To assist you with defining a promising exploration speculation, you ought to ask yourself the accompanying inquiries: 1. Is the language clear and centered? 2. What is the connection between your theory and your exploration subject? 3. is your theory testable? Assuming indeed, how? 4. What are the potential clarifications that you should investigate? 5. Does your theory incorporate both an autonomous and ward variable? 6. Can you control your factors without hampering the moral guidelines? The inquiries recorded above can be utilized as an agenda to ensure your speculation depends on a strong establishment. Moreover, it can assist you with recognizing shortcomings in your speculation and amend it if vital. Sorts of Research Hypothesis Exploration speculation can be ordered into seven classifications as expressed beneath: 1. Straightforward Hypothesis It predicts the connection between a solitary ward variable and a solitary autonomous variable. 2. Complex Hypothesis It predicts the connection between at least two free and ward factors. 3. Directional Hypothesis It indicates the normal heading to be followed to decide the connection among factors, and is gotten from hypothesis. Besides, it infers analyst's scholarly obligation to a specific result. 4. Non-directional Hypothesis 51 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
It doesn't foresee the specific bearing or nature of the connection between the two factors. Non-directional speculation is utilized when there is no hypothesis included or when discoveries negate past research. 5. Acquainted and Causal Hypothesis Acquainted theory characterizes interdependency between factors. An adjustment of one variable outcome in the difference in the other variable. Then again, causal theory proposes an impact on the ward because of control of the autonomous variable. 6. Null Hypothesis It expresses a negative assertion to help the scientist's discoveries that there is no connection between two factors. 7. Elective Hypothesis It expresses that there is a connection between the two factors of the review and that the outcomes are important to the exploration theme. Instructions to Formulate an Effective Research Hypothesis A testable speculation is certainly not a straightforward assertion. It is fairly an unpredictable articulation that necessities to offer a reasonable prologue to a logical test, its aims, and the potential results. In any case, there are some significant interesting points when assembling a convincing speculation. 1. State the issue that you are attempting to tackle. Make sure that the speculation plainly characterizes the point and the focal point of the test. 2. Try to compose the speculation as an in the event that assertion. Follow this format: If a particular move is made, then, at that point a specific result is normal. 52 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
3. Define the factors Independent factors are the ones which are controlled, controlled, or changed. Free factors are confined from different variables of the review. Dependent factors, as name proposes are subject to different elements of the review. They are impacted by the adjustment of autonomous variable. Instances of Independent and Dependent Variables in a Hypothesis: Model 1 The more prominent number of coal plants in a locale (autonomous variable) expands water contamination (subordinate variable). In the event that you change the autonomous variable (fabricating more coal industrial facilities), it will change the reliant variable (measure of water contamination). Model 2 What is the impact of diet or normal pop (autonomous variable) on glucose levels (subordinate variable)? In the event that you change the autonomous variable (the sort of pop you devour), it will change the reliant variable (glucose levels) You ought not to disregard the significance of the above advances. The legitimacy of your test and its outcomes depend on a hearty testable speculation. Fostering a solid testable speculation enjoys not many benefits; it constrains us to think strongly and explicitly about the results of a review. Therefore, it empowers us to comprehend the ramifications of the inquiry and the various factors associated with the review. Besides, it assists us with making exact expectations dependent on earlier exploration. Subsequently, framing a theory would be of incredible worth to the examination. Here are some genuine instances of testable theories. All the more significantly, you need to assemble a hearty testable examination speculation for your logical trials. A testable speculation is a theory that can be demonstrated or negated because of experimentation. 53 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Significance of a Testable Hypothesis To devise and play out a trial utilizing logical technique, you need to ensure that your speculation is testable. To be viewed as testable, some fundamental measures should be met: 1. There should be plausible to demonstrate that the theory is valid. 2. There should be plausible to refute that the speculation is. 3. The aftereffects of the theory should be reproducible. Without these models, the speculation and the outcomes will be unclear. Subsequently, the test won't demonstrate or discredit anything critical. What are your encounters with building theories for logical examinations? What difficulties did you confront? How could you conquer these difficulties? If it's not too much trouble, share your contemplations with us in the remarks area. 3.2 HYPOTHESIS In its antiquated utilization, theory alluded to an outline of the plot of a traditional show. The English word speculation comes from the old Greek word ὑπόθεσις theory whose strict or etymological sense is \"putting or setting under\" and consequently in expanded use has numerous different implications including \"assumption\". In Plato's Meno (86e–87b), Socrates takes apart excellence with a strategy utilized by mathematicians, that of \"researching from a speculation.\" In this sense, 'theory' alludes to a cunning thought or to an advantageous numerical methodology that improves on lumbering estimations. Cardinal Bellarmine gave a renowned illustration of this utilization in the notice gave to Galileo in the mid seventeenth century: that he should not treat the movement of the Earth as a reality, however just as a speculation. In like manner utilization in the 21st century, a theory alludes to a temporary thought whose legitimacy requires assessment. For legitimate assessment, the composer of a theory needs to characterize points of interest in functional terms. A theory requires more work by the specialist to either affirm or invalidate it. At the appointed time, an affirmed speculation might turn out to be important for a hypothesis or sporadically may develop to turn into a hypothesis itself. Typically, logical theories have the type of a numerical model. 54 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
In some cases, however not generally, one can likewise plan them as existential proclamations, expressing that some specific occasion of the wonder under assessment has some trademark and causal clarifications, which have the overall type of all-inclusive assertions, expressing that each case of the marvel has a specific trademark. In innovative science, a theory is utilized to define temporary thoughts inside a business setting. The formed theory is then assessed where either the speculation is shown to be \"valid\" or \"bogus\" through an undeniable nature or falsifiability-arranged analysis. Any helpful theory will empower forecasts by thinking (counting deductive thinking). It may foresee the result of a trial in a research center setting or the perception of a marvel in nature. The forecast may likewise conjure measurements and just discussion about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has contended that a speculation should be falsifiable, and that one can't view a suggestion or hypothesis as logical on the off chance that it doesn't concede the chance of being shown bogus. Different rationalists of science have dismissed the standard of falsifiability or enhanced it with different rules, like certainty (e.g., verificationism) or cognizance (e.g., affirmation comprehensive quality). The logical strategy includes experimentation, to test the capacity of some speculation to satisfactorily address the inquiry being scrutinized. Conversely, free perception isn't as prone to bring up unexplained issues or open issues in science, as would the definition of an essential test to test the speculation. A psychological study may likewise be utilized to test the theory also. In outlining a theory, the agent should not as of now know the result of a test or that it remains sensibly under proceeding with examination. Just in such cases does the investigation, test or concentrate conceivably increment the likelihood of showing the reality of a Hypothesis? In the event that the specialist definitely knows the result, it considers an \"outcome\" — and the scientist ought to have as of now viewed as this while forming the speculation. On the off chance that one can't evaluate the expectations by perception or by experience, the theory should be tried by others giving perceptions. For instance, another innovation or hypothesis may make the essential trials doable. A speculation is a particular assertion of forecast. It depicts in concrete (as opposed to hypothetical) terms what you expect will occur in your review. Not all examinations have theories. Here and there a review is intended to be exploratory. There is no proper speculation, and maybe the reason for the review is to investigate some region all the more 55 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
completely to foster some particular theory or forecast that can be tried in future examination. A solitary report might have one or numerous speculations. All things considered, at whatever point I talk about a theory, I am truly contemplating two speculations. Suppose that you anticipate that there will be a connection between two factors in your review. The manner in which we would officially set up the speculation test is to form two theory proclamations, one that depicts your expectation and one that portrays the wide range of various potential results concerning the theorized relationship. Your forecast is that variable an and variable B will be connected (you don't mind whether it's a positive or negative relationship). Then, at that point the main other conceivable result would be that variable an and variable B are not related. Normally, we consider the theory that you support (your expectation) the elective speculation, and we consider the theory that portrays the leftover potential results the invalid speculation. Some of the time we utilize a documentation like HA or H1 to address the elective speculation or your forecast, and HO or H0 to address the invalid case. However, you must be cautious here. In certain examinations, your forecast might just be that there will be no distinction or change. For this situation, you are basically attempting to discover support for the invalid theory and you are against the other option. In the event that your forecast indicates a heading, and the invalid thusly is the no distinction expectation and the expectation of the other way, we call this a one-followed speculation. For example, how about we envision that you are researching the impacts of another worker preparing program and that you trust one of the results will be that there will be less representative non-appearance. Your two theories may be expressed something like this: The invalid theory for this review is: HO: because of the XYZ organization representative preparing program, there will either be no critical contrast in worker non-attendance or there will be a huge increment which is tried against the elective theory: HA: because of the XYZ organization representative preparing program, there will be a critical decline in worker non-attendance. 56 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Figure 3.1Absenteeism In the figure on the left, we see the present circumstance outlined graphically. The elective speculation – your forecast that the program will diminish non-appearance – is displayed there. The invalid should represent the other two potential conditions: no distinction, or an expansion in non-appearance. The figure shows a theoretical conveyance of truancy contrasts. We can see that the expression \"one-followed\" alludes to the tail of the dissemination on the result variable. At the point when your expectation doesn't indicate a heading, we say you have a two- followed speculation. For example, how about we expect you are concentrating on another medication treatment for despondency. The medication has gone through some underlying creature preliminaries, however has not yet been tried on people. You accept (in light of hypothesis and the past research) that the medication will have an impact, yet you are not sufficiently certain to speculate a heading and say the medication will diminish melancholy (all things considered, you've seen a very sizable amount of promising medication medicines go along that ultimately were displayed to have serious incidental effects that really demolished manifestations). For this situation, you may express the two speculations like this: The invalid speculation for this review is: HO: because of 300mg. /day of the ABC drug, there will be no huge distinction in misery which is tried against the elective speculation: HA: because of 300mg. /day of the ABC drug, there will be a huge distinction in misery. 57 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Figure 3.2: Depression The figure on the right outlines this two-followed expectation for this case. Once more, notice that the expression \"two-followed\" alludes to the tails of the conveyance for your result variable. The significant thing to recall about expressing speculations is that you form your expectation (directional or not), and afterward you form a second theory that is fundamentally unrelated of the first and joins all conceivable elective results for that case. At the point when your review examination is finished, the thought is that you should pick between the two theories. On the off chance that your expectation was right, you would (generally) reject the invalid speculation and acknowledge the other option. Assuming your unique forecast was not upheld in the information; you will acknowledge the invalid speculation and reject the other option. The rationale of theory testing depends on these two fundamental standards: • The plan of two fundamentally unrelated theory proclamations that, together, exhaust every conceivable result • The testing of these with the goal that one is essentially acknowledged and the other dismissed Alright, I realize it's a tangled, abnormal and formalistic approach to ask research inquiries. Be that as it may, it includes a long custom in measurements called the theoretical deductive model, and here and there we simply need to do things since they're customs. Also, at any rate, if the entirety of this speculation testing was sufficiently simple so anyone could get it, how would you figure analysts could remain utilized? A speculation (plural theories) is an exact, testable assertion of what the researcher(s) foresee will be the result of the review. 58 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
This normally includes proposing a potential connection between two factors: the autonomous variable (what the analyst changes) and the reliant variable (what the exploration measures). In research, there is a show that the speculation is written in two structures, the invalid theory, and the elective speculation (called the test theory when the technique for examination is a test). Types of Research Hypotheses Alternative Hypothesis The Alternative Hypothesis or elective speculation expresses that there is a connection between the two factors being considered (one variable affects the other). It expresses that the outcomes are not because of possibility and that they are critical as far as supporting the hypothesis being examined. 3.2.1 Meaning • Hypothesis in a real sense implies a thought or hypothesis that the scientist defines as the objective of the review and looks at it and is supplanted as a hypothesis when the theory is valid in the review's decision. • Hypothesis is a material deduction dependent on logical interaction. • Hypothesis is difficult to create without human idea. • Formulation of speculations in logical investigation of social issues is a significant and solid part of examination, utility of their utilization and so on • Hypothesis provides analyst another guidance in research study. • In the shortfall of speculation, the analyst can't move even above and beyond in his review in light of the fact that based on this reasoning he attempts to know what the purpose for this examination is. • Hypothesis is the conclusive and completely arranged way of examination study. • Hypothesis is useful and valuable in provide an unmistakable guidance to any exploration study. 59 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
• Hypothesis has a significant spot in the investigation of social wonders. • Hypothesis controls and coordinates social exploration and logical strategy. Definition • Lundberg-A Hypothesis is a conditional speculation, the legitimacy of which still needs to be tried. In its most rudimentary stages, the theory might be any hunch, surmise creative thought or Intuition at all which the premise of activity or Investigation becomes. • Bogardus-A Hypothesis is a suggestion to be tried. • Goode and Hatt-It is a suggestion which can be put to test to determinants legitimacy. • P. V. Yaung-The possibility of a brief however focal significance that turns into the premise of valuable exploration is known as a functioning speculation. • F. N. Kerlinger-A speculation is a depiction of the relationship of at least two factors. • Townsend-Hypothesis is recommended reply to an issue in the exploration contemplates. Figure 3.3: The major sources of Hypotheses 3.2.2 Significance A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It is a preliminary or tentative explanation or postulate by the researcher of what a researcher considers the outcome of an investigation 60 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
will be. It is an informed/ educated guess which describes a possible relationship between two or more phenomenon and variables. It is the most specific way in which an answer to a problem can be stated. A hypothesis differs from a problem. A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as the basis or origin from which a hypothesis is derived. A hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. A problem (question) can be directly tested, whereas a hypothesis can be tested and verified. A hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has been concluded. It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and empirical background to the problem. • It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically tested. • It furnishes proof that the researcher has enough background knowledge to enable the person to make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge. • It gives direction to an investigation. • It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem. • It is a powerful tool in research process to achieve dependable knowledge. Figure 3.4: The Functions of Hypotheses 61 Types of Hypothesis 1. Simple Hypothesis: A Simple hypothesis is also known as composite hypothesis. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
In simple hypothesis all parameters of the distribution are specified. It predicts relationship between two variables i.e. the dependent and the independent variable. 2. Complex Hypothesis: A Complex hypothesis examines relationship between two or more independent variables and two or more dependent variables. 3. Working or Research Hypothesis: A research hypothesis is a specific, clear prediction about the possible outcome of a scientific research study based on specific factors of the population. 4. Null Hypothesis: A null hypothesis is a general statement which states no relationship between two variables or two phenomena. It is usually denoted by H0. 5. Alternative Hypothesis: An alternative hypothesis is a statement which states some statistical significance between two phenomena. It is usually denoted by H1 or HA. 6. Logical Hypothesis: A logical hypothesis is a planned explanation holding limited evidence. 7. Statistical Hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis, sometimes called confirmatory data analysis, is an assumption about a population parameter. 62 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Figure 3.5: The Types of Hypotheses Major Differences between Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis A null hypothesis represents the hypothesis An alternative hypothesis is the opposite of the null that there is “no relationship” or “no hypothesis where we can find some statistical association” or “no difference” between two importance or relationship between two variables. variables. In case of null hypothesis, researcher tries to In an alternative hypothesis, the researcher wants to invalidate or reject the hypothesis. show or prove some relationship between variables. It is an assumption that specifies a possible It is an assumption that describes an alternative truth truth to an event where there is absence of an where there is some effect or some difference. effect. Null hypothesis is a statement that signifies Alternative hypothesis is a statement that signifies no change, no effect and no any differences some change, some effect and some between variables. differences between variables. If null hypothesis is true, any discrepancy If alternative hypothesis is true, the observed 63 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
between observed data and the hypothesis is discrepancy between the observed data and the null only due to chance. hypothesis is not due to chance. A null hypothesis is denoted as H0. An alternative hypothesis is denoted as H1 or HA. Example of null hypothesis: Example of an alternative hypothesis: There is no association between use of oral There is no association between use of oral contraceptive and blood cancer contraceptive and blood cancer H0: µ = 0 HA: µ ≠ 0 Table 3.1: Major Differences between Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis A speculation is a particular assertion of forecast. It is a fundamental or conditional clarification or hypothesize by the analyst of what a specialist considers the result of an examination will be. It is an educated/ballpark estimation which portrays a potential connection between at least two marvel and factors. It is the most explicit manner by which a response to an issue can be expressed. A theory varies from an issue. An issue is figured as an inquiry; it fills in as the premise or beginning from which a speculation is inferred. A speculation is a recommended answer for an issue. An issue (question) can be straightforwardly tried, though a speculation can be tried and checked. A speculation is formed after the issue has been expressed and the writing study has been finished up. It is planned when the specialist is absolutely mindful of the hypothetical and exact foundation to the issue. • It offers clarifications for the connections between those factors that can be exactly tried. • It outfits evidence that the analyst has sufficient foundation information to empower the individual to cause ideas to expand existing information. • It provides guidance to an examination. • It structures the following stage in the examination and in this way outfits coherence to the assessment of the issue. • It is an incredible asset in research cycle to accomplish trustworthy information. 64 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Figure 3.6: Characteristics of Hypothesis Regardless of whether speculation is affirmed in overview examination, the chance is that it very well might be bogus or counterfeit. There is innate connection between the free and ward factors. The exact help of a speculation in study research addresses more vulnerable affirmation than theory tried through experimentation. Hypothetical based overview requires more elaboration. After choice of the examination issue, the scientist determines the speculation which is the main advance in the exploration cycle. A decent theory not just gives a substantial clarification to some result yet in addition directs the analyst right way. In the logical technique, regardless of whether it includes research in brain science, science, or another region, a theory addresses what the specialists think will occur in an experiment.1 the logical strategy includes the accompanying advances: • Forming an inquiry • Performing foundation research • Creating a theory • Designing an examination • Collecting information • Analyzing the outcomes 65 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
• Drawing ends Conveying the outcomes The theory is a forecast, however it includes in excess of a supposition. More often than not, the speculation starts with an inquiry which is then investigated through foundation research. It is just now that specialists start to foster a testable theory. Except if you are making an exploratory review, your theory ought to consistently disclose what you hope to occur. In a review investigating the impacts of a specific medication, the speculation may be that scientists anticipate that the drug should have some kind of impact on the indications of a particular ailment. In brain research, the theory may zero in on how a specific part of the climate may impact a specific conduct. Keep in mind, a theory doesn't need to be correct.1 while the speculation predicts what the analysts hope to see, the objective of the exploration is to decide if this estimate is correct or wrong. When leading an examination, analysts may investigate various elements to figure out which ones may add to a definitive result. By and large, scientists might track down that the consequences of a trial don't uphold the first speculation. When reviewing these outcomes, the analysts may propose different choices that ought to be investigated in future examinations. Forming a Hypothesis Much of the time, scientists may draw a speculation from a particular hypothesis or expand on past research. For instance, earlier examination has shown that pressure can affect the insusceptible framework. So a specialist may estimate: \"Individuals with high-feelings of anxiety will be bound to get a typical virus subsequent to being presented to the infection than individuals who have low-feelings of anxiety.\" In different occurrences, specialists may take a gander at familiar ways of thinking or society shrewdness. \"Similar people are attracted to one another\" is one illustration of society shrewdness that an analyst may attempt to research. The specialist may represent a particular speculation that \"Individuals will in general choose significant others who are like them in interests and instructive level.\" 66 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Components of a Good Hypothesis When attempting to concoct a decent theory for your own exploration or analyses, ask yourself the accompanying inquiries: Is your theory dependent on your exploration on a point? Will your speculation be tried? Does your speculation incorporate free and ward factors? Before you concoct a particular theory, invest some energy doing foundation research. Whenever you have finished a writing audit, begin pondering potential inquiries you actually have. Focus on the conversation segment in the diary articles you read. Many creators will propose questions that actually should be investigated. To frame a speculation, you should make these strides: Gather however many perceptions about a subject or issue as you can. Assess these perceptions and search for potential reasons for the issue. Make a rundown of potential clarifications that you should investigate. After you have fostered some potential theories, consider ways that you could affirm or discredit every speculation through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability. Falsifiability In the logical technique, falsifiability is a significant piece of any substantial speculation. To test a case deductively, it should be conceivable that the case could be refuted. Understudies here and there befuddle the possibility of falsifiability with the possibility that it implies that something is bogus, which isn't the situation. What falsifiability implies is that assuming something was bogus, it is feasible to exhibit that it is bogus. One of the signs of pseudoscience is that it makes asserts that can't be invalidated or refuted. 67 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Operational Definitions A variable is a factor or component that can be changed and controlled in manners that are discernible and quantifiable. Nonetheless, the specialist should likewise characterize how the variable will be controlled and estimated in the review. For instance, a scientist may functionally characterize the variable \"test tension\" as the consequences of a self-report proportion of nervousness experienced during a test. A \"concentrate on propensities\" variable may be characterized by the measure of concentrating on that really happens as estimated by time. These exact depictions are significant in light of the fact that numerous things can be estimated in various diverse manners. One of the fundamental standards of a logical examination is that the outcomes should be replicable.1 By plainly specifying the points of interest of how the factors were estimated and controlled, different specialists can all the more likely comprehend the outcomes and rehash the review if necessary. A few factors are more troublesome than others to characterize. How might you functionally characterize a variable like animosity? For clear moral reasons, scientists can't cause a circumstance wherein an individual acts forcefully toward others. To gauge this variable, the scientist should devise an estimation that surveys forceful conduct without hurting others. In the present circumstance, the analyst may use a reenacted assignment to quantify forcefulness. Speculation Checklist • Does your speculation center around something that you can really test? • Does your speculation incorporate both a free and ward variable? • Can you control the factors? • Can your speculation be tried without abusing moral guidelines? 68 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Instances of Hypotheses A speculation regularly follows an essential configuration of \"On the off chance that {this happens}, {this will happen}.\" One approach to structure your theory is to depict what will befall the reliant variable in the event that you make changes to the autonomous variable. The essential organization may be: \"On the off chance that {these changes are made to a specific free variable}, we will notice {a change in a particular ward variable}.\" A couple of models: \"Understudies who have breakfast will perform preferable on a numerical test over understudies who don't have breakfast.\" \"Understudies who experience test uneasiness before an English test will get higher scores than understudies who don't encounter test tension.\" \"Drivers who chat on the telephone while driving will be bound to cause blunders on a driving course than the individuals who to don't chat on the telephone.\" Gathering Data on Your Hypothesis When an analyst has shaped a testable speculation, the subsequent stage is to choose an exploration plan and begin gathering information. The exploration strategy relies generally upon precisely the thing they are considering. There are two essential sorts of examination techniques: distinct exploration and test research. Illustrative Research Methods Illustrative exploration, for example, contextual investigations, naturalistic perceptions, and studies are regularly utilized when it would be incomprehensible or hard to lead an experiment.1 These techniques are best used to depict various parts of a conduct or mental marvel. When a scientist has gathered information utilizing elucidating techniques, a correlational report would then be able to be utilized to take a gander at how the factors are connected. This kind of exploration technique may be utilized to research a speculation that is hard to test tentatively. 69 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Test Research Methods Exploratory techniques are utilized to exhibit causal connections between factors. In a test, the analyst efficiently controls a variable of interest (known as the autonomous variable) and measures the impact on another variable (known as the reliant variable). In contrast to correlational investigations, which must be utilized to decide whether there is a connection between two factors, exploratory techniques can be utilized to decide the genuine idea of the relationship—regardless of whether changes in a single variable really cause one more to change. A Word from Very well The speculation is a basic piece of any logical investigation. It addresses what specialists hope to discover in a review or trial. In circumstances where the theory is unsupported by the examination, the exploration actually has esteem. Such examination assists us with bettering see how various parts of the regular world identify with each other. It likewise assists us with growing new speculations that would then be able to be tried later on. 3.3 SUMMARY A theory is an idea or thought that you test through exploration and analyses. At the end of the day, it is a forecast that is can be tried by research. Most specialists concoct a speculation articulation toward the start of the review. Consequently fundamentally, you make a forecast about the result toward the beginning of the review and lead examinations to test whether this expectation is valid and how much. Hypothesis is a sensible expectation of specific events without the help of experimental affirmation or proof. In logical terms, it is a provisional hypothesis or testable explanation about the connection between at least two factors for example autonomous and subordinate variable. Scientific speculation, a thought that proposes a conditional clarification about a wonder or a tight arrangement of marvels saw in the regular world. The two essential components of a logical speculation are falsifiability and testability, which are reflected in an \"Assuming… then, at that point\" articulation summing up the thought 70 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
and, in the capacity, to be upheld or invalidated through perception and experimentation. The thought of the logical theory as both falsifiable and testable was progressed during the twentieth century by Austrian-conceived British thinker Karl Popper. The definition and testing of a speculation is essential for the logical technique, the methodology researcher’s use when endeavoring to comprehend and test thoughts regarding regular wonders. The age of a theory as often as possible is depicted as an inventive flow and depends on existing logical information, instinct, or experience. Hence, albeit logical theories normally are depicted as reasonable deductions, they really are more educated than a conjecture. Likewise, researchers for the most part endeavor to foster basic speculations, since these are simpler to test comparative with theories that include a wide range of factors and possible results. Such complicated speculations might be created as logical models (see logical demonstrating). Depending on the aftereffects of logical assessment, a speculation normally is either dismissed as bogus or acknowledged as evident. Nonetheless, in light of the fact that a speculation intrinsically is falsifiable, even theories upheld by logical proof and acknowledged as obvious are defenceless to dismissal later, when new proof has opened up. In certain occasions, as opposed to dismissing a theory since it has been distorted by new proof, researchers just adjust the current plan to oblige the new data. In this sense a speculation is rarely erroneous however just deficient. 3.4 KEYWORDS Hypothesis-A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a precise, testable statement of what the researcher(s) predict will be the outcome of the study. Alternative Hypothesis-The alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the two variables being studied (one variable has an effect on the other). Null Hypothesis-The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two variables being studied (one variable does not affect the other).It states results are due to chance and are not significant in terms of supporting the idea being investigated. 71 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
No directional Hypothesis-A two-tailed non-directional hypothesis predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified.E.g., there will be a difference in how many numbers are correctly recalled by children and adults. Directional Hypothesis-A one-tailed directional hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.E.g., adults will correctly recall more words than children. 3.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What is a hypothesis? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. What are the different types of hypothesis? ___________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 3.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What are the types of Research Hypotheses? 2. What is Null Hypothesis? 3. What is No directional Hypothesis? 4. What is Directional Hypothesis? 5. What is alternative hypothesis? Long Questions 1. Write about the concept of Hypothesis. 2. Discuss in details about the meaning of Hypothesis. 3. Write in details about the significance of Hypothesis. 4. Discuss about the Descriptive Research Methods. 5. Write about how to Formulating a Hypothesis. 72 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Who said that the role of hypothesis in research cannot be overemphasized because it guides the researcher in planning the course of the inquiry? a. Osuala b. Hilborn, Ray c. Marc d. Mangel 2. Who said \"In general we look for a new law by the following process. First we guess it. ...\",? a. Marc b. Osuala c. Hilborn, Ray d. Richard Feynman 3. Who wrote hypothesis? a. Hilborn, Ray b. Osuala c. Harper, Douglas d. Richard Feynman 4. Who wrote Construction as existence proof in ancient geometry? a. Wilbur R. Knorr b. Harper, Douglas c. Richard Feynman d. Hilborn, Ray 5. Who wrote Socratic studies? 73 a. Gregory Vlastos, Myles Burnyeat b. Hilborn, Ray; Mangel, Marc CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
c. C.S. Sehgal d. Berry Lain Answers 1-a, 2-d, 3-c,4-a,5-a 3.7 REFERENCES References book Hilborn, Ray; Mangel, Marc (1997). The ecological detective: confronting models with data. Princeton University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-691-03497-3. Retrieved 22 August 2011. \"In general we look for a new law by the following process. First we guess it. ...\", — Richard Feynman (1965) The Character of Physical Law p.156 Supposition is itself a Latinate analogue of hypothesis as both are compound words constructed from words meaning respectively \"under, below\" and \"place, placing, putting\" in either language, Latin or Greek. Harper, Douglas. \"Hypothesis\". Online Etymology Dictionary. ὑπόθεσις. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. Wilbur R. Knorr, \"Construction as existence proof in ancient geometry\", p. 125, as selected by Jean Christianidis (ed.), Classics in the history of Greek mathematics, Kluwer. Gregory Vlastos, Myles Burnyeat (1994) Socratic studies, Cambridge ISBN 0-521- 44735-6, p. 1 \"Neutral hypotheses, those of which the subject matter can never be directly proved or disproved, are very numerous in all sciences.\" — Morris Cohen and Ernest Nagel (1934) An introduction to logic and scientific method p. 375. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company. \"Bellarmine (Ital. Bellarmino), Roberto Francesco Romolo\", Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition.: 'Bellarmine did not proscribe the Copernican system ... all he claimed was that it should be presented as a hypothesis until it should receive 74 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
scientific demonstration.' This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Hypothesis\". Encyclopædia Britannica. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 208. Crease, Robert P. (2008) The Great Equations ISBN 978-0-393-06204-5, p.112 lists the conservation of energy as an example of accounting a constant of motion. Hypothesized by Sadi Carnot, truth demonstrated by James Prescott Joule, proven by Emmy Noether. Textbook references Harvard Business Review (2013) \"Why Lean Start-up Changes Everything\" Tristan Kromer 2014 \"Success Metric vs. Fail Condition\" Lean Start-up Circle \"What is Lean Start-up?\" Popper 1959 \"When it is not clear under which law of nature an effect or class of effect belongs, we try to fill this gap by means of a guess. Such guesses have been given the name conjectures or hypotheses.” Hans Christian Ørsted(1811) \"First Introduction to General Physics\" ¶18. Selected Scientific Works of Hans Christian Ørsted, ISBN 0- 691-04334-5 p.297 Schick, Theodore; Vaughn, Lewis (2002). How to think about weird things: critical thinking for a New Age. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 0-7674- 2048-9. Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. Eprint via Answers.com. See in \"hypothesis\", Century Dictionary Supplement, v. 1, 1909, New York: The Century Company. Reprinted, v. 11, p. 616 (via Internet Archive) of the Century Dictionary and Cyclopaedia, 1911. Website https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-a-hypotheses.html https://conjointly.com/kb/hypotheses-explained/ https://www.dictionary.com/browse/hypothesis 75 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT - 4: FACT AND THEORY STRUCTURE 3.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Face and Theory 4.2.1 Meaning 4.2.2 Interrelation 4.3 Summary 4.4 Keywords 4.5 Learning Activity 4.6 Unit End Questions 4.7 References 4.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After this unit, we can able to know: To discuss about the fact in social science research. To outline the figure in research methods. 4.1 INTRODUCTION \"At the point when you drop a pencil, it tumbles to the ground.\" This one is really direct; however it has a major proviso. In science, a reality is a perception that has been affirmed so often that researchers can; all things considered, acknowledge it as \"valid.\" But everything in science accompanies a degree of vulnerability, so nothing is ever logically \"valid\" without question. You could say that \"all swans are white\" is a reality;however there's consistently the possibility you could see a dark swan and toss that reality out the window. Moreover, you could say it's undeniably true's that each time you let go of a pencil, it will drop to the floor, yet science leaves space for the vanishingly, imperceptibly little possibility that it may not. Hypothesis 76 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
\"Mass and energy cause space-time to bend, and the power of gravity emerge from the ebb and flow of room time.\" A hypothesis is a clarification of some part of the regular world that is very much validated by realities, tried speculations, and laws. Cited above is a worked on rendition of Einstein's overall hypothesis of relativity. Newton said that two articles draw in dependent on how enormous they are and the distance between them; Einstein said this happens on the grounds that the mass of each item in a real sense mutilates the texture of the universe, and the more noteworthy the mass, the more prominent the bending. A hypothesis is the granddaddy of every single logical assertion, which is the reason it's a horrible idea to say that advancement is \"only a hypothesis.\" As Joe Hanson places it in his video for It's Okay to Be Smart, \"Quit saying it like something awful. Considering it a hypothesis implies it's breezed through the hardest assessments that we can toss at it, and advancement has been tried possibly more than any hypothesis that we are aware of.\" In any case, as we said, science says nothing with 100% sureness. Einstein's hypothesis separates when you apply it to quantum mechanics, which manages the conduct of small subatomic particles. Subsequently, numerous researchers are tossing new theories about gravity into the ring. However, that doesn't mean Einstein wasn't right. General relativity clarifies by far most of our perceptions, and each time researchers have attempted to refute it, they've fizzled. That is the strength of a logical hypothesis: It's based on a solid enough establishment that regardless of whether you track down a couple of breaks in it, you can believe that the construction all in all will stay standing. One wellspring of disarray about the situation with the science or hypothesis of development comes from the contrast between the \"ordinary\" which means of \"hypothesis\" and the logical importance the word. Underneath we show some normal misguided judgments about the expression \"hypothesis\" and portray a homeroom movement that can assist understudies with reevaluating their comprehension of this term. Misinterpretation 1 \"Development is 'only a hypothesis'\". Misinterpretation 2 \"Hypotheses become realities when they are all around upheld as well as demonstrated.\" There are three significant misinterpretations proliferated in the above assertions. The main assertion infers that a hypothesis ought to be deciphered as a supposition or a hunch, though in science, the term hypothesis is utilized in an unexpected way. The subsequent assertion suggests that hypotheses become realities, in some kind of direct movement. In science, 77 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
hypotheses never become realities. Maybe, hypotheses clarify realities. The third confusion is that logical exploration gives verification in the feeling of achieving the essential fact of the matter. Logical information is consistently conditional and subject to correction should new proof become exposed. Study hall Activity \"Truth Hypothesis-Theory Word Jumble\" 1. Provide understudies for certain instances of a hypothesis, truth, theory, and law. 2. Discuss every model with understudies, zeroing in on whether the assertion depends on proof and under what conditions the assertion is valid. 3. Ask understudies to arrange these assertions in some sort of relative request, from that which they most promptly acknowledge to that which they consider generally conditional. 4. Provide understudies with the meanings of these terms from the National Academy of Sciences Fact: In science, an observation that has been repeatedly confirmed and for all practical purposes is accepted as “true”. Truth in science, however, is never final and what is accepted as a fact today may be modified or even discarded tomorrow. Hypothesis: A tentative statement about the natural world leading to deductions that can be tested. If the deductions are verified, the hypothesis is provisionally corroborated. If the deductions are incorrect, the original hypothesis is proved false and must be abandoned or modified. Hypotheses can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations. Law: A descriptive generalization about how some aspect of the natural world behaves under stated circumstances. Theory: In science, a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses. Ask students to identify each of the original statements as a Fact, Hypothesis, Law, or Theory and to revisit the arrange of statements, from that which they would most readily accept to that which they consider most tentative, and make any changes deemed necessary. Did the order change? If so, how and why? 78 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4.2 FACE AND THEORY \"At the point when you drop a pencil, it tumbles to the ground.\" This one is really direct;however, it has a major proviso. In science, a reality is a perception that has been affirmed so often that researchers can; all things considered, acknowledge it as \"valid.\" But everything in science accompanies a degree of vulnerability, so nothing is ever logically \"valid\" without question. You could say that \"all swans are white\" is a reality; however, there's consistently the possibility you could see a dark swan and toss that reality out the window. Moreover, you could say it's undeniably true that each time you let go of a pencil, it will drop to the floor, yet science leaves space for the vanishingly, imperceptibly little possibility that it may not. Hypothesis \"Mass and energy cause space-time to bend, and the power of gravity emerge from the ebb and flow of room time.\" A hypothesis is a clarification of some part of the regular world that is very much validated by realities, tried speculations, and laws. Cited above is a worked-on rendition of Einstein's overall hypothesis of relativity. Newton said that two articles draw in dependent on how enormous they are and the distance between them; Einstein said this happens on the grounds that the mass of each item in a real sense mutilates the texture of the universe, and the more noteworthy the mass, the more prominent the bending. A hypothesis is the granddaddy of every single logical assertion, which is the reason it's a horrible idea to say that advancement is \"only a hypothesis.\" As Joe Hanson places it in his video for It's Okay to Be Smart, \"Quit saying it like something awful. Considering it a hypothesis implies it's breezed through the hardest assessments that we can toss at it, and advancement has been tried possibly more than any hypothesis that we are aware of.\" In any case, as we said, science says nothing with 100% sureness. Einstein's hypothesis separates when you apply it to quantum mechanics, which manages the conduct of small subatomic particles. Subsequently, numerous researchers are tossing new theories about gravity into the ring. However, that doesn't mean Einstein wasn't right. General relativity clarifies by far most of our perceptions, and each time researchers have attempted to refute it, they've fizzled. That is the strength of a logical hypothesis: It's based on a solid enough establishment that regardless of whether you track down a couple of breaks in it, you can believe that the construction all in all will stay standing. 79 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
One wellspring of disarray about the situation with the science or hypothesis of development comes from the contrast between the \"ordinary\" which means of \"hypothesis\" and the logical importance the word. Underneath we show some normal misguided judgments about the expression \"hypothesis\" and portray a homeroom movement that can assist understudies with re-evaluating their comprehension of this term. Misinterpretation 1 \"Development is 'only a hypothesis'\". Misinterpretation 2 \"Hypotheses become realities when they are all around upheld as well as demonstrated.\" There are three significant misinterpretations proliferated in the above assertions. The main assertion infers that a hypothesis ought to be deciphered as a supposition or a hunch, though in science, the term hypothesis is utilized in an unexpected way. The subsequent assertion suggests that hypotheses become realities, in some kind of direct movement. In science, hypotheses never become realities. Maybe, hypotheses clarify realities. The third confusion is that logical exploration gives verification in the feeling of achieving the essential fact of the matter. Logical information is consistently conditional and subject to correction should new proof become exposed. Study hall Activity \"Truth Hypothesis-Theory Word Jumble\" 1. Provide understudies for certain instances of a hypothesis, truth, theory, and law. 2. Discuss every model with understudies, zeroing in on whether the assertion depends on proof and under what conditions the assertion is valid. 3. Ask understudies to arrange these assertions in some sort of relative request, from that which they most promptly acknowledge to that which they consider generally conditional. 4. Provide understudies with the meanings of these terms from the National Academy of Sciences 4.2.1 Meaning The American Chemical Society (ACS) emphatically upholds the incorporation of development in K–12 science educational plans at an age-proper level since this hypothesis is vital to our cutting-edge comprehension of science. The hypothesis of development isn't a theory, yet the experimentally acknowledged clarification of the undeniable truth that life and its many structures has changed throughout the long term. Tons of long periods of logical perception and experimentation and a huge number of companion explored logical distributions, advancement gives researchers and understudies a binding together idea that 80 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
clarifies the unbelievably rich variety of living things and their ability to change and develop after some time. Advancement is a functioning field of examination where new revelations keep on expanding our insight and comprehension of the particular cycles and ways that natural living beings have followed over the billions of years that life has existed on the planet. A focal part of science and biotechnology, current transformative hypothesis is likewise founded on proof gotten from science, physical science, geography, and different disciplines. As a result of the mind-boggling proof supporting advancement, it is perceived and embraced as a vital guideline of science, comparable to the nuclear hypothesis of issue, and as a focal topic of science schooling by all major logical social orders. Science and religion are two unique human exercises that look to comprehend our reality. Science thoroughly applies the perception of regular marvels and frameworks in addition to investigations of changes to these normal frameworks, to foster models that clarify the request and capacity of the universe. As a critical rule of science, developmental hypothesis can't be excused or lessened by portraying it as simple guess or theory. Besides, in light of the fact that it has created out of logical examinations, advancement can't be likened with socially or strictly inferred convictions. Developmental hypothesis, similar to all logical depictions of the functions of nature, is dependent upon proceeding with change to reflect new information acquired through perception and experimentation. The U.S. training framework has seen rehashed endeavors to consolidate strict convictions into logical educational programs as an antithesis to transformative hypothesis. Most as of late these endeavors have zeroed in on astute plan, which has been misrepresented as a logical hypothesis by its foremost defenders. Since insightful plan isn't based upon a deductively testable speculation, isn't gotten from a base of legitimate trial contemplates, can't highlight any logically approved assemblage of writing, and makes no testable expectations, it can't be depicted as a logical hypothesis. The consideration of non-logical clarifications in science educational programs distorts the nature and cycles of science. It additionally compromises a focal motivation behind government funded training—the arrangement of a deductively proficient populace and labor force. Depicting non-logical substance as science in educational program at any instructive level represents a danger to the future logical, mechanical, and financial intensity of the country. The American Chemical Society perceives the basic significance of the logical standards typified in developmental hypothesis and desires 81 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
ACS individuals to teach themselves about difficulties to the legitimacy of logical information and effectively participate in endeavors to uncover deceptions of logical reality, including endeavors pointed toward likening non-logical creation convictions with logical information. State and neighborhood training specialists to help great science principles and educational plans that insist development as the main logically acknowledged clarification for the beginning and variety of species. School executives and educational program directors to guarantee that advancement is instructed in their homerooms, precisely addressed in science course books, and fittingly surveyed through neighborhood and state science tests. Position in a word Supports instructing of developments and goes against substitute, non-logical hypotheses. Urges states and territories to help excellent science principles and educational plans. Science and religion are two unique human exercises that try to comprehend our reality. Science thoroughly applies the perception of normal wonders and frameworks in addition to investigations of changes to these regular frameworks, to foster models that clarify the request and capacity of the universe. As a critical rule of science, developmental hypothesis can't be excused or lessened by portraying it as simple guess or theory. Moreover, in light of the fact that it has created out of logical examinations, advancement can't be compared with socially or strictly inferred convictions. Transformative hypothesis, similar to all logical depictions of the activities of nature, is dependent upon proceeding with adjustment to reflect new information acquired through perception and experimentation. The U.S. training framework has seen rehashed endeavors to consolidate strict convictions into logical educational programs as an antithesis to transformative hypothesis. Most as of late these endeavors have zeroed in on astute plan, which has been misrepresented as a logical hypothesis by its foremost defenders. Since smart plan isn't based upon a logically testable speculation, isn't gotten from a base of substantial test considers, can't highlight any experimentally approved assemblage of writing, and makes no testable expectations, it can't be depicted as a logical hypothesis. The consideration of non-logical clarifications in science educational programs distorts the nature and cycles of science. It additionally compromises a focal motivation behind government funded instruction—the arrangement of a deductively proficient populace and labor force. Depicting non-logical substance as science in educational 82 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
program at any instructive level represents a danger to the future logical, mechanical, and monetary seriousness of the country. The American Chemical Society perceives the basic significance of the logical standards typified in transformative hypothesis and inclinations ACS individuals to instruct themselves about difficulties to the legitimacy of logical information and effectively participate in endeavors to uncover deceptions of logical reality, including endeavors pointed toward comparing non-logical creation convictions with logical information. State and neighborhood training specialists to help great science principles and educational plans that insist development as the main logically acknowledged clarification for the beginning and variety of species. School heads and educational program chiefs to guarantee that development is instructed in their study halls, precisely addressed in science course books, and fittingly surveyed through neighborhood and state science tests. 4.2.2 Interrelation Reality versus Theory The terms reality and hypothesis are words with various implications. Albeit both are utilized in a wide range of fields of studies, they actually figure out how to have their own particular definitions that different one from the other. One specific field, wherein the two terms are ordinarily utilized is in Science. In the logical world, realities (or logical realities) are what one can promptly notice. It can relate to any evenhanded and genuine marvel may it be the falling of the ball subsequent to being tossed upwards or other straightforward perceptible events? In such manner, the truth of the matter is that the ball will fall. All the more along these lines, if this test is being done over and over under a controlled climate that drops all superfluous factors the wonder would have turned into a hard to miss and irrefutable truth. It is viewed as a reality since it will stay as evident even following a few centuries except if there is a more inflexible and exact method of estimating a specific wonder. 83 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Unexpectedly, hypotheses in science are compared to the clarifications to what exactly has been noticed. It is somewhat more noteworthy in weight to what a speculation is. On the off chance that a speculation (an insightful theory) is the respectable starting point of detailing a logical law then hypotheses are set at the respectable halfway point. These are the explanations that are thought to be valid (on the grounds that they appear so) regardless of whether there are no hundred percent substantial confirmations. By the by, hypotheses are constantly introduced to be valid regardless of whether the cases in the said hypotheses are simple theories or an overall arrangement between a critical quantities of specialists. In addition, speculations are the explanations that frequently go through a progression of tests to invalidate the cases made by the people who propose them. English has a jargon of thousands of words and we can anticipate that this language should flaunt approaches to communicate various ideas. There are some notable models, without a doubt, for different depictions for a similar thought or thing. Additionally, notwithstanding the variety coming about because of the historical backdrop of semantic hybridization, English tends to acclimatize words from different dialects as well. Science is surely no special case. With regards to probably the most crucial ideas in science, there is no shortage of various wordings. More terrible, a few words which have generally clear implications in the vernacular are utilized in science with various definitions. This marvel significantly befuddles conversations in science with regards to non-logical themes. Some broad terms like reality and hypothesis additionally fall into such disarray. We now and then hear advancement being minimized on the grounds that it is \"only a hypothesis\". While gravity is viewed as 100% genuine. It is excessively completely demonstrated to the point that it may even be known as a \"logical truth\". The words \"reality\" and \"hypothesis\" have their own particular implications in the realm of science and they don't coordinate precisely with the language we use in our everyday life. There is a multifaceted connection among truth and hypothesis. Fact versus Theory The distinction among reality and hypothesis is that reality is normally considered as a portrayed situation where the portrayals are valid and profoundly upheld. A hypothesis, then 84 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
again, is a sensibly associated set of speculation and realities which cautiously clarifies perceptions of the normal world that have been developed utilizing a logical technique. Comparison Table between Fact and Theory Parameters of Theory Fact Comparison Definition Fact is something that has The theory is a carefully thought occurred or that which is true scientific explanation for observations in or something that has been the natural world and which brings proven right together many facts and hypothesis Based on Observation or research Repeated observations and scientific research Represents Something that really Something that has been predicted or happened could possible occur Change Facts do not change and are Theories may change or the way they are universally accepted interpreted may change Debatable Facts cannot be debated Theories can be debated and changed What is a Fact? Realities are developed and are not level headed. There could be no legitimate test for what is a reality. When Albert Einstein was addressed, \"How might you separate reality from fiction in science?\" He came out with a splendid nutty reply, \"There is no goal test.\" In science, the truth of the matter is a perception that has been affirmed so often. Subsequently, researchers in every practical sense, acknowledge a reality to be valid. However, everything in science accompanies a specific degree of vulnerability. So nothing is at any point deductively evident past a shade of uncertainty. 85 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
It's obviously true that each time you drop a pencil; it will fall onto the floor. However, science leaves space for a little possibility that it probably won't fall too. Realities in science are not just given over to us by the logical world. They are likewise not discretionary shows or developments made by in the realm of science. They are a consequence of our connections with the world and the endeavor by researchers. The researchers apply thorough norms and guarantee that the realities are dependable. Disputable realities, like cases on a worldwide temperature alteration, go through a great deal of investigate from a wide range of points. The versatility of realities under tension should give us genuine feelings of serenity that we can trust these realities. What is Theory? A hypothesis is a conviction, a thought, or a bunch of rules that clarifies something. This arrangement of standards might be coordinated in a straightforward way or could be intricate in nature. Speculations are not realities. They are expectations that should be tried for their existence. A hypothesis in science is a clarification that is upheld by exact proof. In this manner a logical hypothesis depends on a cautious and sensible assessment of realities. A hypothesis clarifies a few parts of the regular world that are all around validated by realities, theories, and laws. Speculations are more than once tried with experimentation and perceptions. They are checked and affirmed to check whether they can anticipate and clarify their wonders of interest. The hypothesis is the focal point of the improvement of social work mediations. This is on the grounds that it decides the idea of our answers for recognized issues. Environmental change and advancement are two famous speculations that have been very much validated throughout the long term. These themes have been regularly assaulted for being hypothetically based. Yet, in the realm of science, the term hypothesis isn't so trivial. 86 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Researchers have passed on space for examination to assemble support for the clarifications given. A clarification arrives at the degree of being a hypothesis when the theory has been all around upheld and there is no significant proof despite what is generally expected. Main Differences between Fact and Theory 1. Definition: Fact is an observation that is known or proved to be true whereas Theory is a system of ideas intended to explain something about a certain phenomenon. 2. Evidence: Fact is something that has been proven. There is evidence of whether a fact is true or not. But a theory is a prediction or belief or idea that explains something. 3. Change: Facts do not change and are universally accepted. Theories can change but it is a very long process. 4. Explains: A Fact explains something that actually exists or the truth whereas a Theory attempts to explain how or why something happens. 5. Debatable: A Fact is not debatable as it is based on a true fact or on reality but a Theory is debatable as it is on a predicted phenomenon. 6. Honesty: A Fact is an honest observation but a Theory is an exhaustive explanation describing a particular class of constructs. 4.3 SUMMARY It is accepted the terms Fact and Theory are said to have clear implications and clear associations with one another. In any case, their accounts and uses are more perplexing and various than that may be normal. Both these words are assortments of models of reality which we use to decide. A Fact is viewed as an exactly certain marvel and a Theory alludes to the connection between realities. Realities would never have created present day science in case they were assembled indiscriminately. Simultaneously hypothesis can't yield any expectations with no legitimate framework. Thus the advancement in science can be considered as a steady exchange among Fact and Theory. Realities start hypothesis. They can prompt dismissals and reformulations of existing speculations. Consequently Facts can change the concentration and direction of Theory. 4.4 KEYWORDS Explains: A Fact explains something that actually exists or the truth whereas a Theory attempts to explain how or why something happens. 87 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Debatable: A Fact is not debatable as it is based on a true fact or on reality but a Theory is debatable as it is on a predicted phenomenon. Honesty: A Fact is an honest observation but a Theory is an exhaustive explanation describing a particular class of constructs. Definition: Fact is an observation that is known or proved to be true whereas Theory is a system of ideas intended to explain something about a certain phenomenon. Evidence: Fact is something that has been proven. There is evidence of whether a fact is true or not. But a theory is a prediction or belief or idea that explains something. Change: Facts do not change and are universally accepted. Theories can change but it is a very long process. 4.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define Fact. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. State the comparison Facts and Figure. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is Facts? 2. What is figure? 3. What is Evidence? 4. What is change? 5. Give definition of Explains. Long Questions 1. What are the main Differences between Fact and Theory? 2. Discuss in details about Fact vs Theory. 3. Discuss about the fact in social science research. 4. Write in details about the figure in research methods. 88 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5. Write about the significance of fact and figures. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. What is ACS? a. The American Chemical Society b. The African Chemical Society c. The Asian Chemical Society d. The Association Chemical Society 2. What is a method of statistical analysis where data that share a common trait are grouped together? a. Central Tendency b. Cluster Analysis c. Chi-square Analysis d. Classification 3. Who wrote Philosophical dictionary? a. Bunge, M. b. Borgues. L c. Lila Hassan d. J. Sico 4. Who wrote Truth? a. J. Sico b. Engel, Pascal c. Bunge, M. d. Lila Hassan 89 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5. Who edited the volume Fact, in The Oxford Companion to Philosophy? a. M. Salam b. B. Chaudhury c. Bunge, M. d. Ted Honderich Answers 1-a, 2-b, 3-a, 4-b, 5-d 4.7 REFERENCES References book Understanding Evolution and UC Museum of Paleontology From the PBS Evolution series \"Evolving Ideas: Isn’t Evolution Just a Theory?\" \"Theory in Theory and Practice\" (pdf) by NCSE's Glenn Branch and Louise Mead Evol Edu Outreach 1:287-289, 2008 \"Evolution as Fact, Theory, and Path\" by Ryan Gregory, Evo Edu Outreach 1:46-52, 2008. \"The Role of Theory in Advancing 21st Century Biology\", a special brief report from the National Academies of Science, 2007 (pdf) Text Books Bunge, M. (2003), Philosophical dictionary. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, p. 104. \"Fact\". OED_2d_Ed_1989, (but note the conventional uses: after the fact and before the fact). According to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, \"Fact has a long history of usage in the sense 'allegation'\" AHD_4th_Ed. The OED dates this use to 1729. Roger Bacon, translated by Robert Burke Opus Majus, Book I, Chapter 2. \"A fact, it might be said, is a state of affairs that is the case or obtains.\" – Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. States of Affairs 90 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
See Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, and Proposition 2: What is the case—a fact—is the existence of states of affairs. \"A fact is, traditionally, the worldly correlate of a true proposition, a state of affairs whose obtaining makes that proposition true.\" – Fact in The Oxford Companion to Philosophy Alex Oliver, Fact, in Craig, Edward (2005). Shorter Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Routledge, Oxford. ISBN 0-415-32495-5. Engel, Pascal (2002). Truth. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. ISBN 0-7735-2462-2. The argument is presented in many places, but sees for example Davidson, Truth and Meaning, in Davidson, Donald (1984). Truth and Interpretation. Clarendon Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-824617-X. \"Facts possess internal structure, being complexes of objects and properties or relations\" Oxford Companion to Philosophy Fact, in The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Ted Honderich, editor. (Oxford, 1995) Website https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=hFn1Zx_desIC&oi=fnd&pg=PP13& dq=fact+and+theory+difference+in+science&ots=MGTxINYQ8N&sig=nv9vqVU5uc WiOjGDtZTu31mVNXI https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Cf7ProAtFBkC&oi=fnd&pg=PP11& dq=fact+and+theory+difference+in+science&ots=V7Wwf-wuiF&sig=DJQIR- Bm4nFCaF1CnDqUAAElJ54 https://www.nature.com/articles/nsmb0205-101#article-info http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference-between-fact-and-theory/ https://www.discovery.com/science/Difference-Between-Fact-Hypothesis-Theory- Law-Science 91 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT - 5: TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION STRUCTURE 5.0 Learning Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Observation 5.2.1 Definition 5.2.2 Merits and Demerits and types 5.2.3 Participants and Non-Participants 5.3 Summary 5.4 Keywords 5.5 Learning Activity 5.6 Unit End Questions 5.7 References 5.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After this unit, we can able to know: To discuss about the method of Observation To discover the definition of observation method. To outline the Merits and Demerits of observation method. To discuss about the Types of observation method. To sketch the Participants and Non-Participants. 5.1 INTRODUCTION Data Collection Technique The clinician oneself is, in any case, likewise an information assortment \"method\". She or he is a basic component in the clinician-patient framework (Henderson, 1935) and accordingly is an indispensable piece of the information to be gotten from the exchange among grown-up and kid in the appraisal setting. She or he is additionally basic to the assortment of environmentally significant information from the nonclinical climate through the clinical meeting. 92 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Grown-up Child System/Transaction The practices of grown-up and kid in the clinical setting are proportional. The grown-up normally upholds the exchange by providing what is expected to work with ideal correspondence in the dyad. This requires the clinician to know about their own conduct benchmark, to screen any change from gauge that this specific kid under this specific interest evokes, and to effectively test the theories that such social change sets up. In this way, seeing that one is easing back, rearranging, rehashing, and additionally rewording one's expressions throughout progressing discussion sets up a speculation of potential language disability and necessitates that the inspector analyze exhaustively the youngster's language preparing abilities, both in semantic connections and on explicit trial of language limits—just as other, not obviously related, abilities that may likewise rely upon the respectability of left half of the globe cerebrum instruments. (These should be gotten from both language and no language social areas. Shortages in language alone would not be an adequate trial of the neuropsychological theory, that is, one determined as far as a neural substrate: such would just give data at the mental degree of examination.) Such a speculation additionally, nonetheless, necessitates that the analyst effectively search for, and assess the effect of, different purposes behind eased back yield or need for redundancy, like an overall pace of handling shortfall, attentional flimsiness, or hearing hindrance. These would then be found with regards to an alternate indicative social bunch. Note that the adjustment of the analyst's conduct inspired during the association with the youngster will be an individual from the analytic social group, identical in this regard to test scores, nature of execution, noteworthy factors, etc. The insightful meeting. Talking strategy, the capacity to inspire data from guardians, instructors, etc that is as liberated from inclination as could really be expected, is critical to any mental evaluation approach. Great meeting procedure is in this manner a sine qua non of the clinician's armamentarium and ought to be embraced in efficient design (Maloney and Ward, 1976). The meeting is a characteristic piece of the neuropsychological appraisal (rather than testing), and not isolated from it. It is accordingly administered by the exploration plan and hypothetical standards of the appraisal. Given this, talking with procedures should be stretched out and custom-made to the neuropsychological setting explicitly. Talking is a functioning cycle wherein no perception is taken \"cold,\" all perceptions is examined considering their likely neuropsychological source or suggestions. Interviewees are hence questioned to clarify the real conduct (as opposed to a deciphered form thereof) that they are depicting. Techniques include: inquiry giving a designated difference of an enlightening mark (e.g., a youngster's reaction of \"This is 93 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
exhausting\" evokes \"Is it exhausting simple or exhausting hard?\"); clinical investigation of a distinct name (a parent or educator portrayal of uneasiness prompts the talented inspector to consider the real practices that would lead the layman to utilize the name \"nervousness\"— like press of discourse or engine movement—and to effectively question the nature of discourse and additionally engine designs with the end goal of assessing the chance of neuropsychological, as opposed to passionate, factors adding to the noticed conduct); and elicitation of pertinent tales (a grievance of memory issues in a kid drives the clinician to request a particular illustration of the sort of circumstance wherein the issue happens—so the individual can consider it from a more extensive neuropsychological viewpoint that might well incorporate language handling or attentional issues, for instance). The information from this insightful meeting procedure is crosschecked (where conceivable) against reports from others/sources, or potentially the neuropsychological theories to which they give rise are tried against different kinds of appraisal data (i.e., multimethod, multi-attribute examination). Data collection and analysis Contextual investigation research normally incorporates different information assortment strategies and information is gathered from numerous sources. Information assortment methods incorporate meetings, perceptions (direct and member), surveys, and significant archives (Yin, 2014). For definite conversations of polls, meetings and perception, see Chapter 16: Questionnaires, individual meetings, and center gathering meetings and Chapter 17: Observation. The utilization of numerous information assortment strategies and sources reinforces the believability of results and empowers various translations and implications to be remembered for information examination. This is known as triangulation (Flick, 2014). In the event that study researches, the information gathered are normally subjective (words, implications, sees) however can likewise be quantitative (expressive numbers, tables). Subjective information investigation might be utilized in principle building and hypothesis testing. Hypothesis building might utilize the grounded hypothesis approach. Hypothesis testing normally includes design coordinating (Yin, 2014). This depends on the examination of anticipated results with noticed information. Subjective information investigation is typically profoundly iterative. Visual showcases of subjective information utilizing networks (orders of information utilizing at least two measurements) might be utilized to find associations between the coded sections (Crabtree and Miller, 1999; Miles et al., 2014). Information examination might be embraced inside a case and furthermore between cases for numerous situation concentrate on research (Eisenhardt, 1989). Quantitative information is commonly introduced in unmistakable, even structure and used to feature attributes of contextual investigation associations and interviewees. 94 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Solicited and Spontaneous Data A qualification that includes all essential information assortment strategies is that between information that are requested and information that are unconstrained. In tests, studies, and much subjective exploration, the scientist utilizes a boost (test variable, overview question, or open inquiry) to evoke data from the examination subjects. Expressly requesting data enjoys the benefit that the scientist can plan the information assortment to ideally give information given the exploration question. Notwithstanding, the inconvenience is that the exploration subjects know that they are participating in a logical report. As an outcome, they might respond to the declaration of the review subject, the foundation that supports the review or completes it, the singular experimenter or questioner, etc. It isn't certain whether the recorded conduct or reaction is the \"valid\" conduct, that is, regardless of whether a similar conduct would have happened normally, in the event that it had not been inspired. The conceivable reactivity of exploration subjects can be evaded by noticing normal exercises or the follows they abandon, without upsetting the examination subjects in any capacity. Nonreactive or nonintrusive essential information assortment techniques incorporate (incognito) perception and observing. Perception, which should be possible in the genuine area or distantly utilizing video innovation, can prompt both quantitative and subjective information. Progressively, mechanical advances make it conceivable to screen exercises without upsetting the subjects. For example, media research overall no longer depends on a board of respondents who report on their TV seeing; all things considered, in chose families a checking gadget is introduced in the TV that screens the TV use and sends the data to the scientists without upsetting the respondents. Examining gadgets are utilized to screen customer conduct. Web conduct can likewise be observed. For example, when individuals visit a particular Web website, it is easy to screen which pennants and buttons they click on, how long they stay on the page, where they come from, and where they go to when they leave the webpage. This gives data without straightforwardly including the subjects in any capacity. Meetings The first and most well-known information assortment strategy for evoking peculiar feeling content is organized and semi organized top to bottom meetings with open-finished and examining questions actuating a competitor's review of considerations and sentiments before and during best and most noticeably terrible exhibitions. It is generally prescribed in pilot and exploratory examinations to create quirky names and afterward to total most chosen things into a boost list or normalized feeling scale. Distinguishing particular substance and actually significant marks to depict competitors' abstract encounters is a reasonable benefit of these 95 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
meetings over polls with analyst produced things and \"fixed\" feeling content. Experienced and verbally talented competitors can give point by point and significant records of their encounters (how they felt) and meta-encounters (how they deciphered and adapted to these sentiments) preceding and additionally during the opposition. Competitors who are less mindful of their presentation related encounters may need some support at first in organizing and centering their review. What is Data Collection? Information assortment is a systematic course of social occasion and dissecting explicit data to proffer answers for important inquiries and assess the outcomes. It centers around discovering everything to a specific topic. Information is gathered to be additionally exposed to theory testing which tries to clarify a wonder. Speculation testing disposes of suppositions while making a suggestion from the premise of reason. For gatherers of information, there is a scope of results for which the information is gathered. However, the vital reason for which information is gathered is to place an analyst in a vantage position to make expectations about future probabilities and patterns. The center structures in which information can be gathered are essential and optional information. While the previous is gathered by an analyst through direct sources, the last is gathered by an individual other than the client. Types of Data Collection Prior to proposing the topic of the different sorts of information assortment. It is relevant to take note of that information assortment in itself falls under two general classifications; Primary information assortment and auxiliary information assortment. Essential Data Collection Essential information assortment by definition is the social occasion of crude information gathered at the source. It is a course of gathering the first information gathered by a specialist for a particular exploration reason. It very well may be additionally dissected into two sections; subjective exploration and quantitative information assortment techniques. 96 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Subjective Research Method The subjective examination strategies for information assortment don't include the assortment of information that includes numbers or a should be concluded through a numerical computation; rather it depends on the non-quantifiable components like the inclination or feeling of the specialist. An illustration of such a technique is an open-finished survey. Figure 5.1: Types of Data Collection Techniques Quantitative Method Quantitative methods are presented in numbers and require a mathematical calculation to deduce. An example would be the use of a questionnaire with close-ended questions to arrive at figures to be calculated mathematically. Also, methods of correlation and regression, mean, mode and median. 97 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Figure 5.2: Quantitative Method Secondary Data Collection Optional information assortment, then again, is alluded to as the social affair of recycled information gathered by a not person the first client. It is the method involved with gathering information that as of now exists, be it previously distributed books, diaries, and additionally online entryways. As far as simplicity, it is considerably less costly and simpler to gather. Your decision between Primary information assortment and optional information assortment relies upon the nature, extension, and space of your exploration just as its points and targets. Importance of Data Collection There are a lot of fundamental explanations behind gathering information, particularly for an analyst. Strolling you through them, the following are a couple of reasons; Trustworthiness of the Research A critical justification for gathering information is it through quantitative or subjective techniques is to guarantee that the uprightness of the examination question is without a doubt kept up with. Diminish the probability of blunders The right utilization of proper information assortment of strategies diminishes the probability of mistakes predictable with the outcomes. 98 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Dynamic To limit the danger of mistakes in dynamic, it is significant that exact information is gathered so the analyst doesn't settle on clueless choices. Save Cost and Time Information assortment saves the scientist time and supports that would somehow or another be squandered without a more profound comprehension of the point or topic. To help a requirement for a groundbreaking thought, change, or potentially advancement To demonstrate the requirement for an adjustment of the standard or the presentation of new data that will be broadly acknowledged, gather information as proof to help these cases. What is a Data Collection Tool? Information assortment apparatuses allude to the gadgets/instruments used to gather information, like a paper poll or PC helped talking with framework. Contextual investigations, Checklists, Interviews, Observation now and then, and Surveys or Questionnaires are for the most part instruments used to gather information. Choose the apparatuses for information assortment since research is completed contrastingly and for various purposes. The goal behind information assortment is to catch quality proof that permits investigation to prompt the definition of persuading and dependable responses to the offered conversation starters. The target behind information assortment is to catch quality proof that permits examination to prompt the detailing of persuading and trustworthy responses to the inquiries that have been presented - Coming up next are the main 7 information assortment strategies for Academic, Opinion- based or item research. Additionally talked about exhaustively is the nature, advantages and disadvantages of every one. Toward the finish of this section, you will be best educated with regards to which strategy best suits your examination. Interview A meeting is an eye to eye discussion between two people with the sole reason for gathering significant data to fulfill an examination reason. Meetings are of various sorts to be specific; Structured, Semi-organized, and unstructured with each having a slight variety from the other. 99 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Utilize this meeting agree structure format to allow an interviewee to give you agree to utilize information gotten from your meetings for insightful examination purposes. Organized Interviews - Simply put, it is a verbally directed survey. As far as profundity, it is surface level and is normally finished inside a brief period. For speed and proficiency, it is enthusiastically recommendable, yet it needs profundity. Semi-organized Interviews - In this technique, there remain alive a few key inquiries which cover the extent of the spaces to be investigated. It permits somewhat more slack for the analyst to investigate the topic. Unstructured Interviews - It is an inside and out meet that permits the specialist to gather a wide scope of data with a reason. A benefit of this technique is the opportunity it gives a specialist to join structure with adaptability despite the fact that it is additional tedious. Pros • In-profundity data • Freedom of adaptability • Accurate information. Cons • Time-burning-through • Expensive to gather What are the best Data Collection Tools for Interviews? For gathering information through interviews, the following are a couple of apparatuses you can use to handily gather information. Sound Recorder A sound recorder is utilized for recording sound on plate, tape, or film. Sound data can address the issues of a wide scope of individuals, just as give choices to print information assortment devices. Computerized Camera A benefit of a computerized camera is that it tends to be utilized for sending those pictures to a screen when the need emerges. 100 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
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