivities of its diverse population. The major Muslim holidays are Hari Raya Puasa (“Holiday of Fasting”), or Aidilfitri (ʿĪd al-Fiṭr), to celebrate the end of the fasting month of Ramadan, and Hari Raya Haji (“Holiday of the Pilgrimage”), or Aidiladha (ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā), to celebrate the culmination of the season of pilgrimage to Mecca. Buddhists honour the life of the Buddha on Hari Wesak (“Wesak Day”), and Chinese Malaysians celebrate Chinese New Year. Deepavali (Diwali), a Hindu festival of lights spanning several days, is observed by many Indian Malaysians, while Christmas is the principal holiday of the Christian community. On most of these holidays, it is customary to host an “open house,” where guests are treated to Malaysian delicacies and hospitality. A holiday that spans all ethnic groups and religions is Hari Kebangsaan (National Day), a celebration of Malaysia’s independence on August 31. The states have their own holidays. Sarawak, for instance, celebrates Gawai Dayak (“Dayak Festival”). Rooted in the harvest rituals and festivities (gawai) of the Iban and Bidayuh peoples, this holiday broadly honours the state’s non-Malay indigenous heritage. 67 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Beyond the official holidays and other religious festivities, important life events such as birth, circumcision (for young Muslim men), and marriage are usually celebrated by a feast, known in Malay as kenduri. The wedding ceremony is generally the most important and elaborate of such events among both Malay and non-Malay peoples. In rural areas the kenduri is normally held at the house of the host family, while in urban areas the feast often takes place in a large hall or hotel. Malaysian cuisines reflect the mixture of ethnic groups in the country’s population. The three most prominent cuisines are Chinese, Indian, and Malay. Popular Chinese foods include sweet-and-sour Cantonese dishes and a milder favourite, Hainanese chicken rice. Indian cuisine ranges from the hot vegetarian dishes of southern Indian cooking to the more subtly spiced Muslim Indian food to the yogurt-marinated meats of tandoori cookery from northern India. All these foods, while recognizably Chinese or Indian, have developed a distinctly Malaysian character. Traditional Malay cuisine consists of white rice served with various curries and fried dishes. Sate, small skewers of chicken or beef dipped in a spicy peanut sauce, nasi goreng (“fried rice”), and nasi lemak (“fatty rice”), which is coconut rice served with fried anchovies, peanuts, and a curry dish, are among the most common Malay foods. Noodles, cooked and served in various styles, are also local favourites. Non-Muslim indigenous peoples of Peninsular and East Malaysia typically eat a staple food such as rice, tapioca, or sago served with locally grown or gathered vegetables (e.g., ferns and tapioca leaves) and fish, wild boar, venison, or other game. The food is generally not spicy or only mildly so. 3.9.3 Cultural institutions The history and cultural life of Malaysia are exhibited primarily in various museums in Kuala Lumpur and several state capitals throughout the country. Built in a Malay architectural style in 1963, the National Museum in Kuala Lumpur houses a diverse archaeological and ethnographic collection that documents Malaysia’s social, cultural, artistic, and economic history. The Perak Museum in Taiping is the oldest museum in Peninsular Malaysia and contains collections of the natural history and material culture of the region. The Penang 68 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Museum and Art Gallery highlights Penang Island’s immigrant and colonial history. In East Malaysia, the Sabah Museum in Kota Kinabalu and the Sarawak Museum in Kuching, both established in the late 19th century, chronicle the unique prehistory and history of these states and their peoples. In addition to the broadly ethnographic or historical museums, there also are numerous institutions dedicated to the documentation of particular Malaysian phenomena. The Islamic Arts Museum in Kuala Lumpur, for instance, traces the advent and growth of the art and culture of Islam in Malaysia from the 7th century to contemporary times. Other such topical museums include a numismatic museum, a museum of telecommunications, and an armed forces museum, all located in the capital city. Malaysia is home to many art galleries and theatres for the performing arts as well. The National Art Gallery has permanent exhibitions of modern paintings by Malaysian artists and rotating exhibitions of art from around the world. Plays, dances, and musical productions by Malaysian and international performers are staged regularly at the grand national theatre, called the Istana Budaya (“Palace of Cultures and Arts”), in Kuala Lumpur. 3.9.4 Sports and recreation Sports in Malaysia are a mixture of traditional and Western games. From the mid-19th century, British expatriates introduced football (soccer), cricket, track and field events, and rugby to the peninsula; they formed a number of clubs and organized competitions. The Malaysia Cup (formerly the H.M.S. Malaya Cup), first contested in 1921, is the country’s premier football competition. Traditional sports also enjoy local popularity. Top-spinning (main gasing) competitions are seriously contested, with winning tops often spinning for well over an hour. In some areas, top spinning is not merely a random pastime but is associated with the agricultural cycle. Kite flying also is a favourite activity, as are bird-singing contests, which may feature hundreds of birds, all with unique songs. Sepak takraw (“kick ball”) is a uniquely Southeast Asian game (now played in other regions) that is similar to volleyball but is played with a woven rattan ball and without using the hands. The sport is internationally competitive, and Malaysia has fronted winning teams. 69 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Malaysia made its debut at the Summer Olympic Games in Melbourne in 1956. At the 1992 and 1996 Summer Games the country took medals in men’s badminton. Malaysia was one of the founders of the biennial Southeast Asian Games and has hosted the event several times since its inception in 1957. 3.10 MAJOR ATTRACTION Malaysia is a multicultural country with much to offer visitors—regardless of their budget or what their idea of fun might be. Kuala Lumpur, the country's capital, is a cosmopolitan city with amazing shopping and stunning architecture—within blocks, you'll find both the ultramodern Petronas Towers and a number of colonial palaces and buildings. Just a short drive away from the capital, there are islands, mountains, and record-breaking caves, as well as countless temples and a unique chance to explore the fauna-rich jungle of Borneo. Malaysia is also a popular destination for snorkeling and scuba diving, with beautiful coral reefs and soft sandy beaches that regularly make top destinations lists. For more ideas on how to spend your time, see our list of top tourist attractions in Malaysia. Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur The tallest twin towers in the world, the Petronas reach an impressive 452 meters high up into the clouds. The towers are 88 floors tall and have an impressive total of 76 elevators. Built using reinforced concrete, steel, and glass, the two towers are connected to each other by a double skybridge on the 41st and 42nd floors. Visitors can make their way up here for stunning views of KL and the 6.9-hectare KLCC Park below—the views are particularly impressive at night. While most of the floors on the towers are rented to companies—IBM, Microsoft, and Huawei Technologies all have offices here—the bottom floors of the towers are reserved for Suria KLCC, one of the largest shopping centers in Malaysia. With over 300 stores, an art gallery, and even space for a Philharmonic Hall, this retail and entertainment space will keep visitors occupied for hours. 70 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Batu Caves, Selangor Located less than an hour outside Kuala Lumpur, the Batu Caves complex consists of three main caves plus a series of smaller ones, most of them containing statues and 100-year-old shrines dedicated to Hindu gods. The main cave, known as Cathedral Cave, is at the top of a massive colorful staircase—make it all the way up the 272 steps, and you'll find a space decorated with statues, altars, and lights. At the bottom of the stairs, a 43-meter-tall gold statue of Lord Murugan welcomes visitors. Visitors are allowed to explore the caves on their own or can join a guided tour to learn more about the caves. During the Hindu festival of Thaipusam in January, thousands of people flock to the cave for the celebrations. Mount Kinabalu, Sabah At just over 4,000 meters high, Mount Kinabalu is the tallest mountain in Malaysia. The mountain is part of Kinabalu Park, one of the oldest national parks in Malaysia and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Because of its unique ecosystem mixing alpine meadows, grasslands, and shrublands, Kinabalu is home to an impressive range of both plant and animal species, including the threatened orangutans. Mount Kinabalu is a major destination for climbers—but summiting here can be tricky. Only 185 climb permits are issued daily by the park, and visitors must make accommodation reservations and hire a mountain guide in advance in order to be allowed to hit the trails. Although people under 16 are allowed to join climbing groups, there are restrictions in place. Climbers should plan a stay at the Kinabalu National Park before attempting the climb— since the park itself is already at an altitude of over 1,800 meters, this will allow for acclimatization before attempting to reach the peak. Perhentian Islands Once a stopping point used by traders traveling around Southeast Asia, this group of small islands is part of a marine park and has become a major tourist destination in northeastern Malaysia. Most of the islands can be accessed by either ferry or small motorized boats, 71 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
although only the two larger islands offer accommodations, shops, and amenities—of these two, Pulau Perhentian Besar has more of a backpacking scene, while Pulau Perhentian Kecil is a little more upscale and family-oriented. While you can hop on a water taxi to move from one beach to the next here, it's also possible to follow the island's walking trails instead—a much-recommended option as you get to trek through jungle paths and get open stunning views of the water along the way. Scuba diving, snorkeling, and kayaking are popular activities here, but visitors can also volunteer in turtle conservation programs and get unique access to the areas where turtles come to lay eggs. Sipadan Island Sipadan Island and its surrounding ocean waters are part of the world's richest marine habitat, home to endangered hawksbill turtles, whale sharks, monitor lizards, and hundreds of coral species. The island is also considered one of the best diving destinations in the world and is fiercely protected—visiting requires a permit in advance and only 120 permits are given out per day. Reaching the island requires an hour-long ride on a speed boat. Once here, the island can be easily explored on foot, with different beaches and reef sites within minutes of each other. Since it's no longer possible to stay on the island because of environmental protection laws (the nearby Mabul Island offers accommodations), visitors usually come here early in the morning as part of snorkeling and diving tours. All visitors must leave the island by 3pm. Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak This UNESCO World Heritage Site might be more famous for its impressive karst limestone pinnacles that resemble people standing in large formations, but the park's massive caves are just as stunning. Thick rain forest covers most of the park and makes some areas difficult to access—one of the reasons some of the caves here weren't really explored until the 1970s. Another reason is 72 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
how massive the cave systems are: both the largest passage and the largest underground chamber in the world are located in caves here. Deer Cave is particularly beautiful, with ceilings over 122 meters tall, waterfalls cascading through the rocks, and an opening over a sinkhole that's over one kilometer wide. Visitors to the park can also trek up to the Sarawak Chamber and Paku Waterfall or try a climb up on The Pinnacles Summit Trek, which takes three days and involves ropes, ladders, and an arduous walk through the jungle. Penang Hill The top of Penang Hill can be reached via the Penang Hill Railway, an air-conditioned funicular that makes the 2,007-meter-long climb up in five to 10 minutes. Although there are mid-stops between the base station and the highest point, these are done only on request and mostly used by residents who live at those stops. The top of Penang Hill offers beautiful green views over the city and is home to the Habitat Penang Hill, with a 1.6-kilometer nature trail cutting through the rain forest and a number of tropical gardens; a canopy walks 40 meters up in the sky; ziplines; and the Skyway, which offers three viewing decks and a 360-degree view of the bay and islands. Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre, Sandakan The Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Center was founded in 1964 to help orphaned orangutan babies rescued from the pet trade or saved from illegal hunting. The center's main goal is to help these orangutans learn how to survive in the wild (in fact, replacing what they would usually learn from their mothers), so they can be eventually released into the Kabili- Sepilok Forest Reserve, which is covered in virgin forest and extends for 4,300 hectares around the rescue center. Over 80 orangutans currently live free in the reserve. While visitors cannot interact with the animals or approach them, they can come to the center to learn more about orangutans and the challenges they face today, see the nursery and the climbing area through a glass window, and attend feeding times (seen from a platform) twice a day. The boardwalk that cuts through the center offers plenty of opportunities to explore and see 73 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
the orangutans playing and jumping around on the trees nearby. Kek Lok Si Temple, George Town Malaysia's largest Buddhist temple sits on a hill, at the bottom of Air Itam mountain. As Asian temples go, Kek Lok Si is relatively new, as construction began in 1890—but the massive seven-story Pagoda surrounded by 10,000 Buddha statues make this a striking destination that can't be missed. Surrounded by gardens, fish ponds, prayer halls, and a number of stalls selling both religious and secular souvenirs, the pagoda is also home to a 36-meter-tall statue of Kwan Yin, the Buddhist goddess of mercy. The temple attracts many visitors from all around Southeast Asia who come here to \"make merits\" but also to see one of the most important pilgrimage sites in the area. Chinese New Year celebrations are particularly beautiful at the temple, as the entire space is decorated with thousands of lanterns. Langkawi SkyCab, Kedah The Langkawi cable car makes a 2.2-kilometer trip between the Base Station and the top of Gunung Machinchang mountain, where a number of attractions—including a pedestrian skybridge—are located. There's also a middle station, where travelers can get off to access a viewing platform. The journey to the top, in glass-bottom gondolas, takes about 15 minutes and offers sweeping views of the bay, the Telaga Tujuh waterfall, and the turquoise waters surrounding Langkawi Island. In addition to the skybridge, the top station also offers a number of amenities, two additional viewing platforms, and a trail that descends all the way to the middle station through the evergreen jungle. 3.11 SUMMARY Tourism in Indonesia is an important component of the Indonesian economy as well as a significant source of its foreign exchange revenues. Indonesia was ranked at 20th in the world 74 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
tourist Industry in 2017, also ranked as the ninth-fastest growing tourist sector in the world, the third-fastest growing in Asia and fastest-growing in Southeast Asia. In 2018, Denpasar, Jakarta and Batam are among of 10 cities in the world with fastest growth in tourism, 32.7, 29.2 and 23.3 percent respectively. The country has planned to achieve 8 percent of GDP from tourism sector and targeted to attract about 20 million of visitors by 2019. The tourism sector ranked as the 4th largest among goods and services export sectors. Malaysia was once ranked 9th in the world for tourist arrivals. The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2017 ranks Malaysia 25th out of 141 countries overall. In an effort to diversify the economy and make Malaysia's economy less dependent on exports, the government pushed to increase tourism in Malaysia. As a result, tourism has become Malaysia's third largest source of foreign exchange income, and accounted for 7% of Malaysia's economy as of 2005. 3.12 KEYWORDS • Medical tourism refers to people traveling abroad to obtain medical treatment. In the past, this usually referred to those who traveled from less-developed countries to major medical centers in highly developed countries for treatment unavailable at home • Adat is the generic term derived from Arabic language for describing a variety of local customary practices and tradition as observed by Muslim communities in North Caucasus, Central Asia and Southeast Asia. • Puncak or Puncak Pass is a mountain pass in West Java, Indonesia. The area is a common weekend destination for residents of Jakarta, including for those who are longing for clean air and natural scenery. • Heritage-a special or individual possession; an allotted portion • heritage tourism as \"traveling to experience the places, artifacts and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the past 3.13 LEARNING ACTIVITY 75 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
1. List out the various cities in Indonesia and Malaysia, which are famous for tourism and check their visitors fall every year. 2. Discuss about capital tourism in both the countriesrelations 3.14 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. Discuss the ethnic group of people in Indonesia 2. List down the different languages spoken in Indonesia. 3. Describe the cultural life of Malaysia. 4. Explain the significance of Batu caves. 5. Describe the cultural life of Indonesian people. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Indonesia exhibits a rich ..............of cultural practices and products. a. Diversity b. Bio-cultural c. Cultural d. Dynasty 2. The capital,.................... , is located near the northwestern coast of Java. 76 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
a. Delhi b. Jakarta c. Kuala lampur d. Beijing 3. …………. is the largest country in Southeast Asia, with a maximum dimension from east to west of about 3,200 miles (5,100 km) and an extent from north to south of 1,100 miles (1,800 km). a. India b. China c. Indonesia d. Malaysia 4., a member of the Commonwealth, represents the political marriage of territories that were formerly under British rule. a. China b. Russia c. India d. Malaysia 5. …………… is a point of convergence of several major cultural traditions that stem from archipelagic Southeast Asia as well as from China, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West. a. Indonesia 77 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
b. China c. Malaysia d. India Answers 1.a 2.b 3.c 4.d 5.c 3.15 SUGGESTED READINGS • Adams, Kathleen M. (2006). Art as Politics: Re-crafting Identities, Tourism and Power in Tana Toraja, Indonesia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3072-4. • Buckles, Guy (1996). The Dive Sites of Indonesia. New Holland. ISBN 1-85368-598-4. • Elliot, Mark (November 2003). Indonesia. Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74059-154-2. • http://travel-to-malaysia.com/malaysia-is-ninth-most-visited-in-the-world-in-unwto-list/ • Munan, Heidi. Malaysia. New York: Benchmark Books, 2002. pp. 28. • \"M'sia is ninth most visited in the world in UNWTO list\". The Star. 7 February 2012. Archived from the original on 18 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2008. • Farah, Paolo (2006). \"Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism\". Legal Issues of Economic Integration. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number 3. pp. 263–304. Abstract. • Heilig, Gerhard K. (2006/2007). China Bibliography – Online. China-Profile.com. • Jacques, Martin (2009). When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order. Penguin Books. Rev. ed. (28 August 2012). ISBN 978-1-59420-185-1 78 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT 4: HONG KONG & JAPAN 79 Structure 4.0. Learning Objectives 4.1. Introduction 4.2. People 4.2.1 Ethnic groups 4.2.2 Languages 4.2.3 Religion 4.2.4 Demographic trends 4.3. Cultural life 4.3.1 Cultural milieu and the arts 4.3.2 Recreation 4.3.3 Cultural institutions 4.4. Major attraction 4.5. Introduction – Japan 4.6. People 4.6.1 Ethnic groups 4.6.2 Languages 4.7. Cultural life 4.8. Major attraction to Japan 4.9. Summary CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4.10.Keywords 4.11.Learning activity 4.12.Unit end questions 4.13.Suggested readings 4.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit, you will be able: • State the cultural aspects of Hong-Kong and Japan • Discuss the major tourist attractionsof Hong-Kong and Japan • Describe the demographic trends 4.1 INTRODUCTION – HONG KONG Hong Kong, special administrative region (Pinyin: tebie xingzhengqu; Wade-Giles romanization: t’e-pieh hsing-cheng-ch’ü) of China, located to the east of the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang) estuary on the south coast of China. The region is bordered by Guangdong province to the north and the South China Sea to the east, south, and west. It consists of Hong Kong Island, originally ceded by China to Great Britain in 1842, the southern part of the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters (Ngong Shuen) Island (now joined to the mainland), ceded in 1860, and the New Territories, which include the mainland area lying largely to the north, together with 230 large and small offshore islands—all of which were leased from China for 99 years from 1898 to 1997. The Chinese-British joint declaration signed on December 19, 1984, paved the way for the entire territory to be returned to China, which occurred July 1, 1997. The area of Hong Kong (Pinyin: Xianggang; Wade-Giles: Hsiang-kang) has expanded over the years, and it has continued to grow as more land has been reclaimed from the surrounding sea. Hong Kong Island and its adjacent islets have an area of only about 31 square miles (81 square km), while urban Kowloon, which includes the Kowloon Peninsula south of Boundary Street, and Stonecutters Island measure about 18 square miles (47 square km). The New 80 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Territories account for the rest of the area—more than 90 percent of the total. The Victoria urban district located on the barren rocks of the northwestern coast of Hong Kong Island is the place where the British first landed in 1841, and it has since been the center of administrative and economic activities. Hong Kong developed initially on the basis of its excellent natural harbour (its Chinese name means “fragrant harbour”) and the lucrative China trade, particularly opium dealing. It was the expansion of its territory, however, that provided labour and other resources necessary for sustained commercial growth that led to it becoming one of the world’s major trade and financial centres. The community remains limited in space and natural resources, and it faces persistent problems of overcrowding, trade fluctuations, and social and political unrest. Nevertheless, Hong Kong has emerged strong and prosperous, albeit with a changed role, as an entrepôt, a manufacturing and financial center, and a vital agent in the trade and modernization of China. 4.2 PEOPLE 4.2.1 Ethnic groups The overwhelming majority of the population is Chinese by place of origin, the non-Chinese making up only a tiny fraction of the total. Non-Chinese groups consist largely of Asians (primarily Filipinos, Indonesians, and South Asians), with small numbers of non-Asians (mainly Americans, Canadians, and Australians). An overwhelming majority of the Chinese are from Guangdong province and from Hong Kong itself, with smaller numbers coming from other parts of China. 4.2.2 Languages Chinese and English are both official languages. Chinese, especially Cantonese in the spoken form, is the common language, however, and is almost universally understood. A variety of dialects and other languages are used among the ethnic minorities. Apart from Cantonese, common dialects such as Teochew, Hakka, and Tanka are used within separate communities of the Guangdong and Hong Kong Chinese. Groups from other parts of China are also likely 81 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
to use their own native dialects, and, similarly, the non-Chinese are likely to use their own native languages among themselves. The use of Mandarin Chinese has risen as Hong Kong has reintegrated with China. 4.2.3 Religion The majority of Hong Kong’s population does not profess a religion. Those that do practice a wide variety of beliefs. Among the Chinese, followers of Buddhism and Daoism far outnumber other groups; a large number also follow Confucianist beliefs. The numerous Buddhist and Daoist temples and monasteries, some centuries old, play an important role in the daily life of the average Chinese. Although each temple is generally dedicated to one or two deities, it is not unusual to find images of a number of other gods or goddesses inside. For a fishing and trading port, the most significant deities are those associated with the ocean and the weather, such as Dian Hau, the goddess of heaven and protector of seafarers, who is honoured by temples at virtually every fishing harbour. Other leading deities include Guanyin (Avalokitesvara), the Buddhist bodhisattva of mercy; Hong Shing, god of the South Seas and a weather prophet; and Wong Daisin, a Daoist saint and deity. A small proportion of the people are Christians, with somewhat more Protestants than Roman Catholics; there are dozens of Protestant denominations and sects such as Baptist, Lutheran, Anglican, and Methodist. There are also small numbers of Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs, and Jews. 4.2.4 Demographic trends As in many large urban centres of the world, Hong Kong’s population has increased in the late 20th century. Since the 1950s the average annual rate of growth has fluctuated between about 2 and 4 percent, the variations based in some degree on the sporadic flow of immigrants from China. Immigration has been a chief cause of population increase, but it was slowed through changes in immigration policy in 1980 and 1982, and emigration rose from the late 1980s. Birth rates have steadily declined since the late 1950s, the rate of natural increase falling below 1 percent by the 1980s. Life expectancy, however, has been showing a gradual increase. Since the 1950s, the proportion of the population under 15 has decreased rapidly, while older age groups have shown a marked increase. Hong Kong is one of the world’s most densely populated places. 82 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4.3 CULTURAL LIFE 4.3.1 Cultural milieu and the arts Hong Kong’s is truly a mixed culture. Not only does the territory celebrate festivals and holidays of the East and the West, such as the Dragon Boat Festival, the Mid-Autumn Festival, the Lunar (Chinese) New Year, Christmas, the Western New Year, and others, but it also enjoys hundreds of annual cultural events ranging from traditional Cantonese and other Chinese regional operas and puppet shows to performances of ballet, theatre, and music and exhibitions of paintings and sculptures by nationally and internationally renowned performers and artists. The Hong Kong Arts Festival has become one of Asia’s major cultural events, and the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra, the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, the Chung Ying Theatre Company, and the City Contemporary Dance Company are among the best- known local artistic groups. The Hong Kong Conservatory of Music and the Hong Kong Academy of Ballet have been combined into the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts, offering full-time diploma courses in dance, drama, music, and technical arts. Scores of motion pictures are produced every year in Hong Kong, many of which attain international fame; some have even started new trends in the art, such as the so-called kung fu films, and some of their stars (notably Jackie Chan) have achieved international celebrity. The Hong Kong International Film Festival, inaugurated in 1977, is a major event, especially for the display of Asian films. Hong Kong is also a regional as well as an international center in fashion design and in the cutting and design of ornamental diamonds. 4.3.2 Recreation Hong Kong’s country park system covers some two-fifths of the land area, and outdoor recreation in parks is a part of the way of life for many of the people. City dwellers use park areas on the urban fringe for walking, running, and practicing tai chi chuan, among other activities, while remoter locations are used for kite flying, picnicking, hiking, cycling, and camping. There are well-organized programs of recreation and sports at the community level. The Ocean Park, one of the world’s largest oceanariums; the Hong Kong Coliseum, a 12,500- seat indoor stadium that is among the largest in Asia; and the 40,000-seat outdoor Hong Kong Stadium are among the best venues for local and international sports events and for musical, 83 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
cultural, and entertainment programs. Among the venues constructed for the 2009 East Asian Games hosted by Hong Kong was a sports complex at Tseung Kwan O, New Territories, for track-and-field and football (soccer) events. For those who can afford it, the many inlets and bays in Hong Kong provide a superb setting for pleasure sailing, waterskiing, canoeing, and other aquatic sports; the Hong Kong Yacht Club is one of the most active in the South China Sea region. 4.3.3 Cultural institutions Apart from the libraries of the major educational institutions, Hong Kong has a system of several dozen public libraries, including mobile ones, focused on the Hong Kong Central Library (opened 2001). Of the museums, major ones include those specializing in history, art, science and technology, and space. The Hong Kong City Hall (a cultural center), Hong Kong Cultural Centre, and Hong Kong Arts Centre—each a multifunctional facility with several venues—provide the major gallery, theatrical, and concert facilities. In addition, town halls have been established in the new towns and cultural centres in some districts to serve local communities. 4.4 MAJOR ATTRACTION Packed with nature reserves, bustling markets, dai pai dongs and teetering tower blocks, Hong Kong is as fast-paced as it is diverse. Whether you’re visiting for a few days or a few weeks, don’t let a day go to waste by making time for any of these 20 must-visit attractions. Home to more than 7 million people, 260 islands and more skyscrapers than any other city on the planet, Hong Kong is an immense destination in every sense of the word. But don’t be overwhelmed, as it’s also an incredibly easy city to navigate. Meander your way between river cruises, ancient monasteries, quiet fishing villages and futuristic light shows, and end a day of exploring with a cocktail and a bird’s-eye view. Star Ferry While it may not be the fastest way to cross Victoria Harbour (that award goes to the incredibly convenient MTR), the famous Star Ferry wins the award for most scenic. The Star Ferry has been making the 10-minute crossing since 1880 and offers incredible views of the 84 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
famous skyline. To make it extra special, take a ferry into Central at sunset or 8pm for A Symphony of Lights, a light and sound show. Temple Street Night Market Most markets in Hong Kong close when the sun goes down, but that’s when Temple Street comes alive. The wares here are standard, but the Temple Street Night Market is about more than haggling. Grab a plastic stool at one of the dai pai dong restaurants and tuck into the freshest seafood available (the chilli crab is a must-try). Later, stop by the fortune tellers on your way out for a glimpse into your future. Victoria Peak The views from Victoria Peak are legendary for good reason. You can take a bus or a taxi to the top of the mountain, but the Peak Tram is far more fun. Buy a fast-track combo package to skip the ever-present queue, and you’ll be enjoying stunning views in no time. A Symphony of Lights Head to the Kowloon side of Victoria Harbour around 8pm every evening to catch A Symphony of Lights, a dazzling show. Recognized by Guinness World Records as the largest permanent light and sound show, it’s one of the most popular attractions in Hong Kong. Grab a drink at Eyebar in Tsim Sha Tsui for an unparalleled vantage point and cocktail, or book a cruise for front-row views from the water of Victoria Harbour. Man Mo Temple Don’t let the facade of this temple fool you. Tucked into Sheung Wan’s Hollywood Road, the interior is one of the most striking in the city. Dedicated to Man Cheong (the god of literature) and Mo Tai (the god of war), the elegant Man Mo Temple is often populated by students cramming for their exams. Step inside and be humbled by the hundreds of smoking spires of incense. Photos are allowed, but please be respectful. The Markets A shopper’s paradise, Hong Kong is bursting with markets, each offering something unique. Mong Kok’s Ladies’ Market has over 100 stalls selling almost everything, from souvenirs to 85 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
knock-off watches and cheap clothing. A visit to the Jade Market in Jordan will reward you with affordable pearl and jade jewellery, though you’d be wise to do some research before going. You can’t leave Hong Kong without a wander through Cat Street; it has the best selection of curios and antiques. Tian Tan Buddha – better known as the Big Buddha – is one of Hong Kong’s biggest attractions. Standing 34 metres (112 feet) high above the Po Lin Monastery, the enormous statue brings a steady stream of visitors to this quiet corner of Lantau Island. Book a glass- bottom Ngong Ping cable car for the ride up and take in stunning 360-degree views over the mountains below. You might even meet a friendly cow or two while you’re visiting – they roam wild across the island. The Ten Thousand Buddhas Monastery is one of Hong Kong’s must-visit attractions, but the name is a little misleading. It’s not technically a monastery (because no monks live here), and its home to far more than 10,000 Buddhas. Sitting high in the Sha Tin countryside, this is one of the quirkiest religious sites around. The 430-step stairway to the top is flanked by countless golden Buddha statues, each with a unique pose and expression. Nathan Road – nicknamed the Golden Mile – is the spine of Kowloon, linking the Tsim Sha Tsui waterfront to Sham Shui Po in the north via 3.6 kilometers (2.2 miles) of malls, temples, eateries and jostling crowds. High-end shoppers will find Hong Kong’s glitziest boutiques on nearby Canton Road. 4.5 INTRODUCTION - JAPAN Japan, island country lying off the east coast of Asia. It consists of a great string of islands in a northeast-southwest arc that stretches for approximately 1,500 miles (2,400 km) through the western North Pacific Ocean. Nearly the entire land area is taken up by the country’s four main islands; from north to south these are Hokkaido (Hokkaidō), Honshu (Honshū), Shikoku, and Kyushu (Kyūshū). Honshu is the largest of the four, followed in size by Hokkaido, Kyushu, and Shikoku. In addition, there are numerous smaller islands, the major groups of which are the Ryukyu (Nansei) Islands (including the island of Okinawa) to the south and west of Kyushu and the Izu, Bonin (Ogasawara), and Volcano (Kazan) islands to the south and east of central Honshu. The national capital, Tokyo (Tōkyō), in east-central 86 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Honshu, is one of the world’s most populous cities. The Japanese landscape is rugged, with more than four-fifths of the land surface consisting of mountains. There are many active and dormant volcanoes, including Mount Fuji (Fuji-san), which, at an elevation of 12,388 feet (3,776 metres), is Japan’s highest mountain. Abundant precipitation and the generally mild temperatures throughout most of the country have produced a lush vegetation cover and, despite the mountainous terrain and generally poor soils, have made it possible to raise a variety of crops. Japan has a large and, to a great extent, ethnically homogeneous population, which is heavily concentrated in the low-lying areas along the Pacific coast of Honshu. 4.6 PEOPLE 4.6.1 Ethnic groups The Japanese people constitute the overwhelming majority of the population. They are ethnically closely akin to the other peoples of eastern Asia. During the Edo (Tokugawa) period (1603–1867), there was a social division of the populace into four classes—warrior, farmer, craftsman, and merchant—with a peer class above and an outcast class below. With the exception of the burakumin (literally, “people of the hamlet”), the descendants of the former outcast class, this social class system has almost disappeared. The burakumin, however, are still subject to varying degrees of discrimination. Insofar as a social class system does persist, it does not have the ethnic basis that can exist in multiracial societies, since the Japanese regard themselves as belonging to a single ethnic group. The few exceptions include those classified as resident aliens (particularly Koreans) and Japanese citizens of Ainu and, to a much lesser degree, Okinawan origin. Japan also has a small population of Chinese descent. Hundreds of thousands of Koreans migrated to Japan (a great many against their will) before and during World War II, when Korea was a Japanese colony, and worked mainly as labourers; those remaining after the war and their descendants, the latter born and raised in Japan, do not have Japanese citizenship and face considerable discrimination. 87 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Historically, both Ainu and Okinawans were often relegated to a second-class status. The indigenous Ainu largely were assimilated into the general population centuries ago; a few small, scattered groups, however, have maintained their identity in Hokkaido. Before the war there was a tendency to distinguish the people of Okinawa from other Japanese because of perceived physical and cultural differences; that tendency has diminished considerably but not entirely disappeared. Okinawan culture, including its dialect and religion, has been recognized as sharing many traits with Japanese culture, and Okinawans have become more assimilated into the larger Japanese society. However, Okinawans have long believed that the continued large presence of U.S. military forces on Okinawa was a form of discrimination against them by the Japanese government. There has also been a resurgence among Okinawans who want to maintain their distinctive cultural identity. 4.6.2 Languages Japanese is the national language, and Ainu is almost extinct. The Japanese language is generally included in the Altaic linguistic group and is especially akin to Korean, although the vocabularies differ. Some linguists also contend that Japanese contains elements of Southeast Asian languages. The introduction of the Chinese writing system and of Chinese literature about the 4th century CE enriched the Japanese vocabulary. Until that time Japanese had no written form, and at first Chinese characters (called kanji in Japanese) were used to write Japanese; by the 9th century two syllabaries, known collectively as kana (katakana and hiragana), were developed from them. Since then, a combination of kanji and kana has been used for written Japanese. Although some 3,000 to 5,000 kanji are in general use, after World War II the number of characters necessary for a basic vocabulary was reduced to about 2,000, and the writing of these characters was simplified. Tens of thousands of Western loanwords, principally from English, also have been adopted. The distribution of Japanese nearly coincides with the territory of Japan. Standard Japanese, based on the dialect spoken in Tokyo, was established in the late 19th century through the creation of a national educational system and through more widespread communication. There are many local dialects, which are often mutually unintelligible, but standard Japanese, widely used in broadcasting, is understood nationwide. Japanese is broadly divided linguistically into the two major dialects of Hondo and Nantō. 88 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
The Hondo dialect is used throughout Japan and may be divided into three major subdialects: Eastern, Western, and Kyushu. The Eastern subdialects were established in the 7th and 8th centuries and became known as the Azuma (“Eastern”) language. After the 17th century there was a vigorous influx of the Kamigata (Kinai) subdialect, which was the foundation of standard Japanese. Among the Western subdialects, the Kinki version was long the standard language of Japan, although the present Kamigata subdialect of the Kyōto-Ōsaka region is of relatively recent origin. The Kyushu subdialects have been placed outside the mainstream of linguistic change of the Western dialects and retain some of the 16th-century forms of the latter. They extend as far south as Tanega and Yaku islands. The Nantō dialects are used by Okinawa islanders from the Amami Islands in Kagoshima prefecture to Yonaguni Island at the western end of the archipelago. Long placed outside the mainstream of linguistic change, they strongly retain their ancient forms. 4.7 CULTURAL LIFE Influences It is common for Western observers of contemporary Japan to emphasize its great economic achievement without equal regard to cultural attributes. Yet Japanese cultural distinctiveness and the manner in which it developed are instructive in understanding how it is that Japan came to be the first non-Western country to attain great-power status. The Japanese long have been intensely aware of and have responded with great curiosity to powerful outside influences, first from the Asian mainland (notably China) and more recently from the Western world. Japan has followed a cycle of selectively absorbing foreign cultural values and institutions and then adapting these to existing indigenous patterns, this latter process often occurring during periods of relative political isolation. Thus, outside influences were assimilated, but the basic sense of Japaneseness was unaffected; for example, Buddhist deities were adopted into the Shintō pantheon. Japan’s effort to modernize quickly in the late 19th and 20th centuries—albeit undertaken at great national and personal sacrifice—was really an extension of the same processes at work in the country for centuries. Prehistoric Japanese culture was exposed to ancient Chinese cultural influences beginning some two millennia ago. One consequence of these influences was the imposition of the 89 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
gridiron system of land division, which long endured; it is still possible to trace the ancient place-names and field division lines of this system. Chinese writing and many other Chinese developments were introduced in the early centuries CE; the writing system underwent many modifications over the centuries, since it did not fit the Japanese language. Buddhism—which originated in India and underwent modification in Central Asia, China, and Korea before reaching Japan about the 6th century—also exerted a profound influence on Japanese cultural life, although over the course of time it was modified profoundly from its antecedent forms. Similarly, Chinese urban design was introduced in the layouts of the ancient capital cities of Nara and Kyōto but did not proliferate in the archipelago. The Japanization of introduced cultural elements was greatly accelerated during the 250-year period of near-isolation that ended in the mid-19th century. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), Japan began to modernize and to industrialize on the European and American pattern. Western cultural traits were introduced on a large scale through the schools and the mass communication media. Western scientific and technical terms have been widely diffused in translation and have even been reexported to China and Korea. American and European influences on Japanese culture are in evidence in literature, the visual arts, music, education, science, recreation, and ideology. Modernization was accompanied by cultural changes. Rationalism and socialism based on Christianity, as well as Marxism, became inseparably related to everyday Japanese life. Western or Westernized music generally is more common than traditional Japanese music in many social settings. Although Japanese Christians form a tiny percentage of the population, Christmas (or the outer trappings of it) is widely observed, almost as a folk event. The use of Western dress among the Japanese, in place of the traditional kimono, long ago became commonplace, although women may wear formal kimonos at certain celebrations, and both men and women may use casual styles for home wear. House construction also was changed considerably by the introduction of Western architectural forms and functions. In shape, in colour, and in building materials, many contemporary Japanese houses are significantly different from the traditional ones; they now have more modernistic shapes, use more colours, and are more often made of concrete and stucco. Aesthetics 90 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
The dual influences of East and West have helped construct a modern Japanese culture that offers familiar elements to the Westerner but that also contains a powerful and distinctive traditional cultural aesthetic. This can be seen, for example, in the intricate detail, miniaturization, and concepts of subtlety that have transformed imported visual art forms. This aesthetic is best captured in the Japanese concept of shibui (literally, “astringent”), or refined understatement in all manner of artistic representation. Closely related are the twin ideals of cultivated simplicity and poverty (wabi) and of the celebration of that which is old and faded (sabi). Underlying all three is the notion of life’s transitory and evanescent nature, which is linked to Buddhist thought (particularly Zen) but can be traced to the earliest examples of Japanese literature. The arts Delicacy and exquisiteness of form, together with simplicity, characterize traditional Japanese artistic taste. The Japanese tend to view the traditional Chinese arts generally as being too grandiose or showy. The more recently introduced Western arts are felt to suffer from flaws of exuberant self-realization at the expense of earnest exploration of the conflicts in human relations, in particular the notions of divided loyalties between community, family, and self that create the bittersweet melancholy so pervasive in Japanese traditional drama. Traditional forms The highly refined traditional arts of Japan include such forms as the tea ceremony, calligraphy, and ikebana (flower arranging) and gardening, as well as architecture, painting, and sculpture.The performing arts are distinguished by their blending of music, dance, and drama, rooted in different eras of the past. The major traditional theatrical forms (roughly in chronological order of their appearance) are bugaku (court dance and music), Noh (Nō; the classic form of dance-drama), kyogen (a type of comic opera), Bunraku (the puppet theatre), and Kabuki (drama with singing and dancing). Newer genres include Western-style shingeki (“new theatre”) dramas and butoh, a highly stylized dance form. Ikebana, the tea ceremony, and calligraphy are popular pursuits, particularly as aesthetic accomplishments for women. However, traditional Japanese painting, dance, and music have lost much of their earlier popularity, though the poetic forms of haiku and waka have continued to flourish. Traditional handicrafts constitute some of Japan’s finest examples of visual arts. Notable are 91 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
the various styles of pottery, lacquerwork, cloisonné, and bamboo ware, as well as papermaking, silk weaving, and cloth dyeing. With the advance of modernization, many folk traditions and forms of folklore are disappearing. The widespread use of standard Japanese has accelerated this trend, since local cultures are directly related to dialects. Folk songs, for example, are generally no longer commonly sung except in some remote areas in northern and southwestern Japan. Folk music and dance are related to local life and are often significantly concerned with the local religion (whether animistic, Shintō, or Buddhist), agriculture, or human relations (including the theme of love). Some, however, still enjoy a great popularity, which has been increased through the mass media. On informal social occasions, even in the large cities, folk and popular songs are often sung. Western forms Western art forms have been fully embraced by the Japanese. Major cities often have several symphony orchestras, and Western-style painting, sculpture, and architecture are widely practiced. Numerous venues for Western classical music have been constructed throughout the country since the 1980s. In addition, a growing number of Japanese classical performers, including conductor Seiji Ozawa (music director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra for three decades) and violinist Gotō Midori, have built reputations abroad. Also notable are conductor Takemitsu Tōru, who incorporated avant-garde musical styles and traditional Japanese instruments into his classical music compositions, and music educator Suzuki Shin’ichi, whose method of violin instruction for children became world-renowned. The cinema has been highly successful at taking a Western form and putting it through a Japanese aesthetic filter to produce a distinctive style; internationally acclaimed Japanese film directors include Kurosawa Akira, Ozu Yasujirō, Mizoguchi Kenji, and Itami Jūzō. The number of Japanese moviegoers has dropped from its high point in the mid-20th century, because of competition from television, videotapes (and later DVDs), and video games, but innovations such as multiplex theatres (venues with multiple auditoriums) have increased attendance. Cultural institutions 92 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
The national government’s Agency for Cultural Affairs (established 1968) is responsible for promoting and disseminating different aspects of culture, as well as preserving cultural properties and historical sites. A number of national museums and research institutes of cultural properties are attached to the agency. Of particular note is the agency’s practice of identifying and recognizing various artists, performers, and artisans of traditional Japanese art forms. Designated “living national treasures,” these individuals receive an annual stipend that allows them to practice their skills and to pass them along to apprentices. This program helps preserve many of the forms and styles that otherwise might disappear. The Japanese are among the most literate peoples in the world. The National Diet Library in Tokyo (which also includes branch libraries) is the single largest library in Japan. The concept of the public lending library, however, is fairly new in Japan, which partially explains the country’s high incidence of commercial book sales. Most of Japan’s major cultural institutions—including the Japan Academy, the Tokyo National Museum, and the National Theatre—and many of its most prestigious universities— e.g., the public University of Tokyo and private Waseda and Keio universities—are located in Tokyo. Japan’s numerous Buddhist temples also contain a great many cultural properties, especially those located in Kyōto and Nara. In addition to the many public institutions, there are numerous private museums, art galleries, theatres, and gardens throughout the country, and Japanese department stores also play a role in the dissemination of culture by offering free or low-cost exhibitions. Japan is home to more than a dozen UNESCO World Heritage sites. Most reflect the country’s rich cultural traditions, including the historic monuments at Kyōto and Nara (designated in 1993 and 1998, respectively). Others recognize more-recent history, notably the Atomic Bomb Dome (Genbaku dōmu) at Hiroshima (1996) and a silver-mining area in Shimane prefecture of western Honshu (2007). 4.8 MAJOR ATTRACTIONS TO JAPAN Japan is one of the most popular travel destinations in the world. It is a unique blend of traditional and modern, with many temples and buildings from the past co-existing with modern achievements in architecture and technology. Visitors can be immersed in Japanese 93 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
history and culture one day and get a glimpse of the future through technological developments the next. Almost all of the historical sites are still used for their original purposes while remaining open to the public. The natural beauty of Japan can be seen all year. In addition, Japan has one of the world’s lowest crime rates which makes it ideal for travelers. An overview of the top tourist attractions in Japan: Hiroshima Peace Memorial Find Hotels The Hiroshima Peace Memorial is a haunting tribute to the lives lost when the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Set in a park, the memorial features Genbaku Dome, the only building left standing in the vicinity after the bomb dropped. This harsh reminder of a world at war reminds visitors of the importance of human life and honors the victims so they will never be forgotten. Jigokudani Monkey Park Jigokudani Monkey Park is a famous hot spring area near Nagano,the name Jigokudani (meaning “Hell’s Valley”), is due to steam and boiling water that bubbles out the frozen ground, surrounded by steep cliffs and formidably cold forests. It is famous for its large population of wild Snow Monkeys that go to the valley during the winter when snow covers the park. The monkeys descend from the steep cliffs and forest to sit in the warm hot springs, and return to the security of the forests in the evenings. Kiyomizu-dera Find Hotels The Kiyomizu-dera Buddhist temple is located in Eastern Kyoto and can be traced back as far as the year 798. An indoor waterfall fed from the outside river keeps the temple in harmony with nature and not one nail was used in construction. While locals used to jump off the edge to have a wish granted (with a survival rate of 85.4%), modern visitors can enjoy the shrines and talismans and artwork on display without risking life and limb. Himeji Castle The Himeji Castle is considered the best existing example of Japanese castle architecture. It was fortified to defend against enemies during the feudal period, but it has been rebuilt many 94 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
times throughout the centuries and reflects the different design periods. It survived the bombings of World War II and is frequently seen in domestic and foreign films, including the James Bond movie “You Only Live Twice”. The white exterior and design give the castle the appearance of a bird taking flight, earning the castle the nickname ‘white egret castle’. Great Buddha of Kamakura The Great Buddha of Kamakura is a colossal outdoor representation of Amida Buddha, one of Japan’s most celebrated Buddhist figures. Cast in bronze, the Great Buddha stands at over 13 meters (40 feet) high and weighs nearly 93 tons. The statue reportedly dates from 1252. Although it originally was housed in a small wooden temple, the Great Buddha now stands in the open air as the original temple was washed away in a tsunami in the 15th century. Todaiji Temple Find Hotels The Todaiji Temple in Nara is a feat of engineering. It is not only the world’s largest wooden building; it is home to the world’s largest bronze Buddha statue. Surrounded by beautiful gardens and wildlife, the Kegon school of Buddhism is centered here and the grounds hold many artifacts of Japanese and Buddhist history. Deer are allowed to freely roam the grounds as messengers of the Shinto gods. Tokyo Tower Find Hotels The Tokyo Tower is a testament to the advancement of technology and modern life. Inspired by the Eiffel tower design, it is the second tallest man-made structure in Japan and functions as a communications and observation tower. Visitors can climb the tower for unparalleled views of Tokyo and the surrounding areas as well as visit shops and restaurants. Tokyo Imperial Palace Find Hotels The Emperor of Japan makes his home at the Tokyo Imperial Palace. It also functions as an administration center and museum to showcase Japanese art and history. The palace is set on the ruins of older castles that were destroyed by fire or war, and architects have honored the past by incorporating design elements of the different eras into the modern palace. The new palace is surrounded by traditional Japanese gardens and has many reception and function rooms to receive guests and welcome the public. 95 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Mount Fuji Mount Fuji is the highest mountain in Japan at 3,776 meters (12,388 ft). The volcano’s exceptionally symmetrical cone is a well-known symbol of Japan and it is frequently depicted in art and photographs, as well as a popular tourist attraction for sightseers and climbers. An estimated 200,000 people climb Mount Fuji every year, 30% of whom are foreigners. The ascent can take anywhere between three and eight hours while the descent can take from two to five hours. Golden Pavilion Find Hotels Kinkaku-ji or the Temple of the Golden Pavilion is the most popular tourist attraction in Japan and Kyoto. The pavilion was originally built as a retirement villa for Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu in the late 14th century. Unfortunately, the pavilion was burnt down in 1950 by a young monk who had become obsessed with it. Five years later, the temple was rebuilt as an exact copy of the original. Emphasis is placed on the building and surrounding gardens being in harmony with one another. The pavilion is covered in gold leaf which highlights the reflection of the pavilion in the pond and the pond’s reflection on the building. 4.9 SUMMARY Japan attracted 31.19 million international tourists in 2018. Japan has 21 World Heritage Sites, including Himeji Castle, Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto and Nara. Popular foreigner attractions include Tokyo and Hiroshima, Mount Fuji, ski resorts such as Niseko in Hokkaido, Okinawa, riding the shinkansen and taking advantage of Japan's hotel and hotspring network. The total tourism expenditure associated with inbound tourism reached HK$7,333 per capita in 2011. According to the Hong Kong Tourism Board (HKTB) Overall visitor arrivals to Hong Kong in 2010 totaled just over 36 million, a 21.8% increase over the previous year. The numbers included approximately 22.5 million mainland Chinese arrivals, 8.2 million short- haul (excluding Mainland) arrivals, and 4.8 million long-haul arrivals. In July 2011 more than 3.8 million visitors arrived in Hong Kong, equivalent to more than half of Hong Kong's population and setting an outright record for a single month. 96 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4.10 KEYWORDS • A ryokan: is a type of traditional Japanese inn that typically feature tatami-matted rooms, communal baths, and other public areas where visitors may wear yukata and talk with the owner. • The Individual Visit Scheme: begun on 28 July, 2003 allowing travelers from Mainland China to visit Hong Kong and Macau on an individual basis • Mainland China: also known as the Chinese mainland, is the geopolitical and geographical area under the direct jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China (PRC). • Advanced ecotourism: A level of accreditation consisting of all core criteria as well as some of the advanced certification criteria. • Adventure tour: a tour designed around an adventurous activity such as rafting or hiking 4.11 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Compare and contrast cultural values of Hongkong and China. 2. List out the dining rules of Japan. 4.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS 97 A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. Explain culture and lifestyle of Japanese people. 2. Discuss culture and life style of Hongkong residents. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
3. Describe the significance of Mount Fuji. 4. “Himeji castle is a major attraction in Japan”. Comment. 5. List out 5 major attractions of Hong Kong and its significance. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. ………., special administrative region (Pinyin: tebie xingzhengqu; Wade-Giles romanization: t’e-pieh hsing-cheng-ch’ü) of China, located to the east of the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang) estuary on the south coast of China. a. Hong Kong b. China c. Japan d. Bhutan 2. Hong Kong Island and its adjacent islets have an area of only about ……… square miles (81 square km), while urban Kowloon, which includes the Kowloon Peninsula south of Boundary Street, and Stonecutters Island measure about 18 square miles a. 45 b. 50 c. 21 d. 31 3., island country lying off the east coast of Asia. a. Japan b. Hong Kong 98 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
c. Singapore d. India 4. In general, ......................climate is characterized as monsoonal. a. Japan b. Pakistan c. Hongkong d. Singapore e. India 5. Japanese is the national language, and.......... is almost extinct a. Winn b. Ainu c. Himms d. None of these Answers 1.a 2.d 3.a 4.a 5.a 4.13 SUGGESTED READINGS • \"Tourism Statistics\". JTB Tourism Research & Consulting Co. • \"The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2017\" (PDF). World Economic Forum. April 2017. 99 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
• Leheny, David Richard. The Rules of Play: National Identity and the Shaping of Japanese Leisure. Cornell University Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-8014-4091-2. • Release of Provisional Visitor Arrivals for 2010, Hong Kong Tourism Board, 7 January 2011 • Visitor Arrivals in July Exceed 3.8 Million to Break Single-Month Record, Hong Kong Tourism Board, 26 August 2011 • In English, the official name of the country is simply \"Japan\".[1] In Japanese, the name of the country as it appears on official documents, including the country's constitution, is 日本国(About this sound Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku), meaning \"State of Japan\". Despite this, the short-form name 日本 (Nippon or Nihon) is often used officially. 100 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
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