CU-MBA-SEM-I-Leadership & Organizational Behavior -second draft

 This involves workers' desire to become more productive and their use of expertise.  It also develops the job capabilities of supervisors and other workers. Understanding Consumer Buying Behaviour Understanding customer (buying) behaviour is also an integral part of improving the marketing process. Importance Employee Motivation in Organisational Behaviour OB assists in comprehending the foundations of motivation as well as various methods for better motivating workers. Nature of Employees  It is important to provide a detailed understanding of staff and their personalities in order to efficiently handle them.  Using OB, we can determine if workers or individuals are Introverts, Extroverts, Motivated, Dominant, and so on. Anticipating Organisational events  The empirical study of behaviour aids in the comprehension and forecasting of organisational events.  Examples include annual business planning, demand management, product line management, production planning, resource scheduling, and logistics, among others. Efficiency & Effectiveness The study of organisational behaviour aids in the improvement of the organization's performance and effectiveness. Better Environment of Organisation In an organisation, OB aids in the development of a safe, legal, and smooth climate. Optimum or Better Utilization of Resources  OB study assists in a greater understanding of workers, their job styles, and skills. 201 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Management will train and inspire workers to make the best use of resources if they understand this. Importance of OB in the Goodwill of organization Organizational behaviour contributes to the organization's goodwill. This is all about the value of organisational actions and how it influences overall company operations. Finally, Organizational Business aids in the improvement of organisational powers' performance and productivity. This could result in an improvement in the company's earnings. 11.8 DISCIPLINES CONTRIBUTING TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR OB is a behavioural science that is used in the real world. It drew heavily on psychology, sociology, and anthropology, among other applied behavioural sciences. It also took inspiration from economics, history, political science, engineering, and medicine. Psychology: Psychology is the science or study of behaviour, which encompasses both animal and human behaviour. Psychological studies are conducted on animals such as rats and monkeys, with the results attempting to be generalised to human behaviour. Psychology is concerned with individual behaviour and has made significant contributions to the dynamics of human behaviour among individuals. In other words, psychology is responsible for the study of intra-personal dimensions of organisational behaviour such as motivation, personality, perception, attitude, opinion, and learning. These days, psychologists are becoming increasingly relevant, and the number of trained psychologists is also increasing. They hold key roles in a variety of industries. Some are professors with expertise in experimental, psychological, or clinical psychology. Others operate in corporations, sectors, and government departments. Educational counsellors and counsellors, for example, deal with schoolchildren. Some industrial psychologists work predominantly in manufacturing, where they perform employee screening and training. Their roles have recently been extended to include preparation, successful leadership development, performance assessment, role design, and work-stress management. Sociology: If psychology is concerned with individual behaviour, sociology is concerned with group behaviour. It is the study of people's interactions with their fellow humans. Sociologists have contributed to the study of interpersonal dynamics such as leadership, group dynamics, communication, formal and informal organisations, and so on, which has enriched organisational behaviour. 202 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Psychology: is a discipline that integrates theories from both psychology and sociology. It reflects on how people affect one another. Change—how to minimise resistance to it and effectively introduce it—is one of the fields where social psychology is paying close attention. Furthermore, social psychology can be used to evaluate, consider, and alter behaviours, communication habits, the ways in which group interactions can fulfil individual needs, and group decision-making. Anthropology: is the study of the human race in general and its culture in particular. Human behaviour is heavily influenced by culture. It has a strong influence on what people learn and how they act. Every company will have its own unique culture. Some organisations, especially those with a small number of employees, are discreet, fearful of public exposure, and less likely to promote participative management. Employee health and social responsibility are top priorities for certain businesses, such as the Tatas. The employee would be influenced by the organization's culture. The atmosphere of his or her organisation has an effect on his or her appearance, perceptions of good and bad stuff, and working style. Political Science: Political scientists have made important contributions to a deeper understanding of OB. Individuals and groups' behaviour in a political climate are studied by political scientists. Conflict resolution, community alliance, power allocation, and how individuals use power in their own self-interest are all issues that political scientists are interested in. Previously, the word \"politics\" was viewed as a negative term. Not anymore. Organizations are evolving into political institutions, and gaining a deeper understanding of them requires a political viewpoint as well. Engineering: Engineering has had an impact on OB as well. Job calculation, quality measurement, workflow analysis and design, and labour relations have all been topics in industrial engineering for a long time. All of these are obviously relevant for OB, as will be shown in the following chapters. Recently, medicine has become more interested in the study of OB, especially in the area of stress. Controlling the causes and effects of stress, both within and outside of organisational environments, is becoming increasingly critical for the well-being of both individuals and organisations, according to studies. 11.9 CHALLENGES & OPPORTUNITIES OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR The following are the obstacles and opportunities for organisational behaviour: 203 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Improving People Skills: In the business world, technological advancements, structural improvements, and environmental changes are all occurring at a faster pace. The achievement of the targeted targets cannot be accomplished on time unless staff and executives are equipped with the necessary skills to respond to such changes. Managerial skills and technological skills are two distinct types of skills. Listening skills, motivating skills, planning and coordinating skills, leading skills, problem solving skills, decision making skills, and so on are some of the management skills. These abilities can be developed by bringing together a set of training and learning programmes, career development programmes, induction and socialisation programmes, and so on. Improving Quality and Productivity: Quality refers to how happy consumers or users are that the product or service meets or exceeds their needs and expectations. More and more administrators are confronted with the complexities of meeting unique customer requirements. They are introducing initiatives like complete quality control and reengineering that require comprehensive employee participation in order to increase quality and productivity. Total Quality Management (TQM): is a management theory focused on the constant pursuit of customer satisfaction through the development of all organisational processes. The component of TQM is:  The customer's intense attention.  A desire to change on a regular basis.  Improvement of the organization's overall level of service.  Accurate measurement and calculation.  Employee empowerment. Managing Workforce Diversity: This applies to recruiting workers who are diverse in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, relationship, community, physically disabled, homosexuals, and the elderly, among other factors. The primary reason for employing a diverse group of workers is to capitalise on their skills and abilities, leverage their innovativeness, and create a synergetic impact among the divorced workforce. Employees, on the whole, preferred to keep their individual and cultural identities, traditions, and lifestyles while working in the same company with the same rules and regulations. Organizations face a significant challenge in being more welcoming to different groups of people by addressing their varied life patterns, family needs, and job styles. 204 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Responding to Globalization: Today's business is primarily market driven; wherever there are demands, regardless of distance, region, or climatic conditions, business operations are extended in order to gain market share and maintain top rankings, among other things. The scope of business activities is no longer limited to a single location or area. Using mass communication, the internet, and faster transportation, the company's goods or services are expanding across the globe. Empowering People: Empowerment is described as placing employees in control of their work by instilling in them a sense of ownership. The key issue is delegating more control and accountability to lower-level workers, as well as giving them more autonomy over their schedules, activities, processes, and methods for resolving work-related issues. Encouraging workers to take part in job-related decisions would increase their contribution at work significantly. Managers are going even further by giving workers complete control over their jobs. Self-managed teams, in which staff operate entirely without a supervisor, are becoming more common in organisations. The partnership between managers and workers is reshaped as a result of the introduction of empowerment principles at all levels. Coping with Temporariness: In recent years, product life cycles have shortened, operating approaches have improved, and fashions have evolved at a breakneck rate. Managers had to launch big improvement plans once or twice every decade back then. Most administrators are dealing with transition on a daily basis these days. Continuous change means that things are constantly improving. There used to be long periods of stability punctuated by brief periods of transition, but due to the competition of producing new products and services with improved functionality, the change process is now an ongoing operation. The actual condition that everyone in the company is in is one of perpetual temporariness. The actual roles that employees perform are constantly changing. As a result, staff must keep their knowledge and expertise up to date in order to fulfil current job requirements. Stimulating Innovation and Change: Today's effective companies must promote innovation and be adept at the art of change, or they will perish from their respective fields. Organizations that retain flexibility, boost their output on a regular basis, and beat the competition to market with a steady stream of new goods and services will succeed. Emergence of E-Organization: E-Commerce is a term that refers to business transactions that take place over the internet. It involves showing goods on websites and handling orders. The vast majority of papers and media reports on using the Internet for business were focused on online shopping. The promotion and selling of products and services takes place over the Internet in this process. 205 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

E-business: E-business refers to the entire range of activities that make up a profitable Internet-based business. E-commerce is thus a subset of e-business. Developing techniques for operating Internet-based businesses, integrating supply chains, working with partners to electronically organise design and development, defining a different type of leader to manage a \"virtual\" company, seeking qualified people to create and operate intranets and websites, and running the back office or administrative side are all examples of e-business. E-business encompasses not just the growth of new markets and clients, but also the best ways to integrate computers, the internet, and application software. The Internet is used by a large number of multinational companies to market products and services. E-Organizations: E-business and e-commerce are listed in the grouping of e-organizations. State and federal agencies, as well as local corporations, are using the Internet to more effectively extend all public utility services. Improving Ethical behaviour: As business processes become more complex, employees are faced with ethical dilemmas in which they must determine right and wrong behaviour in order to complete their assigned tasks. The ground rules that govern the components of good ethical behaviour are not well described. The line between right and wrong behaviour has become increasingly blurred. Effective executives who use insider knowledge for personal financial benefit, staff of rival businesses engaging in large cover-ups of faulty goods, and other unethical activities have become commonplace. 11.10 CONCEPTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS Organizational objectives are general declarations of what the company wishes to do in the long term or on a permanent basis.  The word \"goals\" refers to a collection of general objectives.  Priorities are statements that have been around for a long time.  The goals and priorities are clearly stated. It may be difficult to calculate the organization's success if they are ambiguous or ill-defined. The original employers and supporters of institutions are also more mindful of the specificity of priorities and objectives. Goals and goals as viewed by participants begin to become diffused as events grow and new members join. Goals and goals can be interpreted differently by different main managers. As a result, companies focus on proper induction of new employees into the organization's philosophy. External pressures, often political in nature, can force an enterprise to change its goals and objectives. Unless effective steps are taken by the enterprise's top management to counteract 206 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

such pressures, the enterprise's goals and objectives will become diffused and even confused, negatively impacting the organization's effectiveness. The management aims to accomplish superordinate targets in addition to the broad goals and objectives. The collection of principles or aspirations that define what an organisation stands for and believes in are known as superordinate (or shared) goals. They are the far-reaching goals that an organisation and its members strive to achieve. Superordinate goals are higher- order priorities that go beyond the bottom-line goals of ROI, market share, expenditures, and revenue levels. They are ideals that truly seek congruence between the person and the organization's purposes. Since the superordinate priorities include principles of societal service, companies must show that their goods fulfil social needs before society recognises them. 11.11 TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS Based on 3 criteria’s goals can be categorized into three types. 3 types of organizational goals are: 1. Strategic Goals 2. Tactical Goals 3. Operational Goals Strategic Goals Strategic priorities are those set by and for the organization's top management. These objectives are achieved by concentrating on broad, general issues. Strategic goals or plans are typically long-term, with sub-goals established and set for various time frames and areas. Tactical Goals Middle managers are given tactical objectives. These objectives are concerned with how to operationalize the measures required to achieve the strategic objectives. The achievement of these goals is typically the responsibility of middle managers from different departments. Middle managers set tactical goals, but top managers frequently set tactical goals for middle managers. Operational Goals Lower-level managers set operational targets for themselves. Lower managers are in charge of achieving operational objectives, which are normally made to address shorter-term problems related to tactical goals. 207 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

For an organisation, there are three levels of goals that form a hierarchy, with lower-level goals forming a means-end chain of higher-level goals. 11.12 DETERMINATION OF ORGANIZATIONAL GOAL 1. Come up with a list of goals as a party. 2. Choose which of the items on the brainstormed list you want to attend to. 3. Agree on a set of priorities as a party. 4. Develop goals and action plans for each target. Include deadlines and be specific. 5. Get down to business. Take it out. 6. Review your progress on a regular basis. 7. Be adaptable; your priorities will change as your circumstances change. 11.13 SUMMARY  The Industrial Revolution, Scientific Management, Human Relations Movement, Hawthorne Studies, and OB itself are distinct phases in the development of OB.  Organizational behaviour is a field of research that looks at the effects of people, groups, and structure on behaviour within organisations with the goal of incorporating what they learn to improve the effectiveness of the organisation. Stephen P. Robbins is a well-known author and motivational speaker.  The following are the various main elements of organisational behaviour. When people come together to achieve a goal, an organization's infrastructure is often needed. People rely on technology to complete their tasks. These elements are influenced by their surroundings.  OB is a behavioural science that is used in practise. It drew heavily on psychology, sociology, and anthropology, among other applied behavioural sciences.  In the business world, technical advances, structural changes, and environmental changes are all happening at a faster pace.  Organizational goals are general declarations of what the company aims to accomplish in the long term or on a permanent basis.  Strategic, tactical, and operational objectives are the three types of organisational goals. 208 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

11.14 KEYWORDS  Organizational behaviour: (OB) is the research, prediction, and regulation of human behaviour in organisations.  Technology: People depend on it to complete their tasks.  Skill Improvement: Organizational Behaviour research will help you strengthen your skills.  Organizational goals: These are general declarations about what the company hopes to accomplish in the long run or on a long-term basis.  Goals: Objectives are established by people in a specific context. 11.15 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Why do you feel the Hawthorne studies make such an important historical contribution to the study of organizational behavior? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 11.16 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Define Organizational Behaviour? 2. “Organizational Behaviour is a separate field of study”. Discuss 3. Explain the concept of organisational behaviour. 4. Explain the determination of organisational goal. 5. Discuss about humanistic and optimistic approach. 6. List the disciplines contributing to organisational behaviour Long Questions 209 1. Describe the evolution of organisational behaviour. 2. Discuss the nature of organisational behaviour. 3. Explain the scope of organisational behaviour 4. Discuss the significance of organisational behaviour. 5. Explain the key elements of organisational behaviour. 6. Explain the disciplines contributing to organisational behaviour 7. Enumerate the challenges and opportunities of organisational behaviour 8. Classify the types of organisational goals. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

B. Multiple choice Questions 1. OB is the study of _____________ in the organisation. a. Human b. Employer c. Human Behaviour d. Employees 2. Which of the following represents the correct sequencing of historical developments of Organisational Behaviour? a. Industrial revolution —> Scientific management –> Human relations movement –> OB b. Industrial revolution —> Human relations movement —> Scientific management –> OB c. Scientific management —> Human relations movement –> Industrial revolution –> OB d. None of these. 3. _______is one of the vital parts of the organization which transforms inputs and outputs. a. People b. Structure c. Technology d. Environment 4. Organisational goals can be categorised into _____ types. a. Two b. Three c. Four d. Five 5. __________ is the study of the human race, in particular, its culture. 210 a. Anthropology b. Psychology CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

c. Sociology d. Political Science Answers 1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (a) 11.17 REFERENCES Reference Books:  R1 Fred Luthans, “Organizational Behaviour”,7th Edition, MC Graw Hill, New York.  R2 Arnold and Feidman, “Organizational Behavior Graw Hill International, New york. Textbooks:  T1 Stephen P. Robbins, “Organizational Behaviour”,18th Edition, Pearson Publishers, New York.  T2 L.M Prasad, “Organizational Behavior”, Sultan Chand Publications, New Delhi. 211 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 12: PERSONALITY Structure 12.0 Learning Objectives 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Meaning & Definition 12.3 Objectives Of Personality 12.4 Determinants Of Personality 12.5 Types Of Personality 12.6 Theories Of Personality 12.7 Personality Traits Affecting Behaviour 12.8 Summary 12.9 Keywords 12.10 Learning Activity 12.11 Unit End Questions 12.12 References 12.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, students will be able to:  Explain the objectives of Personality  Identify the types of Personality  Discuss the determinants of Personality  Explain the theories of Personality  Describe the personality traits which affect behaviour 12.1 INTRODUCTION Personality traits of a manager are significant in modern organisations because they influence the person's entire behavioural pattern. In everyday language, personality refers to the impression that an entity creates on others based on his personal characteristics, which can be attractive or unattractive. It is true that a person's psychological traits are rarely recognised by others. A person's personality is more than a surface reality or occurrence that can be easily deduced based on 212 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

his physical appearance. From a broad perspective, personality refers to an individual's entire personality. It encompasses a person's physical, mental, and emotional well-being. The word \"personality\" comes from the Latin word \"persona,\" which means \"to talk through\" (mask). Actors in Greece and Rome wore masks when enacting plays, much as they did in ancient Greece and Rome. As a result, personality is used to influence others by their outward appearance. However, personality is more than just how you look on the outside. Personality is the impression of distinguishing characteristics that makes an individual stand out. It is the amount of an individual's physical, psychological, and behavioural characteristics that relate to whether he has a \"healthy personality\" or not, based on the existence or absence of the characteristic attributes. 12.2 MEANING & DEFINITION An individual's personality is made up of their distinct patterns of emotions, feelings, and actions. These characteristics distinguish an individual. Personality evolves from within an individual and is fairly stable throughout their lives. Personality refers to a person's distinguishing characteristics, especially those distinguishing personal characteristics that make one socially appealing. If a person wins an election solely on the basis of personality rather than skill, society may infer that he or she has won \"more on personality than on capability.\" “Personality is the supreme realization of the innate idiosyncrasy, of a living being. It is an act of courage thing in the face of life, the absolute affirmation of all that constitute the individual, the most successful adaptation to the universal, conditions of existence, coupled with the greatest possible freedom of self-determination.” - C.G. Jung “Personality is the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one “person from another.” - Lawrence Ervin “Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.” -Stephen P. Robbins. 12.3 OBJECTIVES The more a manager knows how personality influences organisational actions, the better prepared they are to be successful and meet their objectives. Primary objectives 213 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Different positions and tasks in an organisation require different aptitudes and skills, which are linked to personality. Individuals cannot fulfil all roles; even entry-level positions necessitate certain skills and characteristics. This is where a person's personality comes in handy. It aids in the comprehension and determination of a person's personality's compatibility with the personality traits required for the role. Secondary objectives 1) Understanding the employees better: Organizational behaviour research will help us understand why employees act the way they do and predict their potential behaviour. Their personality contributes to a greater understanding of them, including how they interact, function, and listen to others. 2) Understanding how to develop good leaders: Organizational behaviour trends make it simple to identify which employees have the ability to lead. They can also assist in the growth of workers so that they can fully appreciate their leadership potential. 3) Developing a good team: No one individual can carry a company to its height of success. It necessitates workers working in groups. Employees will easily create good communities that will help the company achieve its goals by understanding the behaviour and personality of individuals. 4) Higher productivity: Both of these goals contribute to a higher level of productivity and success. An individual with a positive personality is highly motivated, and as a result, his performance improves. Through his optimistic personality, he also inspires and stimulates others to do better, resulting in improved productivity. 12.4 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY Personality is a transition mechanism that is linked to an individual's psychological growth and development. Although underlying personality characteristics may be observable, these characteristics may be useful only at that time and in a restricted number of circumstances. As a result, it's important to understand the factors that cause a person's personality to alter or evolve. Managers will work with people more easily if they understand how their personalities grow. There are several different types of personality determinants, each of which has been defined in a different way. Traits (acquired tendency to respond), schema (beliefs, frame of reference, main orientation&, concepts, and values), motives (inner drives), and self-schema (observation of one's own behaviour) are the four basic theories proposed by McClelland. Similarly, Scott and Mitchell have categorised different determinants, both physiological and psychological, into heredity, classes, and cultural influences, all of which 214 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

play a role in human personality. These elements are connected and interdependent. However, these can be divided into four broad categories for the purposes of research. 1. Biological factors, 2. Family and social factors, 3. Cultural factors, and 4. Situational factors Only biological factors have a one-sided effect on personality determinants, while other factors have an interactive impact because the individual himself may have some influence on these factors. Figure 12.1 shows the effect of these variables on personality. Figure: 12.1 Determinants of Personality I. Biological Factors The general characteristics of the human biological system have an effect on how humans perceive, view, and respond to external event data. Heredity, brain, and physical characteristics are the three main categories in which the biological contribution to personality is studied. Heredity: Heredity is the transfer of qualities from an ancestor to a descendant through a mechanism primarily found in the chromosomes of germ cells. Certain physical, behavioural, and emotional conditions are predisposed by heredity. Physical and psychological traits can be passed down over the generations, according to animal science. Humans, on the other 215 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

hand, lack such definitive evidence, despite the fact that psychologists and geneticists have concluded that heredity plays a significant role in personality. Brain: The brain is the second biological component, and it is believed to play a role in personality formation. Physiologists and psychologists have researched the anatomy of the human brain and split it into two parts: the left hemisphere, which is located on the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere, which is located on the left side of the body. An individual's personality evolves based on the configuration of their brain. Physical Features: Physical characteristics and rate of maturation are the third biological factor that determines personality development. The outward appearance of an entity, which is biologically determined, is an essential component of personality. Personality refers to a person's physical characteristics in a narrow context. However, if we look at the personality as a whole, this isn't the case. Physical characteristics have an impact on a person's personality because he will influence others, which will affect his self-concept. Mussen points out that \"Physical characteristics of a child can be linked to his attitude to the social world, others' expectations, and their reactions to him. These, in turn, may have an effect on the creation of one's personality “. Similarly, physical maturation changes personality because people with different maturities are subjected to different physical and social conditions and behaviours. II. Family and Social Factor Person growth is affected by a range of socialising factors and agencies, ranging from the nuclear family to more remote or global communities. The most important factors on personality development are family and social networks. These organisations have an influence across processes of socialisation and recognition. Socialisation is the mechanism by which an individual child acquires certain behaviour characteristics that are customary and appropriate according to the expectations of his family and social groups from an extraordinarily broad variety of behavioural potentialities that are available to him at birth. The socialisation process begins with the mother's first interaction with her new baby. Later in life, other family members and social networks have an impact on the socialisation process. When a person wants to associate himself with someone, he considers to be ideal in the family, the identification process takes place. In general, a child in a family attempts to imitate his father or mother's conduct. The method of identification can be looked at from three different angles. First, identification can be described as the child's and model's behaviour (including feelings and attitudes). Second, identity can be interpreted as the child's urge to imitate the model. Third, it can be thought of as the mechanism by which the infant adopts the model's characteristics. 216 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The home setting, family members, and social associations all have an impact on the socialisation and recognition process. Home Environment: The total home environment is a significant factor in the growth of a person's personality. Children raised in a cold, unstimulating household, for example, have a far higher risk of becoming emotionally maladjusted than children raised by parents in a safe, caring, and stimulating setting. The most important factor is not the parents themselves, but the type of atmosphere that is created for the infant. Family Members: Parents and other family members have a significant impact on a child's personality development. When compared to other family members, parents have a greater impact on personality development. Newcomb's research revealed a strong link between parental and child attitudes, as well as a trend of continuity. The bond between parents and children was stronger than the bond between students and their teachers. In addition to parents, siblings (brothers and sisters) play a role in shaping one's personality. Social Groups: In addition to an individual's home environment and family members, the social placement of the family has other effects when the person is exposed to agencies outside the home, such as education, friendship, and other work groups. Socioeconomic variables, too, have an effect on personality formation. III. Cultural Factors The fundamental determinant of human decision-making is culture. It decides how people feel about liberty, violence, rivalry, and cooperation in general. Each community expects and trains its members to act in ways that the group considers appropriate. The variety of interactions and circumstances that a child is likely to encounter, as well as the beliefs and personality traits that will be reinforced and thereby taught, is heavily influenced by his cultural community. Despite the significance of cultural contribution to personality, a linear relationship between personality and a given culture cannot be developed. The presence of multiple subcultures within a given community is one problem. As a result, staff do not have the same ethos as managers. IV. Situational Factors Situational factors, in addition to biological, sociological, and cultural factors, influence personality formation. The S-O-B-C model of human behaviour takes into account the circumstances under which the behaviour occurs. Milgram's research shows that the situation may have a major impact on human personality. He claims that a situation exerts significant 217 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

pressure on a person based on his research. It imposes limitations or offers a drive. In certain cases, it is not so much a man's character as it is the position in which he finds himself that decides his behaviour. A worker whose personality history indicates he has a desire for control and accomplishment, for example, will become impatient and respond apathetically and aggressively if he is placed in a bureaucratized job situation. As a consequence, he may seem slacker and troublemaker, despite the fact that his personality history shows he is a hard worker who is always seeking to change. As a result of the change in circumstances, his personality makeup shifts. Since a manager has influence over the organisational situation, this aspect is crucial for organisational actions. 12.5 TYPES OF PERSONALITY The Duty Fulfiller: The Duty Fulfiller is a serious and quiet person who seeks a happy and safe life. He is a person who is meticulous, dependable, and accountable. They are well- organized and diligent. They strive toward a specific goal and are capable of achieving it once they set their minds to it. The Mechanic: They are quiet and relaxed, and they are usually curious about how things work. They are daredevils who enjoy participating in extreme sports. They are opportunistic and loyal to their people. They have outstanding machine skills. They are great at coming up with realistic solutions to problems. The Nurturer: The Nurturer is gentle, calm, and thoughtful. They place the interests of others above their own, and they respect traditions. They're both practical and reliable. They pay attention to others and want to help them. The Artist: They are solemn, calm, sensitive, and compassionate. They value peace, despise war, and are unlikely to engage in activities that cause conflict. They are also not interested in being leaders and have an artistic preference for beauty. They are adaptable, resourceful, and open-minded. The Protector: The Protector is a forceful, sensitive, and unique individual. They stick to one mission until it is done. They are likely to be individualistic and worried with other people's feelings. The Scientist: Scientists are self-sufficient, logical, imaginative, and determined. Maintain high performance expectations for yourself and others. Are natural leaders with a long-term perspective. 218 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The Thinker: They are thinkers who are original, rational, and imaginative. Quickly become enthralled with new concepts. They're quiet and reserved, and they're difficult to get to know. They aren't interested in making people care more about themselves. The Doer: The Doer is a person who takes action, is polite, and adaptable. Are risk takers who are based on immediate outcomes. They are impatient and live fast-paced lives. The Guardian: They are realistic, ordered, and traditional, according to The Guardian. Are athletic and have a good understanding of how things can be done. They are trustworthy, hardworking, and responsible people. The Performer: They enjoy themselves and make life more enjoyable for others. Enjoy new experiences and live in the moment. They don't care about philosophy and are more interested in helping people. They are usually the focus of attention and possess sound judgement. The Caregiver: They are well-liked, warm-hearted, and responsible. They have a deep sense of duty and obligation, and they prioritise the needs of others. They understand how to interact with others. The Inspirer: The Inspirer is a person who is enthused, imaginative, and idealistic. They live their lives in accordance with their inner beliefs. Fresh ideas excite you, and you're open- minded with a wide variety of interests and skills. The Giver: They are very loving, influential, and responsive, according to The Giver. They like to live in a crowd and see it from a human perspective, and they are good at controlling and leading others. The Visionary: The Visionary is resourceful, inventive, and fast on their feet intellectually. Enjoy debating topics and being enthralled with new projects and ideas. They take a methodical approach. The Executive: They are outspoken and assertive. They have the capacity to comprehend and overcome complex organisational issues. They are great public speakers and are well- informed. They lack patience and place a high importance on information. The Idealist: The Idealist is an individual who is both reflective and idealistic. They are devoted to others and willing to help them. They are also compassionate. Are adaptable, mentally swift, and can write well. Possibility-seeking and people-understanding. 219 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

12.6 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY The theories of personality have been grouped as: Figure: 12.2 Personality Theories 1. Psychoanalytic Theory The Psychoanalytic Theory is a personality theory focused on the idea that invisible forces that are dominated by conscious and logical thinking motivate people rather than seen forces. The psychoanalytic theory is closely connected with Sigmund Freud. According to him, human behaviour is formed by the interaction of three mental components: The Id, Ego, and Super Ego. Id: The primitive part of the mind that seeks immediate fulfilment of biological or instinctual desires is known as the id. The biological needs are the essential physical needs, while the instinctual needs, such as hunger, thirst, and sex, are innate or unlearned needs. Id is the unconscious part of the mind that acts without thinking about what is right and wrong. Example: if your Id passed through a boy playing with a ball, you would feel compelled to snatch the ball by any means necessary; this is unreasonable and might result in a fight 220 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

between the boys. As a result, Id is the source of psychic energy, the driving force behind all mental powers. Super-Ego: The Super-Ego is connected to the social or moral values that a person develops as he grows older. It serves as an ethical restriction on actions and aids in the development of a person's conscience. As a person matures in society, he learns the cultural values and norms that allow him to distinguish between right and wrong. Example: if the super-ego saw a boy playing with a ball, it would not grab it because it knows snatching is bad and can lead to a fight. As a result, the super ego serves as a restraint on your actions and leads you down the right road. However, if your Id is stronger than your superego, you can snare the ball by any means possible. Ego: The rational and conscious portion of the mind that is connected to the truth concept is known as the ego. This means it strikes a balance between the demands of the Id and the super-ego in real-life circumstances. Ego is conscious, and thus keeps Id in check by proper reasoning of the external world. Example: If you walk by the same boy playing with the ball, your ego can mediate the tension between the Id and the super-ego and decide to buy yourself a new ball. This will annoy the Id, but the ego will use this decision to find a compromise between the Id and the super-ego by fulfilling the need to get a ball without engaging in any undesirable social behaviour. 2. Socio-Psychological Theory Individuals and culture are intertwined, according to the Socio-Psychological Theory. This means that a person aims to meet the needs of society, and society assists him in achieving his objectives. An individual's personality is formed as a result of this interaction. Adler, Horney, Forman, and Sullivan contributed to the Socio-Psychological Theory. Since it differs from Freud's psychoanalytic theory in the following ways, this theory is also known as Neo-Freudian Theory: 1. According to this theory, social factors, rather than biological instincts, play a major role in deciding an individual's personality. 2. In this case, the motivation is conscious, meaning that the person is aware of his or her own needs and wants, as well as the type of actions needed to satisfy those needs. 221 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

As a consequence, theorists assume that socio-psychological influences, or a combination of social (family, culture, income, religion) and psychological (feelings, emotions, beliefs) factors, play a significant role in shaping an individual's personality. It is society that instils cultural values and social norms in an individual, allowing him to shape his personality and influence his actions in response to external circumstances. 3. Trait Theory According to the Trait Theory, a person is made up of a collection of definite predisposition traits known as traits. These characteristics are distinguishable and sometimes long-lasting qualities or characteristics that distinguish an individual from others. The following are the two most common trait theories: Allport’s Trait Theory: Gordon Allport is the author of the Allport Trait Theory. According to him, a distinction between common characteristics and personal dispositions may be used to study an individual's personality. People are compared using similar characteristics on the basis of six values: religious, social, economic, political, aesthetic, and theoretical. Aside from the typical characteristics, there are a variety of personal dispositions that can be listed as follows:  Cardinal Traits: Cardinal traits are strong, and only a small percentage of people have a personality that is dominated by a single trait. Mother Teressa's altruism, for example.  Central Traits: These are the general characteristics shared by a large number of people to different degrees. Loyalty, friendliness, agreeableness, and kindness, for example.  Secondary Trait: Secondary traits explain why an individual behaves differently than normal at times. When people try to tease a happy person, he will become unhappy. Cattell’s Trait Theory: Raymond Cattell is the author of this trait theory. To get a proper understanding of the human personality, he believes that a study of a large number of variables should be studied. He gathered life data (individuals' day-to-day behaviours), experimental data (standardising tests by evaluating actions), questionnaire data (responses gleaned from introspection of an 222 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

individual's behaviour), and used factor analysis to find characteristics that are related to one another. He identified 16 primary personality characteristics using the factor analysis method: • Imaginative vs. Practical Abstraction • Outgoing vs. Reserved Warmth • Suspicious vs. Trusting caution • Impatience vs. Relaxation – Tension • Anxiety – Concerned vs. Confident • Mental Harmony – Calm vs. agitated • Spontaneous vs. Restrained Liveliness • Forceful vs. Submissive Dominance • Uninhibited vs. Shy Social Boldness • Regulated vs. Undisciplined Perfectionism • Confidentiality vs. Openness • Tender vs. Rough Sensitivity • Self-Reliance – Independent vs. Dependent • Conforming vs. Non-Conforming – Rule-Consciousness • Abstract vs. Concrete Thinking • Flexibility vs. Stubbornness – Openness to Change The trait theory is based on the premise that characteristics are shared by a large number of people and that they differ in absolute quantities. Furthermore, the traits are stable over time and can thus be evaluated using behavioural measures. 4. Self-Theory The Self Theory focuses on an individual's collection of self-perceptions, as well as his perceptions of his relationships with others and other aspects of existence. Carl Rogers made a major contribution to the self-theory. The self-theory is made up of four components, which are listed below: Self-Image: What a person feels about himself is referred to as self-image. Everyone has some views about themselves, such as who or what they are; these beliefs contribute to a person's self-image and identity. 223 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

According to Erikson, identity is created through a lifelong phase that is generally unnoticed by the person and society, i.e., an individual's conception of himself is formed unconsciously in response to social circumstances. Ideal-Self: The ideal-self is the person that one wishes to be. It differs from self-image in that it depicts an individual's ideal situation, while the self-image depicts the truth that an individual perceives. As a consequence, there could be a difference between the two. The ideal self serves as a motivator for a person to engage in behaviours that are consistent with his ideal self's characteristics. Looking-Glass-Self: An individual's awareness of how others view his attributes or feel about him is referred to as the looking-glass self. Simply put, it is the interpretation of others' perceptions of you, i.e., seeing yourself in the eyes of others rather than seeing yourself as you are. Real-Self: When it comes to your self-image, the real-self is what others show you. When others respond to him and express their beliefs or perceptions of how they really feel about him, it confirms his self-image. This is interpreted as environmental feedback that aids a person in adjusting his self-image to match the cues he has received. 12.7 PERSONALITY TRAITS AFFECTING BEHAVIOUR Personality has a huge effect on job efficiency. Personality is a significant determinant of what will be done and how it will be done in jobs with a strong human relations material, where the majority of the working day is spent engaging with other people. The way a man interacts with his superior, subordinates, and other people reveals his personality. As a consequence, when a job's incumbent changes, everyone needs to adapt to a slew of changes in how work is completed. As a result, the organisation does not work as the structure's creators intended, and what the organisation actually is represents the personalities of those in key positions. This has an effect on individual and, as a result, organisational success. Psychologists have been attempting to classify different forms of personality and personality characteristics since the advent of psychology. Thousands of personality traits and dimensions that distinguish one 224 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

individual from another have been identified as a result of these efforts. However, in an organisational environment, all of these measurements are insignificant. The following personality trait description is important from the perspective of organisational behaviour:  Big five personality traits  Myers-Briggs Type Indicator  Other personality traits BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS In recent years, studies have concentrated on Researchers have recently identified five fundamental characteristics that are especially important to organisations. These five personality traits have been dubbed the \"big five\" because they are so significant and are currently attracting so much attention. These five traits are as follows: 1. Agreeableness 2. Conscientiousness 3. Negative emotionality 4. Extroversion 5. Openness There are two extremes for each of these five personality traits: high and low. In general, experts believe that personality traits closest to the left end of each dimension are more positive in the workplace, whereas traits closer to the right end are less positive. The following is a brief summary of these characteristics: Agreeableness: Agreeability is a concept that describes a person's ability to get along with others. Some people are gentle, cooperative, forgiving, understanding, and good-natured in their interactions with others because they are agreeable. While studies have yet to thoroughly examine the effects of agreeability, it appears that highly agreeable people are more likely to establish good working relationships with co-workers, subordinates, and 225 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

superiors, while less agreeable people are less likely to do so. Customers, vendors, and other organisational constituents can all exhibit the same pattern of behaviour. Conscientiousness: The number of goals on which a person focuses his attention is referred to as conscientiousness. People who concentrate on a small number of goals at a time are more likely to be coordinated, systematic, vigilant, thorough, and disciplined; they prefer to concentrate on a small number of goals at a time. People with lower conscientiousness are more disorganised, reckless, and even negligent, as well as less thorough and self-disciplined, as a consequence of pursuing a broader range of goals. According to research, people who are more attentive do better in a number of jobs than people who are less conscientious. This trend seems to be rational since conscientious people take their work seriously and treat them with great care. Negative Emotionality: Emotion is described as the movement of feelings or mental agitation. People who have lower levels of negative emotionality are more poised, calm, robust, and stable. Negative emotionality is associated with a stronger ability to manage work stress, pressure, and tension. Because of their consistency, they are regarded as more dependable than their fewer stable counterparts. People who have higher levels of negative emotionality are more excitable, insecure, reactive, and prone to mood swings. Extroversion: A person's level of extroversion reflects their level of comfort with relationships. Individuals with introversion or extroversion characteristics may exist. Introversion is a personality trait that causes people to turn inward and observe and process their own emotions, thoughts, and ideas. Extroversion is described as a person's propensity to look outside of themselves for external stimuli with which to communicate. Introverts are people who tend to associate with a small group of close friends and are quiet, reflective, and intelligent. When they can focus on highly abstract concepts like research and development in a relatively quiet setting, they are more likely to succeed. Extroverts, on the other hand, are gregarious, sociable, and seek external touch. They are most likely to excel in promotional operations, marketing departments, public relations teams, and other places where they can communicate with others face to face. Openness: A person's rigidity of values and diversity of interests are referred to as openness. People who are open to new ideas and able to change their own ideas, values, and behaviours in response to new knowledge have a high degree of openness. They are also curious, innovative, and inventive, with a wide variety of interests. People with a low degree of openness, on the other hand, are less sensitive to new ideas and less likely to change their minds; they have fewer and narrower interests and are less curious and imaginative. People 226 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

that are more accessible perform better in general because they are more flexible, and they are more likely to be welcomed in the company. Both researchers and administrators are still interested in the big five personality characteristics. The framework of the Big Five Characteristics has the potential to be useful. It refers to a set of characteristics that tend to be reliable predictors of specific behaviours in specific circumstances. \"Managers who can both understand the framework and evaluate these characteristics in their workers are in a strong position to understand how and why they act as they do,\" according to Mount et al. However, when implementing this system in their organisations, Indian executives should exercise caution to ensure that having a higher degree of these traits is in line with their company's needs, as these traits have been tested in American companies. Because of the cultural disparities between India and the United States, the Big Five Concept does not have to be applied in its entirety in Indian organisations. MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI) Mainly used in the employee hiring process, MBTI measures how people prefer to focus their attention (extroversion versus introversion), collect information (sensing versus intuition), process and evaluate information (thinking versus feeling) and orient themselves to the other world (judging versus perceiving). Extroversion/introversion: It refers to a person's level of familiarity with interpersonal relationships. Extroverts are gregarious, talkative, assertive, and willing to develop new friendships. Introverts are less sociable, talkative, assertive, and hesitant to start relationships than extroverts. Sensitivity/ Intuition: Some people enjoy gathering data. Sensing styles gain factual and, ideally, quantitative information through an organised framework. Intuitive people, on the other hand, do not gather knowledge in a systematic manner. They rely on subjective evidence, intuition, and even inspiration more than others. Sensors can easily synthesise large quantities of data and draw conclusions. It goes without saying that management work necessitates a mixture of intuitive and sensing skills. Thinking/Feeling: Thinking types make choices based on logical cause-and-effect theory and the scientific method. They assess the facts critically and without bias. Feeling styles, on the other hand, think about how their decisions impact others. They are more concerned with their personal beliefs than with logical reasoning when weighing choices. 227 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Judging/Perceiving: In their interactions with the outside world, certain people prefer order and structure. These judging personalities love being in control of decisions and want to solve problems quickly. Perceiving varieties, on the other hand, are more adaptable. They like to respond to events when they occur and want to keep their choices open. OTHER PERSONALITY TRAITS Aside from the five main personality traits, there are a few other personality traits that are significant for businesses. Self-concept and self-esteem, Machiavellianism, locus of influence, uncertainty tolerance, type A and B, work-ethic orientation, and risk propensity are among these characteristics. Self-concept and Self-esteem: Self-concept is how people define who they are and how they get their sense of identity. The degree to which they consistently regard themselves as competent, effective, significant, and worthy individuals is referred to as self-esteem. Self- esteem is a significant personality trait that influences how managers view themselves and their position in the company. People with high self-esteem are more likely to take on more demanding tasks and contribute greatly to the success of an organisation if they are properly compensated for their efforts. Machiavellianism: It refers to influencing others as a primary means of achieving one's objectives. The Mach scale assesses an individual's tendency to be Machiavellian. People who have a high match score are calm, rational in analysing the system around them, able to manipulate and transform evidence to affect others, and attempt to take control of people, events, and circumstances by manipulating the system. Locus of Control: This refers to whether people feel they have control over events or that events control them. Those with an internal locus of control believe that they have control over and can shape the events in their lives; those with an external locus of control believe that events happen by chance or due to causes outside their control. The former group seeks opportunities for advancement and puts a stronger focus on their skill and judgement at work, while the latter group is more passive and lets events happen on their own. Tolerance for Ambiguity: Depending on personality traits, certain people can tolerate a high level of ambiguity and still function effectively, while people with a low tolerance for ambiguity may be effective in a structured work setting, but it is nearly impossible to operate effectively when things are rapidly changing and much information about the future turns 228 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

into ambiguity. Managers, in general, function in an ambiguous world due to rapid change; as a result, they must establish a high degree of ambiguity tolerance. Type A and B: Personality has been divided into two sections, denoted by the letters A and B. Type A people have a strong sense of time urgency, are goal-oriented, have a competitive drive, and become frustrated when their work is slowed for some reason. People who are like this are more likely to have a heart attack. Type B people, on the other hand, are laid-back, lack a sense of urgency, and lack the competitive drive. Work-ethic Orientation: Different people have different work-ethic philosophies. People with good work ethics become profoundly involved in their careers and can be characterised as \"living, eating, and breathing\" their jobs. Employment becomes the only source of happiness for such individuals, and they have few outside interests. People with a poor work ethic, on the other hand, tend to do the bare minimum in order to avoid getting shot on the job. People with a high work-ethic orientation are needed for effective organisations, as opposed to those with an extremely high or low work-ethic orientation, since those with an extremely high work-ethic orientation will burn their energy too quickly, causing a slew of health problems and negatively impacting long-term organisational effectiveness, while those with a low work-ethic orientation will struggle to achieve their goals. Risk Propensity: Risk propensity refers to an individual's willingness to take risks and make risky decisions. An individual with a high-risk proclivity is more likely to try out new ideas. He can implement new ideas, gamble on new products, and lead the company in new and different directions in an organisational sense. However, if the excessively risky decisions prove to be bad, such an individual could jeopardise the organization's continued well-being. An individual with a low-risk tendency, on the other hand, believes in extreme conservatism and seeks to maintain the status quo. In the workplace, such an individual is resistant to change and new ideas. 12.8 SUMMARY  An individual's personality is made up of their unique patterns of emotions, feelings, and behaviour.  The more a manager knows how personality influences organisational actions, the better prepared they are to be successful and meet their objectives. 229 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 There are three main categories in which the biological relation to personality can be studied: heredity, brain, and physical characteristics.  Heredity refers to the transfer of traits from an ancestor to a descendant through a mechanism predominantly found in the chromosomes of germ cells.  The Psychoanalytic Theory is a personality theory focused on the idea that unknown forces that are dominated by conscious and logical thinking motivate people rather than seen forces.  The Super-Ego is linked to the social or moral values that a person develops as he grows older.  According to the Trait Theory, an individual is made up of a collection of definite predisposition traits known as traits.  The Self Theory focuses on an individual's collection of self-perceptions, as well as his perceptions of his relationships with others and other aspects of existence.  When it comes to your self-image, the real-self is what others present you.  Self-concept is the way people describe who they are and how they get their sense of identity.  Self-esteem refers to how confidently they regard themselves as competent, successful, important, and deserving individuals.  Risk propensity refers to an individual's willingness to take chances and make risky decisions. 12.9 KEYWORDS  Personality: is the sum of an individual's responses and experiences with others.  Socialisation process: begins with the mother's first interaction with her new baby.  Culture: The fundamental determinant of human decision-making is tradition.  Id: the primitive mind that seeks immediate fulfilment of biological or instinctual needs.  Self-image: refers to a person's perception of himself.  Agreeableness: A person's willingness to get along with others is referred to as agreeableness. 12.10 LEARNING ACTIVITY 230 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1. “Personality has a number of implications for managing the organizations effectively. These implications are in the area of matching jobs and individuals, designing motivation system, and designing control system”. Enumerate. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 12.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is meant by Personality? 2. Define Personality. 3. Explain the primary objectives of Personality. 4. List the determinants of Personality. 5. State the Psychoanalytic Theory Long Questions 1. Outline the objectives of Personality. 2. Classify the types of Personality 3. Discuss the theories of Personality 4. Explain big five personality traits in detail. 5. Describe Myers-briggs type indicator B. Multiple choice Questions 231 1. The psychoanalytic theory of personality is primarily developed by _______ a. Carl Jung b. Sigmund Freud c. Alfred Adler d. G. W. Allport 2. Self-theory of personality was propounded by __________ a. G. Allport b. R. Cattel c. C. Rogers d. S. Freud CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. With reference to psychoanalytical theory, identify the odd one is_________ a. Super Ego b. Id c. Social ego d. Ego 4. One trait that dominates a personality so much that it influences nearly everything a person does is _______ a. Global Trait b. Cardinal Trait c. Central Trait d. Secondary trait 5. The force which stimulates a person to satisfy his drives immediately has been termed as_______ a. Ego b. Super Ego c. Id d. Hunger Answers 1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 12.12 REFERENCES Reference Books:  R1 Fred Luthans, “Organizational Behaviour”,7th Edition, MC Graw Hill, New York.  R2 Arnold and Feidman, “Organizational Behavior Graw Hill International, New york. Textbooks:  T1 Stephen P. Robbins, “Organizational Behaviour”,18th Edition, Pearson Publishers, New York.  T2 L.M Prasad, “Organizational Behavior”, Sultan Chand Publications, New Delhi. 232 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 13: PERCEPTION Structure 13.0 Learning Objectives 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Meaning & Definition 13.3 Nature And Importance 13.4 Factors Influencing Perception 13.5 Process Of Perception 13.6 Impact Of Perception 13.7 Summary 13.8 Keywords 13.9 Learning Activity 13.10 Unit End Questions 13.11 References 13.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, students will be able to:  Discuss the nature of Perception  Explain the importance of Perception  Explain the factors of Perception  Describe the process of Perception  Discuss the impact of Perception 13.1 INTRODUCTION Perception is the mechanism by which people organise and perceive their sensory experiences in order to give their surroundings significance. Perception encompasses more than what one can see through the naked eye. It is a much more complicated mechanism in which a person selectively absorbs or assimilates stimuli in the environment, cognitively organises the interpreted information in a particular way, and then interprets the information to make a judgement on what people choose, arrange, interpret, or attach meaning to events occurring in the environment. Since perception is a subjective process, people can perceive 233 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

the same environment in different ways depending on which aspects of the situation they want to focus on. Some workers, for example, will consider a workplace to be excellent if it offers decent working conditions and wages. Others may think it's awesome if it has tough assignments and room for advancement. Managers should hone their perceptual skills to the point that they can perceive individuals, activities, and objects as accurately as possible. When managers experience \"misperception\" as a result of visual mistakes and distortion, they are more likely to make inaccurate or incorrect decisions. 13.2 MEANING & DEFINITION Perception simply means \"perceiving,\" or \"giving meaning\" to the world around us. People pick, arrange, and interpret information to form a coherent picture of the world through perception. “Perception as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.”- Robbins 13.3 NATURE AND IMPORTANCE Individuals arrange and perceive their sensory immersions in order to give meaning to their world through perception. In the analysis of organisational behaviour, perceptions are important because people's behaviour is focused on their perceptions of reality rather than reality itself. Many factors affect one's thinking. These influences can be found in the perceiver, the perceived object, or the contexts in which perception is produced. Attitude, attitude, motivations, interest, past experience, and perceptions are all personal characteristics that influence perception. Since our inferences are based on people's behaviour, our perception of people varies from our perception of inanimate objects such as tables, computers, and so on. Since people have values, motivations, and intentions, assumptions we make about a person's internal state have a profound effect on our perceptions and judgement. 13.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION Many factors influence the perceiver, circumstance, and goal. Perception is primarily influenced by these three factors: Perceiver 1) Attitudes: Assess statements or assumptions made about things, individuals, or their worth. It expresses our feelings about something. 234 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2) Expectations: Describe how you want others to act in a certain way. What and how we intend to see something affects our vision. Expectation aids the perceiver in concentrating their attention on a specific feature of a thing, as well as classifying and comprehending it. 3) Experience: Interpretation is based on experience and understanding. Good experiences assist in the growth of a person's perceptual capacity. An individual gains knowledge from his or her experiences. For example, if we had an accident in the past when driving too fast, we would drive more carefully in the future. We learned from our experience that driving fast is risky. 4) Motivation: Our thinking is influenced by our motivation. On the basis of that motivating element, it influences a person's mind to consider something. When we are hungry, for example, food articles tend to be more vibrant and vivid, but this is not the case. Hunger causes us to see food items in a lighter light because we need them more than anything else at the moment. Situation 1) Time: Time perception is a construct of our brain, and the passage of time is primarily dictated by exhaustion, attention, sadness, and happiness. When we begin to feel dizzy in the evening, we may believe it is time for our regular night sleeps. 2) Work and social setting: A person's work environment has a significant impact on their perception. In general, workers are reluctant or unwilling to share their personal views in front of a senior officer because they feel that doing so would be seen as a threat to his authority. Target 1) Motion: In general, people place more emphasis on a moving object than on a stationary object. 2) Sounds: Sound activates a person's mind in a number of ways. We hear noisy sound in a group and low sound in a library. The listener experiences hearing sensations as a result of sound. 3) Size: An object's size activates the brain. A larger object is more likely to be seen than a smaller object because we believe that something written in small letters would be difficult to read, so we want the letters to be larger. 235 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

13.5 PROCESS OF PERCEPTION The following are the steps in the perception process:  Reception: An individual receives information through stimuli in this process.  Selection: There are two types of factors that influence this:  External factors: Scale, intensity, proximity, motion, and novelty are examples of external influences.  Internal factors: mood, motivations, experiences, desires, and aspirations are all examples of internal factors.  Organization: This is the method of categorising stimuli into a logical order. It consists of the following:  Grouping: Assembling stimuli based on their similarity.  Proximity: The proximity of stimuli to one another influences perception.  Closure: The capacity to arrange stimuli so that they form a whole pattern when combined.  Interpretation: It is the method of forming an opinion about the data that has been sensed, selected, and arranged. Primacy effect, selective vision, stereotyping, halo effect, projection, and expectancy effect are some of the phenomena involved. They're the various kinds of perceptual errors.  Primacy/ Recency Effect: The primacy effect states that the first experience is the most significant. The recency effect, on the other hand, notes that people recall more recent events than less recent ones.  Stereotyping: This is the product of developing a certain opinion about a group of stimuli and then extending that belief to all interactions with that category's members. In fact, there is a distinction between the members' perceived traits and their actual characteristics. It can have an effect on an organization's interview process.  Halo effect: The halo effect refers to the method of reducing a complex analysis to a single feature or characteristic. The reverse halo effect is a form of negative halo effect. It has an effect on how an organisation judges its employees' results.  Projection: This is a psychological defensive mechanism in which a person compares their negative characteristics to those of others and assumes that they are better off. The negative effects of projection are reduced by perceptual checking. 236 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Selective Perception: When a person sees, feels, or hears only what he wants to see, experience, or hear, he ignores any knowledge that contradicts his viewpoint.  Expectancy effect: It is a person's propensity to perceive another person or entity based on how he expects them to be in the first place. Pygmalion impact is another name for it. 13.6 IMPACT OF PERCEPTION As the workplace becomes more diverse, so do the obstacles that companies face. For a company to maximise efficiency and retention, it is vital to handle diversity. It is a difficult task for an organisation to manage diversity effectively through equal policies and acceptable managerial behaviours, and it is also important for the organisation to pay attention to employee perceptions of discrimination. When judging others, we can experience the following biases: 1. Selective perception – This is when our attention is drawn to problems related to our own desires, behaviours, and experiences, not only when passing judgement on others, but in any circumstance. We are constantly bombarded with data. As a result, we are unable to assimilate anything we see; only certain sensations can be noted. As a result, the boss can discipline some employees for doing something that goes unnoticed by other employees. We use selective vision because we can't see anything. It's also human nature to seek out evidence that confirms our beliefs. Knowledge that makes people anxious or contradicts their beliefs is often ignored. It helps us to read others more quickly, but at the cost of drawing an incorrect image. We see what we want to see because we see what we want to see. From an unclear scenario, we can draw unwarranted conclusions. Rather than the stimuli itself, our perception is conditioned by an individual's behaviours, interests, and context. 2. The halo effect – This occurs when we form a general perception of an individual based on a single or particular characteristic. An employee with numerous body piercings, on the other hand, can be viewed as wild and untrustworthy. Both of these managerial decisions are based on the halo effect and could be incorrect. Women in non-management positions earned higher scores, pay increases, and promotions as a result of their attractiveness. Attractive women in management, on the other hand, received lower performance ratings and pay increases, as well as less advancement opportunities. The halo effect is responsible for all of these outcomes. 237 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. Stereotyping – This is when we make a decision about an individual based on our understanding of the community to which he belongs or has a relation. A stereotype is a preconceived notion of a certain group of people. When we pass judgement on others based on how we perceive the community to which he or she belongs. We're using a technique known as stereotyping. Stereotypes are useful for compiling and using knowledge about other individuals because they simplify information about them to a manageable level. It helps us to preserve continuity while simplifying a complicated environment. When we use stereotype, dealing with an overwhelming number of stimuli becomes easier. It is possible that they are right, and if they are, they can be useful perceptual guidelines. The stereotype of attractiveness is a dominant one. We expect attractive people to be soft, kind, responsive, poised, sociable, outgoing, self-sufficient, and solid. 4. The contrast effect – This occurs when we measure a person's characteristics by contrasting them to those of other people. On the basis of attributes, we rank both of them. We discussed earlier in our discussion of perception how a red sports car would stand out from the crowd due to its contrast. We demonstrate the perceptual distortion that can occur when, for example, an individual gives a talk after a strong speaker or is interviewed for a job after a series of mediocre candidates. When an individual's characteristics are compared to those of those recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics, we may expect a contrast effect to occur. In many workplaces, both managers and workers must be mindful of the potential for visual distortion induced by the contrast impact. 13.7 SUMMARY  Perception is the mechanism by which people organise and perceive their sensory perceptions in order to give their surroundings significance.  The perceiver, the circumstance, and the target are all influenced by three factors.  Assess claims or assumptions made about things, individuals, or their worth. It expresses our feelings about something.  A person's interpretation is affected by their work environment in a number of ways.  In general, people place a higher value on a moving object than on a stationary object.  A stereotype is a preconceived notion of a certain group of citizens. 13.8 KEYWORDS 238  Perception: the act of perceiving something.  Experience: Information and experience act as the foundation for interpretation.  Size: An object's size stimulates the brain. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Reception: when a person is exposed to stimuli, he or she receives information.  Halo effect: The halo effect occurs when we form a general perception of an individual based on specific information. 13.9 LEARNING ACTIVITY Differing Perceptions at Clarkston Industries Susan Harrington continued to drum her fingers on her desk. She had a real problem and wasn’t sure what to do next. She had a lot of confidence in Jack Reed, but she suspected she was about the last person in the office who did. Perhaps if she ran through the entire story again in her mind, she would see the solution. Susan had been distribution manager for Clarkston Industries for almost twenty years. An early brush with the law and a short stay in prison had made her realize the importance of honesty and hard work. Henry Clarkston had given her a chance despite her record, and Susan had made the most of it. She now was one of the most respected managers in the company. Few people knew her background. Susan had hired Jack Reed fresh out of prison six months ago. Susan understood how Jack felt when Jack tried to explain his past and asked for another chance. Susan decided to give him that chance just as Henry Clarkston had given her one. Jack eagerly accepted a job on the loading docks and could soon load a truck as fast as anyone in the crew. Things had gone well at first. Everyone seemed to like Jack, and he made several new friends. Susan had been vaguely disturbed about two months ago, however, when another dock worker reported his wallet missing. She confronted Jack about this and was reassured when Jack understood her concern and earnestly but calmly asserted his innocence. Susan was especially relieved when the wallet was found a few days later. The events of last week, however, had caused serious trouble. First, a new personnel clerk had come across records about Jack’s past while updating employee files. Assuming that the information was common knowledge, the clerk had mentioned to several employees what a good thing it was to give ex-convicts like Jack a chance. The next day, someone in bookkeeping discovered some money missing from petty cash. Another worker claimed to have seen Jack in the area around the office strongbox, which was open during working hours, earlier that same day. Most people assumed Jack was the thief. Even the worker whose wallet had been misplaced suggested that perhaps Jack had indeed stolen it but had returned it when questioned. Several employees had approached Susan and requested that Jack be fired. Meanwhile, when Susan had discussed the problem with Jack, Jack had been defensive and sullen and said little about the petty-cash situation other than to deny stealing the money. 239 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

To her dismay, Susan found that rethinking the story did little to solve his problem. Should she fire Jack? The evidence, of course, was purely circumstantial, yet everybody else seemed to see things quite clearly. Susan feared that if she did not fire Jack, she would lose everyone’s trust and that some people might even begin to question her own motives. Questions: 1. Explain the events in this case in terms of perception and attitudes. Does personality play a role? 2. What should Susan do? Should she fire Jack or give him another chance? ___________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 13.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is meant by Perception? 2. Define Perception. 3. Explain the nature of Perception 4. List the factors of Perception 5. Write short note on Halo effect. Long Questions 1. Explain the factors that influence Perception. 2. Discuss the process of Perception 3. Explain the types of perpetual errors 4. Discuss the impact of Perception. 5. Explain in detail about stereotyping and contrast effect. B. Multiple choice Questions 1. The psychological process of selecting stimuli, organizing the data into recognizable patterns, and interpreting the resulting information is_____ a. The perceptual 240 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

b. Perception. c. Attribution. d. Projection. 2. What do we call it when we judge someone on the basis of our perception? a. Stereotyping b. Categorizing c. Halo effect d. Prototyping 3. Raju believes that men perform better in oral presentations than women. What shortcut has been used in this case? a. The halo effects b. The contrast effects c. Projection d. Stereotyping 4. __________ is the process by which we sort stimuli into a meaningful pattern. a. Reception b. Selection c. Organization d. Interpretation 5. ______evaluate statements or judgments concerning objects, people or value. 241 a. Attitude b. Experience c. Expectation d. Motivation Answers 1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

13.11 REFERENCES Reference Books:  R1 Fred Luthans, “Organizational Behaviour”,7th Edition, MC Graw Hill, New York.  R2 Arnold and Feidman, “Organizational Behavior Graw Hill International, New york. Textbooks:  T1 Stephen P. Robbins, “Organizational Behaviour”,18th Edition, Pearson Publishers, New York.  T2 L.M Prasad, “Organizational Behavior”, Sultan Chand Publications, New Delhi. 242 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 14: MOTIVATION Structure 14.0 Learning Objectives 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Meaning & Definition 14.3 Importance Of Motivation 14.4 Characteristics Of Motivation 14.5 Types Of Motivation 14.6 Theories Of Motivation 14.7 Meaning & Definition Of Stress 14.8 Types Of Strerss 14.9 Causes Of Stress 14.10 Summary 14.11 Keywords 14.12 Learning Activity 14.13 Unit End Questions 14.14 References 14.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, students will be able to:  State the importance of Motivation  Explain the characteristics of Motivation  Classify the types of Motivation  Explain the theories of Motivation  Discuss the types and causes of Stress 14.1 INTRODUCTION Motivation is one of the most important aspects of human personality, and it has a significant impact on our daily lives. To have a good intimate, social, and professional life, you must be motivated. We've gone through the relationship between motivation, the person, and the 243 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

organisation. In conclusion, we have discussed motivation in the sense of organisational action. The aim of this unit is to cover the subject of motivation. Here you can learn about motive classification, motivation theories proposed by various scholars and researchers, and motivation process theories. 14.2 MEANING & DEFINITION Motivation originally comes from the Latin root word ‘movere’ which means to move. It is derived from the word motive. Motive may be defined as an inner state of our mind that activates and directs our behaviour. Motivation may be defined as the process that motivates a person and induces him to continue the course of action for the achievement of goal. “Motivation is the force that energizes behaviour, gives direction to behaviour and underlies the tendency to persist.”- Steer & Porter \"Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goals\" - William G Scott \"Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, needs, wishes and similar forces”- Koontz and O'Donnell. 14.3 IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION The importance of motivation is as follows:  High level of performance  Low employee turnover and absenteeism  Acceptance of organization change  Organizational image  Improvement in cooperation  Higher morale of personnel  Higher productivity  Best remedy for resistance to change  Healthy industrial relation  Utilization of factor of production  Realizing organizational goals 244 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

High level of performance The organization must ensure that its workers are highly motivated. A highly motivated employee goes above and beyond in their job and feels a sense of belonging to the organization. Job quality will improve, wastage will be reduced, resulting in increased productivity, and output levels will be high. Low employee turnover and absenteeism Low morale is a major factor in employee turnover and absenteeism. A high rate of absenteeism results in a low level of production, poor quality, waste, and schedule disruption. Increased turnover is bad for any company because it puts a burden on the finances due to additional recruiting, selection, training, and growth. Acceptance of organization change Changes in the external world, such as social change and technological evolution, have a greater effect on employee motivation. Management must ensure that the changes are implemented in the company and that the benefits are communicated to workers so that there is no resistance to change and that the organization grows. Re-engineering, empowerment, career enrichment, job rotation, and the adoption of new technologies and processes can all help to improve employee productivity and motivation. Organizational image Employees are the reflections of any company. To keep employees up to date with the latest skills, regular training and development programmes should be coordinated. It will have a good effect on the staff, and the company's reputation will improve. The brand value of the goods and services that the company is selling would benefit from a positive organizational image. Improvement in Cooperation Employees would be willing to participate in the organization's succession if they are properly motivated. Employees help the company accomplish its goals by extending constructive collaboration on the one side, and they also solve their problems/get satisfaction on the other. Thus, if encouragement is properly applied within the company, prosperity on both sides may be observed. Higher Morale of Personnel 245 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Workers' productivity rises as a result of encouragement. Employees with higher morale are viewed as important assets to the company. Reduced turnover and absenteeism are two ways that a motivated employee will help the company. Increased turnover and absenteeism cause a slew of issues in the workplace, as well as a negative effect on the company's image. Motivation aids in lowering these prices. Higher Productivity A company can reach a higher degree of efficiency with the aid of encouragement because a manager can inspire subordinates to function effectively, which would help the organisation improve overall output and productivity. The intrinsic characteristics of employees may be created and utilised for the organization's and subordinates' benefit if they are induced with a variety of motivating techniques. Best Remedy for Resistance to Change Changes in jobs and work methods are a sign of progress. Changes in organisations and their working patterns are a common occurrence as a result of organisational changes in manufacturing technology, marketing processes, and even environmental changes. When changes occur in the workplace, employees may be frustrated, uncomfortable, and insecure, expressing their frustration and protesting the transition. They will welcome change even more vigorously if they are correctly, timely, and tactfully inspired, and managers provide insight and encouragement. Healthy Industrial Relation Inside the company, encouragement fosters positive working relationships. Management and labour unions would have a very cooperative relationship. With the aid of inspiration, there would be no dispute between management and labour unions. As a result, motivation encourages a positive working relationship. Utilization of Factor of Production Human resources are an essential resource, and if this resource is properly utilized, then only other variables will be properly utilized. Human resources are motivated to function honestly and effectively when they are motivated. Only by having productive workers would other factors of production be able to be used adequately and to their full potential. As a consequence, inspiration assists in the productive use of the output factor. Realizing Organizational Goals 246 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Motivated workers develop a sense of complete participation in the organization's mission and work tirelessly to achieve organisational objectives. Although empowering workers, they should place a greater emphasis on the organization's objectives. As a result, employee engagement aids in the achievement of corporate goals. 14.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION The following are some of the motivational characteristics: Motivation is a psychological phenomenon It is a person's inner drive to do something greater. The more a person is driven, the better his or her success and organisational relationships will be. Motivation is a continuous process Since need and desire are infinite, the need is a constant phenomenon; if one need is fulfilled, another arises. Motivation is caused due to anticipated perceived value from an action. Perceived value is the probability or expectancy. Motivation= value × expectancy. Motivation varies from person to person and time to time Motivation differed from person to person, and it also differed according to time and place, since people's desires differed according to time and place. An individual is motivated by positive or negative motivation  Positive motivation Incentives or promotions are used to inspire people. A monetary or non-monetary incentive may be used.  Negative motivation Penalties, demands for explanations, threats, and fear are all examples of negative motivation. Fear of losing a job or getting a promotion. 14.5 TYPES OF MOTIVATION There are two main types of motivation  Extrinsic  Intrinsic Extrinsic motivation If you use external factors to motivate the team to do what you like, you're using extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivators include pay increases, time off, bonus checks, and the possibility of losing the work. Some are optimistic, while some are not. Intrinsic motivation It's about having a personal motivation to solve a challenge, deliver 247 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

high-quality work, or work with people you like and trust on a team. People who are intrinsically driven get a lot of satisfaction and pleasure out of what they do. Every team member is unique, and their motivations will most likely differ. So, in order to effectively motivate your people, you must first get to know them, discover what motivates them, and then find a good balance of extrinsic and intrinsic motivators. 14.6 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Motivation theories are mostly divided into two groups. They really are. i) Content theories ii) Process theories CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION The needs or collection of needs that underpin human actions are the subject of content theories of motivation. However, we primarily research material theories of motivation by looking at how different needs affect human behaviour in order to survive and be recognised. Under these theories we need to study about 1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. 2. Mc Gregor Theory X & Theory Y 3. Herzberg two factor theory MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY Understanding human needs and the role they play in guiding and influencing people's actions is critical to achieving the desired motivation. One of the most well-known theories of motivation was formulated by Abraham Maslow, a Psychologist who based his theory on the needs of people ascending from the lowest to the highest levels. Here are some of its characteristics:  The Physiological Needs: These are all human beings' essential needs for survival, such as food, water, shelter, sleep, and equal basic pay. Maslow believed that people are motivated by these needs that are met to the extent that they are needed to sustain life.  The Safety and Security Needs: These include protection from risk, hazard, and deprivation, job security, insurance coverage, and safety regulations, among other items. 248 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Affiliation / Affection / Love Needs: These are social needs that are recognised by others. Joy, friendship, belonging, stable relationships with co-workers, peer supervisors, and so on are among them.  Esteem Needs: These desires result in feelings of strength, reputation, rank, self- assurance, self-worth and respect from others, recognition, and important projects, among other things.  Self-Actualization Needs: These are the highest needs in this pyramid. It is described as the desire to become the best version of oneself. There are the difficulties, such as imagination, innovation, and realising one's full potential. THE HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR MODEL Frederick Herzberg developed this theory, which is also known as Motivation-Hygiene Theory. He performed a large number of interviews in order to learn about people's attitudes toward their work. This theory supports the idea that motivators are required to motivate workers, while hygiene factors must be well controlled to prevent employees from being dissatisfied. Extrinsic or Hygiene Factors are a type of need that includes things like company policy, management, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, pay, rank, job security, personal life, and so on. These are the causes that are unsatisfying and demotivating. It means they don't inspire in the sense of giving happiness. The need is said to be the Intrinsic or Motivator Factors in the second category, where there are some satisfiers and therefore it is all linked to job material. Achievement, appreciation, challenging jobs, development, and progress in the job, as well as accountability, are all part of this. These are the motivators and satisfiers for the employees in the business. MC GREGOR’S THEORY X AND THEORY Y Douglas Mc Gregor presented this theory, which applied the fundamental substance of Maslow's theory to leadership and management. Certain traditional assumptions about employee motivation are generally accepted as true, despite the fact that they only provide a portion of the response. Theory X and Theory Y are the two components of this theory. THEORY X: The following are some of McGregor's main assumptions: 249 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The common man is lazy by nature, and it is in his nature to despise or dislike his work.  People who dislike work should be monitored and guided toward doing work.  It also means that workers must be persuaded, punished, praised, and intimidated in order to do their jobs well and achieve the organization's goals.  Employees are resistant to transition, and they are oblivious to organisational requirements.  He is unafraid to take on responsibilities and prefers to be led. As a result, theory X loses its appeal. THEORY Y: The following are the main assumptions of theory Y:  Man is not necessarily passive or resistant to organisational needs.  Incentive, hazard, and external controls aren't the only ways to get people to work toward a common goal.  Man will practise self-control toward achieving his own and the organization's goals if the organization's conditions and methods of operation are correct. As a result, theory Y takes full advantage of employees' personal and professional potential. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY Clayton P. Alderfer introduced this theory, which divided Maslow's theory into three parts: life, relatedness, and development. 1. Existence Needs: This category covers all physical and physiological needs such as food, air, shelter, clothing, protection, security, love, and affection. Maslow's first two needs, physiological and protection, have been combined in this way. 2. Relatedness Needs: This includes internal and external esteem, as well as relationships with family and friends, co-workers, and employees. This implies that workers must be remembered and feel safe among the family members. Maslow's theory has three levels, the third and fourth of which are the most significant. 3. Growth Needs: This category involves internal esteem and self-actualization, which motivates an individual to be innovative or effective in his or her own life. This includes the Maslow theory's fourth and fifth levels. As a result, he condenses Maslow's theory and divides it into three parts. MCCLELLAND’S NEEDS THEORY 250 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)