MAP 604 7

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2 M.A.(Psy) Research Methods and Statistics-I Course Code: MAP 604 Semester: First E-Lesson: 5 SLM Unit: 7 https://images.app.goo.gl/ibaW7YhjJ7LmSLJV6 www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

RESEARCH METHODS 33 AND STATISTICS OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION Understand the basic concept and importance of In this unit concepts like reliability and research, the basics of research design and validity will be discussed and also its evaluate types of research designs types. Understand and evaluate the process of The unit further discusses the concepts research and sampling. of sampling and different types of sampling Understand the concepts and explore the types of reliability and validity and evaluate the data analysis. Understand and explore Correlation and Regression and parametric and nonparametric test www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAPP 604) INASlTl ITriUgThEt OarFeDrIeSsTeArNvCeEd AwNitDh OCNUL-IIDNOE LLEARNING

TOPICS TO BE COVERED 4 > Reliability > Validity > Sampling and its types https://images.app.goo.gl/qhiaHBQmdQUHqGr8A www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

RELIABILITY 5 • The term reliability in psychological research refers to the consistency of a research study or measuring test. For example, if a person weighs themselves during the course of a day they would expect to see a similar reading. • Scales which measured weight differently each time would be of little use. • The same analogy could be applied to a tape measure which measures inches differently each time it was used. • It would not be considered reliable. If findings from research are replicated consistently they are reliable. • A correlation coefficient can be used to assess the degree of reliability. If a test is reliable it should show a high positive correlation. • Of course, it is unlikely the exact same results will be obtained each time as participants and situations vary, but a strong positive correlation between the results of the same test indicates reliability. www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF RELIABILITY 6 There are two types of reliability – 1. Internal reliability 2. External reliability. • Internal reliability assesses the consistency of results across items within a test. • External reliability refers to the extent to which a measure varies from one use to another. https://images.app.goo.gl/RTS8yhjcuBZAifBR7 www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF RELIABILITY 7 1. Split-half method : • The split-half method assesses the internal consistency of a test, such as psychometric tests and questionnaires. There, it measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured. • This is done by comparing the results of one half of a test with the results from the other half. • A test can be split in half in several ways, e.g. first half and second half, or by odd and even numbers. • If the two halves of the test provide similar results this would suggest that the test has internal reliability. • The reliability of a test could be improved through using this method. • For example any items on separate halves of a test which have a low correlation (e.g. r = .25) should either be removed or re-written. • The split-half method is a quick and easy way to establish reliability. However it can only be effective with large questionnaires in which all questions measure the same construct. www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF RELIABILITY 8 2.Inter-rater reliability • The test-retest method assesses the external consistency of a test. • This refers to the degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behavior. • Inter-rater reliability can be used for interviews. • Note, it can also be called inter-observer reliability when referring to observational research. • Here researcher when observe the same behavior independently (to avoided bias) and compare their data. • If the data is similar then it is reliable. • Where observer scores do not significantly correlate then reliability can be improved by: • Training observers in the observation techniques being used and making sure everyone agrees with them. • Ensuring behavior categories have been operationalized. This means that they have been objectively defined. www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF RELIABILITY 9 3. Test retest method: It is the oldest and commonly used method of testing reliability. The test retest method assesses the external consistency of a test. • Examples of appropriate tests include questionnaires and psycho metric tests. It measures the stability of a test over time. • A typical assessment would involve giving participants the same test on two separate occasions. Each and every thing from start to end will be same in both tests. • Results of first test need to be correlated with the result of second test. If the same or similar results are obtained then external reliability is established. • The timing of the test is important if the duration is to brief then participants may recall information from the first test which could bias the results. Alternatively, if the duration is too long it is feasible that the participants could have changed in some important way which could also bias the results. • Utility and worth of a psychological test decreases with time so the test should be revised and updated. When tests are not revised systematic error may arise www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF RELIABILITY 10 4. Alternate form : • In alternate form two equivalent forms of the test are administered to the same group of examinees. An individual has given one form of the test and after a period of time the person is given a different version of the same test. • The two form of the rest are then correlated to yield a coefficient of equivalence. 1. Positive point: In alternate form no deal to wait for time. 2. Negative point: It is very hectic and risky task to make two test of equivalent level. www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

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VALIDITY 12 • The validity of a test is its ability to measure what it seeks to measure. For example, if we want to measure depression. the test will be valid if it measures depression only. Although it may seem absurd that a test can measure something we don’t want, a poorly defined instrument can certainly yield poor validity levels. • Research validity in surveys relates to the extent at which the survey measures right elements that need to be measured. In simple terms, validity refers to how well an instrument as measures what it is intended to measure. • Research validity can be divided into two groups: internal and external. It can be specified that “internal validity refers to how the research findings match reality, while external validity refers to the extend to which the research findings can be replicated to other environments” (Pelissier, 2008, p.12). www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF RESEARCH VALIDITY 13 1. Face Validity : is the most basic type of validity and it is associated with a highest level of subjectivity because it is not based on any scientific approach. • In other words, in this case a test may be specified as valid by a researcher because it may seem as valid, without an in-depth scientific justification. • Example: questionnaire design for a study that analyses the issues of employee performance can be assessed as valid because each individual question may seem to be addressing specific and relevant aspects of employee performance. https://images.app.goo.gl/HEcvPUkT1pW9wiy77 www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF RESEARCH VALIDITY 14 2.Construct Validity : relates to assessment of suitability of measurement tool to measure the phenomenon being studied. • Application of construct validity can be effectively facilitated with the involvement of panel of ‘experts’ closely familiar with the measure and the phenomenon. • Example: with the application of construct validity the levels of leadership competency in any given organisation can be effectively assessed by devising questionnaire to be answered by operational level employees and asking questions about the levels of their motivation to do their duties in a daily basis. www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF RESEARCH VALIDITY 15 3. Criterion-Related Validity: involves comparison of tests results with the outcome. • This specific type of validity correlates results of assessment with another criterion of assessment. • Example: nature of customer perception of brand image of a specific company can be assessed via organising a focus group. • The same issue can also be assessed through devising questionnaire to be answered by current and potential customers of the brand. The higher the level of correlation between focus group and questionnaire findings, the high the level of criterion-related validity. 4. Formative Validity: refers to assessment of effectiveness of the measure in terms of providing information that can be used to improve specific aspects of the phenomenon. • Example: when developing initiatives to increase the levels of effectiveness of organisational culture if the measure is able to identify specific weaknesses of organisational culture such as employee-manager communication barriers, then the level of formative validity of the measure can be assessed as adequate www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF RESEARCH VALIDITY 16 5. Sampling Validity: (similar to content validity) ensures that the area of coverage of the measure within the research area is vast. • No measure is able to cover all items and elements within the phenomenon, therefore, important items and elements are selected using a specific pattern of sampling method depending on aims and objectives of the study. • Example: when assessing a leadership style exercised in a specific organisation, assessment of decision-making style would not suffice, and other issues related to leadership style such as organisational culture, personality of leaders, the nature of the industry etc. need to be taken into account as well. 6. Predictive Validity: An indicator predicts future events that are logically related to a construct. In other words, if SAT scores are supposed to predict success rates in college, a student who performs well on the SAT’s should likewise be successful in college, and vice versa. • For example, the validity of a cognitive test for job performance is the correlation between test scores and, in one another example, supervisor performance ratings. Such a cognitive test would have predictive validity if the observed correlation were statistically significant. www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF RESEARCH VALIDITY 17 7. Internal Validity: Means there are no errors internal to the design of the research project. It is used primarily in experimental research to talk about the possibility that an alternative explanation (e.g., a variable not controlled for in the environment) may be the actual cause of the research results. 8. External Validity : It is the ability to generalize findings from a specific setting and small group to abroad range of settings and people. It addresses the question: If something happens in a laboratory or among a particular group of subjects, can the findings be generalized to the “real” (non-laboratory) world or to the general public. It is used primarily in experimental research. 9. Statistical Validity: It addresses the question: Did researcher use the correct statistical procedure(s) and were its assumptions fully met. www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SAMPLING DESIGN 18  Sampling is a fundamental part of statistics.  A sample design is the framework, or road map, that serves as the basis for the selection of a survey sample and affects many other important aspects of a survey as well.  In a broad context, survey researchers are interested in obtaining some type of information through a survey for some population, or universe, of interest. One must define a sampling frame that represents the population of interest, from which a sample is to be drawn. https://images.app.goo.gl/KzQ9tHUhYoMwdTzg8 www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

BASIC SAMPLING DESIGN 19 https://images.app.goo.gl/c9EAY1YoinJANyBQ7 www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

20 In sampling design- what is a sample design? • A sample design is made up of two elements. Random sampling from a finite population refers to that method of sample selection which gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being picked up and each item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the sample. • Sample design methods are typically divided into two types: Non-random and random methods. These two types and commonly-applied methods within each are discussed below. It is not uncommon for sample design for a single project to include aspects of random and non-random selection. www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

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TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING 23 • Probability Sampling: probability sampling is a technique in which every unit on the population has a chance of being selected in the sample. There are some specific types of this sampling. There are some specific subtypes of probability sampling. • There are four types of probability sampling techniques. 1. Simple Random Sampling: in which we draw a https://images.app.goo.gl/7fQeoHwk8VXpWkMM6 sample of size in such a way of that each of the ‘N’ members of the population has the same chance of being included in the sample. www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF NON- PROBABILITY 24 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 2. Systematic Sampling: In this sampling the selection of unit depends upon the Selection of a proceeding unit. • And in this process the first unit is Selected on the random basis then follow a specific order. • For example, a researcher intends to collect a https://images.app.goo.gl/rGpK7kiVpQ4Y7UaCA systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from 1-5000 and every 10th individual will be chosen to be a part of the sample (Total population / Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10). www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF PROBABILITY 25 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 3. Stratified and mixed sampling: In this random sampling we randomly select sample elements • From each layer, or we can say each stratum of the population. Or we can say, in this sampling population is divided in to two or more groups, these groups called strata, such as geographic location, grade level, age, or income. https://images.app.goo.gl/dMY81JXRgcC5s4Xr5 www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF PROBABILITY 26 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 4. Cluster sampling: In this sampling method, We can divide the entire Population into sections or clusters that represent a population. • Clusters are basically identified and included in a sample on the basis of Demo- graphic population such as age, location, sex etc. https://images.app.goo.gl/zDmZ8J1o9AjD7x4YA www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING 27  In non probability sampling, some https://images.app.goo.gl/YvTTwBU4H1iY3bow6 elements of population have no, chance of selection, or we can say where the probability of selection can not be accurately determined and the selection of elements is non random.  There are four types of non probability sampling techniques. 1. Judgement or purposive sampling 2. Quota sampling 3. Snowball sampling 4. Convenience sampling www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF NON- PROBABILITY 28 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 1. Judgmental or Purposive sampling : In this sampling, selecting sample always relate with a Purpose in mind. • This sampling is very useful for situations where we need to reach a targeted sample quickly and easily and we not use any rules or regulations for selecting a sample. • There is no statistical techniques or methods measuring random sampling error in a non probability sampling. www.cuidol.in https://images.app.goo.gl/Ha4sBHDEq9bhygn99 All right are reserved with CU-IDOL Unit-7(MAP 604)

TYPES OF NON- PROBABILITY 29 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 2. Quota sampling: In this sampling, selection of members in this sampling technique happens on basis of a pre-set standard. •In this case, as a sample is formed on basis of specific attributes, the created sample will have the same attributes that are found in the total population. • It is an extremely quick method of collecting samples. https://images.app.goo.gl/js1AwscVmTHzXv2ZA www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF NON- PROBABILITY 30 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 3. Snowball sampling: This sampling is chain- referral Sampling, in this sampling we identify who meets criteria for inclusion in the study, this sampling is especially useful when we are trying to reach population that are hard to find. • This sampling method involves a primary data source nominating other potential data sources that will be able to participate in the research studies. • Snowball sampling is a popular business study method. www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

TYPES OF NON- PROBABILITY 31 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 4. Convenience sampling: This sampling method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. • It is the most commonly used sampling technique as it’s incredibly prompt, uncomplicated, and economical. In many cases, members are readily approachable to be a part of the sample in this sampling. https://images.app.goo.gl/x35izcLKqpEiV4U67 www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUMMARY 32 • Thus the reliability is the consistency of results when the experiment is replicated under the same conditions, which is very different to validity. • These two evaluations of research studies are independent factors, therefore a study can be reliable without being valid, and vice versa, as demonstrated here (this resource also provides more information on types of validity and threats). However, a good study will be both reliable and valid. • So we can say that, validity is very important in a research study to ensure that our results can be used effectively, and variables that may threaten validity should be controlled as much as possible. • In sampling techniques, probability random sampling is more preferable because the researcher generate his data for the use of entire population by using probabilistic method to control biased during the sampling, based on evidence generated by the agencies of statistical official that the non-probability techniques is based on purpose that lead to assumption which resulting to risk. www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 33 1. Which of the following refers to inter relate reliability: a) The degree to which two tests measure the same construct. b) The degree to which a clinician can predict future behavior. c) The degree to which a clinician can predict future behavior. d) The degree to which the items in the test relate to each other. 2. Face validity refers to which of the following: a) Facial expression is used to make a diagnosis. b) The scale of emotional responding. c) the notion that an assessment method may appear to be valid simply because it has questions which intuitively seem relevant to the trait or characteristic being measured. d) A construct is a hypothetical or inferred attribute that may not be directly observable or directly measurable. • Answers: 1.d) 2.c) www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 34 3. In which of the following types of sampling the information is carried out under the opinion of an expert? a) quota sampling b) convenience sampling c) purposive sampling d) judgment sampling 4. Selection of a football team for FIFA World Cup is called as? a) random sampling b) systematic sampling c) purposive sampling d) cluster sampling Answers: 3. d) 4.c) www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 35 1. What is test reliability and test validity? 2. What is representativeness? 3. What’s the difference between reliability and validity? 4. Which type of sampling is snowball sampling? 5. What is the difference between systematic and stratified sampling? www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

REFERENCES 36 • Herson, M. & Barlow, D. H. (1980) Single – Case Experimental Designs New Delhi: Prentice – Hall of India Limited. • Singh A.K. (2006). 5th ed. Tests, Measurement and Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences. Patna: BharatiBhavan. • Reference Website: libguides.uta.edu/researchprocess/websites • http://www.researchgate.net/figure/basic-sampling- methods_fig1_317905066 • https://link.springer.com/10.978-94-007-0753-5_2241 www.cuidol.in Unit-7(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

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