CU-BA- English Literature- VI

BACHELOR OF ARTS SEMESTER-VI ENGLISH LITERATURE

First Published in 2022 All rights reserved. No Part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from Chandigarh University. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this book may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. This book is meant for educational and learning purpose. The authors of the book has/have taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. In the event the Authors has/ have been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action. 2

CONTENT UNIT - 1: Short stories Bhadari ( Laksminath Bezbarua): Introduction …………………….4 UNIT - 2: Theme of the story: Bhadari The Talking Plough ( P. Varkey)………..…………44 UNIT- 3: The talking Plough (P.Varkey): Introduction……………………………………..56 UNIT- 4 : Theme of the story: The talking Plough………………………………………….63 UNIT- 5: The price of Flowers (Prabhat Kumar Mukhopadhya) …………………………..71 UNIT- 6: Theme of the story: Thy Price of Flowers ……………………………………….865 UNIT- 7: Poems: Hiroshima ( Ajneya)…………………………………………………109 UNIT- 8: Theme of the Poem (Hiroshima )………………………………………………128 UNIT- 9: The song I have to Sing ( Tagore ( Poem no. 13 in Gitanjali)) ……………… 139 UNIT- 10: Theme of the Poem (The song I have to Sing) ..………………………………163 UNIT-11: Novel The Home and the World (Tr. Surendranath Tagore)…………………184 UNIT-12: Theme and Summary of the Novel- The Home and the World……………….273 UNIT-13: Plot of the Novel- The Home and the World………………………………….292 UNIT-14: Characters of the Novel………………………………………………………..300 3

UNIT - 1 BHADARI (LAKSMINATH BEZBARUA) STRUCTURE 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Division of Assamese literature ( Eras) 1.3 Lakshminath Bezbaruah and his contribution to Assamese Literature 1.4 Patriotism of the Indian Poet Lakshminath Bezbarua 1.5 Impact of Magazines in Creation and Development of Assamese Short Stories 1.6 Summary 1.7 Keywords 1.8 Learning Activity 1.9 Unit End Questions 1.10 References 1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Know the biography of Lakshminath Bezbarua.  The meaning of English Literature  The division of Assamese literature  The growth of printing in 20th Century  The works of Lakshminath Bezbarua  The concept of Assamese literature  Lakshminath Bezbarua’s contribution to Assamese Literature 1.1 INTRODUCTION English Literature: Numerous nations, including the United Kingdom and its royal dependencies, the Republic of Ireland, the United States, and the former British Empire nations, are represented in English- language literature. More than 1,400 years have passed since the beginning of the English language. Old English refers to the earliest varieties of English, a collection of Anglo-Fresian 4

dialects that were introduced to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon conquerors in the fifth century. Despite being set in Scandinavia, Beowulf is the most well-known book in Old English and has attained national epic status in England. The written form of the Anglo-Saxon language, however, declined in use after the Norman conquest of England in 1066. French replaced English as the primary language of courts, parliament, and polite society as a result of the influence of the emerging nobility. Middle English refers to the English that was used after the Norman invasion. This kind of English persisted until the 1470s, when the London-based Chancery Standard (late Middle English) took over. The Canterbury Tales author Geoffrey Chaucer (1343– 1400) played a pivotal role in the acceptance of Middle English as a legitimate literary language at a time when French and Latin were still the two most common literary languages in England. The King James Bible (1611), the Great Vowel Shift, and Johannes Gutenberg's development of the printing press all contributed to the linguistic standardization of the language. William Shakespeare, an English poet and playwright who lived from 1564 to 1616, is usually recognized as one of the greatest writers of all time and one of the best dramatists ever. His plays are produced more frequently than those of any other playwright since they have been translated into every significant living language. A generation of artists, composers, and authors throughout Europe were inspired by Sir Walter Scott's historical romances in the nineteenth century. Between the late 16th and early 18th centuries, as the British Empire grew, the English language expanded around the globe. It was the biggest empire in history at its height. 23% of the world's population, or 412 million people, were ruled by the British Empire by 1913. These colonies, along with the USA, began to develop their own distinct literary traditions in English over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. More writers from Great Britain, the US, former British colonies, and both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland collectively than from any other country have won the Nobel Prize for literature in the English language from 1907 to the present. Old English literature (c. 450–1066): Old English literature, also known as Anglo-Saxon literature, refers to the surviving works of literature produced in Old English in Anglo-Saxon England between the years c. 450, when the Saxons and other Germanic tribes (Jutes and the Angles) first settled in England, and 1066, when the Norman Conquest was declared to have ended. Epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal writings, chronicles, and riddles are a few examples of the types of works that fall under this category. There are over 400 manuscripts from the time period still in existence. Widsith, which occurs in the Exeter Book of the late 10th century, provides a list of tribal kings in descending order of popularity and historical significance, with Attila King of the Huns and Eormanric of the Ostrogoths ranking in first and second, respectively. The Battle of the Goths and Huns, which is also described in later Scandinavian writings like Hervarar's saga and Gesta Danorum, may be told in this text for the first time. However, Lotte Hedeager contends that the work is far older and that it most likely belongs to the late 6th or early 7th century. She provides evidence for this claim by pointing to the author's familiarity with historical facts and accuracy. 5

However, she also point out that other writers, including John Niles, have claimed the work was created in the tenth century. The history of the Anglo-Saxons is chronicled in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a compilation of Old English annals from the ninth century. The Battle of Maldon poem also addresses historical topics. This unidentified sculpture commemorates the Battle of Maldon in 991, where the Anglo-Saxons failed to stop a Viking assault. Early English culture placed a high value on oral tradition, and the majority of literature was created with performance in mind. Many epic poems were highly well-liked, and Beowulf is one that has persisted to the present day. Despite being set in Scandinavia, Beowulf is the most well- known book in Old English and has attained national epic status in England. The Nowell Codex is the only text that has survived; its exact date is uncertain, but most estimates place it close to the year 1000. The traditional title for this work is Beowulf, and it was composed sometime between the 8th and early 11th centuries. Twelve Anglo-Saxon authors are identified by name in medieval sources, although only four of them are certain to be the authors of their vernacular works: Caedmon, Bede, Alfred the Great, and Cynewulf. The earliest English poem known by the name of Cdmon is Cdmon's Hymn, which is thought to have been written in the late 7th century. Along with the runic Ruthwell Cross and Franks Casket inscriptions, the poem is among the oldest examples of Old English to be found and is one of three contenders for the title of first known work of poetry in the language. It is also one of the earliest examples of continuous poetry in a Germanic language that has been preserved. The Ruthwell Cross bears an inscription from the poem The Dream of the Rood. The Wanderer and The Seafarer are two Old English poems from the final decades of the tenth century. The Seafarer is \"an exhortatory and didactic poem, in which the hardships of winter seafaring are utilized as a metaphor for the task encountered by the devout Christian,\" according to Richard Marsden, who notes that both have a religious subject. Anglo-Saxon England did not disregard classical antiquity, and some Old English poetry are translations of writings from the late classical school of philosophy. The longest is King Alfred's translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy in the ninth century (849–899). Middle English literature (1066–1500): The use of the Anglo-Saxon language's written form declined after the Norman invasion of England in 1066. French replaced English as the primary language of courts, parliament, and polite society as a result of the influence of the emerging nobility. The language and literature of the invaders merged with that of the natives as they assimilated, and the Norman dialects of the governing classes evolved into Anglo-Norman. Anglo-Saxon experienced a gradual transformation into Middle English between that time and the 12th century. The West Saxon literary language had no more influence than any other dialect due to the loss of political control over England, and Middle English literature was written in a variety of dialects that reflected the 6

location, history, culture, and background of individual authors.Hagiographies were also composed, altered, and translated during this time period, such as The Life of Saint Audrey and Eadmer's Hagiography (c. 1060 – c. 1126). The first English-language work to recount the tales of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table was created by Layamon in Brut towards the end of the 12th century by adapting the Norman-French of Wace. Additionally, it was the first English-language history book since the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.Wycliffe's Bible and other Middle English Bible translations contributed to the development of English as a literary language. The term \"Wycliffe's Bible\" now refers to a collection of Middle English Bible translations that were carried out at John Wycliffe's direction or initiative. They first emerged between 1382 and 1395, roughly. The main source of the Lollard movement, a pre-Reformation movement that disapproved of many of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, was these Bible translations.Although King Horn and Havelock the Dane, who were based on Anglo- Norman originals like the Romance of Horn (about 1170), introduced the Romance literary form to the English language in the 13th century, notable English writers didn't begin to appear until the 14th century. These three authors—William Langland, Geoffrey Chaucer, and the so-called Pearl Poet—were responsible for Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, his most well-known work.A Middle English allegorical narrative poem composed in unrhymed alliterative verse, Langland's Piers Plowman (written between 1360 and 1387) is also known as Visio Willelmi de Petro Plowman (William's Vision of Piers Plowman).A Middle English alliterative story from the late 14th century is called Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. It is one of the more well- known Arthurian tales of the well-known \"beheading game\" subgenre. Sir Gawain emphasizes the value of honor and chivalry by drawing on Welsh, Irish, and English heritage. Three other poems, notably the complex elegiac poem Pearl, that are now widely acknowledged to be the work of the same author, were also preserved in the same manuscript as Sir Gawayne. Despite having French influences in the scenes at court in Sir Gawain, the English dialect of these Midlands-based works differs significantly from that of London-based Chaucer. The writings also contain several dialect words, frequently of Scandinavian origin, that belonged to northwest England. Middle English persisted until the 1470s, when the printing press began to standardize the language and the Chancery Standard, a London-based dialect, gained popularity. The Canterbury Tales is what made Chaucer famous in modern times. This is a collection of Middle English stories, most of which are spoken in rhyme, but some are also told in prose, by a group of pilgrims as they make their way from Southwark to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. At a time when French and Latin were still the most popular literary languages in England, Chaucer played a vital role in the development of the legitimacy of the vernacular, Middle English, Latin, Norman-French, and English were among the languages used at the time to write literature in England. John Gower is a good illustration of how the audience for writing in the 14th century was multilingual (c. 1330–1408). Gower, a contemporary of William Langland and a close friend of Chaucer, is best known for three significant works: the Confessio Amantis, Vox Clamantis, and the Mirroir de l'Omme, lengthy poems in Middle 7

English, Latin, and Anglo-Norman, respectively, that share moral and political themes.The 14th century also saw the production of important religious works, such as those by Richard Rolle and Julian of Norwich (c. 1342–c. 1416). It's thought that Julian's Revelations of Divine Love, which was published about 1393, was the first book in the English language authored by a woman. Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory, which was printed by Caxton in 1485, is a significant work from the 15th century. One of the first books produced in England, this collection of French and English Arthurian stories. It was well-liked and important in stoking later interest in the Arthurian legends. English Renaissance (1500–1660): From the late 15th through the early 17th centuries, England had an artistic and cultural movement known as the English Renaissance. It is linked to the European Renaissance, which is typically thought to have started in Italy in the late 14th century. Due to the sluggish diffusion of the Renaissance style and ideas in England, unlike the majority of northern Europe, little of this progress was visible in England until more than a century later. Many academics believe that Henry VIII's reign marked the start of the English Renaissance, and that the Elizabethan era in the second half of the 16th century marked its apogee. One of the first English Renaissance poets, Thomas Wyatt (1503–1542), shows the Italian Renaissance's impact in his poetry. He co-introduced the Italian sonnet into England in the early 16th century with Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516/1517-1547), and is credited with numerous other developments in English poetry. Vernacular writing grew in popularity after William Caxton introduced the printing press to England in 1476. The Book of Common Prayer (1549), which had a long-lasting impact on literary language, was created as a result of vernacular liturgy that was inspired by the Reformation. Restoration Age (1660–1700) The sexual comedy of The Country Wife and the ethical insight of Pilgrim's Progress are all examples of restoration literature, as are Paradise Lost and the Earl of Rochester's Sodom. It witnessed the creation of the Royal Society, Locke's Two Treatises on Government, Robert Boyle's experiments and sacramental contemplations, Jeremy Collier's frantic attacks on theaters, Dryden's groundbreaking literary criticism, Locke's Two Treatises on Government, and the first newspapers. As a result of the official break in literary culture brought on by censorship and profoundly moralist standards under Cromwell's Puritan administration, all genres of writing appeared to have a new beginning after the Restoration. The royalist groups affiliated with Charles I's court fled into exile with the twenty-year-old Charles II during the Interregnum. Charles II's entourage of nobility spent more than ten years staying in the center of the continent's literary culture. 8

One of the greatest English poets, John Milton, produced work during this period of shifting religious beliefs and political unrest. The epic poem Paradise Lost by Milton is his most famous work (1667). L'Allegro (1631), Il Penseroso (1634), Comus (a masque), and Lycidas are a few additional significant poems. The poetry and prose of Milton reflect his strong personal beliefs, a love of liberty and self-determination, as well as the pressing problems and political unrest of his time. His famous Areopagitica, which criticized pre-publication censorship, is one of history's most important and passionate defenders of free speech and press freedom. Satire was the most popular and significant lyrical genre of the day. Satire was typically published under an unknown name because doing so carried significant risks. The period of Restoration England's intellectual life became known in literary circles as the \"Age of Dryden\" due to the influence of John Dryden (1631–1700), an eminent English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright. He made the heroic couplet a common form of poetry in English. The works like the mock-heroic MacFlecknoe, which are in satiric verse, represent Dryden's best accomplishments (1682). Dryden had a significant impact on Alexander Pope (1688–1744), who frequently copied from him. Other 18th-century authors were also greatly impacted by both Dryden and Pope. Augustan literature (1700–1745): The Age of Reason (also known as the Age of Enlightenment) promoted a secular view of the world and a general sense of progress and perfectibility, and this worldview was reflected in the literature of the 18th century. It was a rational and scientific approach to matters of religion, society, politics, and economics. led by the philosophers who were influenced by Isaac Newton's discoveries from the previous century and the works of Descartes, John Locke, and Francis Bacon. They tried to identify and put into practice universally applicable laws controlling people, the environment, and society. They made different attacks on censorship, dogmatism, intolerance, spiritual and scientific authority, as well as social and economic constraints. They believed that the state was the proper and sensible tool for advancement. Extreme skepticism and rationalism of the time inevitably led to deism and also contributed to the subsequent response of romanticism. Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie served as the zeitgeist's poster child. Authors in the 1720s and 1730s responded to a term George I of Great Britain favoured for himself by coining the phrase Augustan literature. Although George I intended the title to emphasize his power, they instead regarded it as a reference to the transformation of Ancient Rome's literature from crude and unpolished to highly political and refined. It was a time of exuberance and scandal, of tremendous energy, inventiveness, and outrage that reflected the experiences of English, Welsh, Scottish, and Irish people at a time when the economy was expanding, educational barriers were being removed, and the Industrial Revolution was just getting started. 9

Age of Sensibility (1745–1798): Although it is also frequently referred to as the \"Age of Johnson,\" this era is recognized as the Age of Sensibility. The English author Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), also known by his pen name Dr. Johnson, is remembered for his work as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor, and lexicographer, all of which had a lasting impact on English literature. As \"perhaps the most outstanding man of letters in English history,\" Johnson has been described. Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language, which took him nine years to complete, had a significant impact on Modern English and is regarded as \"one of the greatest single achievements of academia\" when it was published in 1755. Three prominent Irish writers rose to prominence in the second part of the 18th century: Laurence Sterne, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and Oliver Goldsmith (1713–1768). The Vicar of Wakefield (1766), The Deserted Village (1770), The Good-Natur'd Man (1768), and She Stoops to Conquer are among Goldsmith's works (1773). The Rivals (1775), Sheridan's debut play, was a runaway hit when it was produced at Covent Garden. With plays like The School for Scandal, he went on to become the most significant dramatist in London during the late 18th century. By composing plays more akin to Restoration comedy, Goldsmith and Sheridan both rebelled against the sentimental humor of the 18th-century theater. Tristram Shandy, a well-known book by Sterne, was released in installments between 1759 and 1767. One of the earliest novels about manners was Evelina, written by Frances Burney (1752- 1840), in 1778. Jane Austen \"enjoyed and admired\" Fanny Burney's books. Romanticism (1798–1837): A literary, artistic, and intellectual movement known as romanticism first emerged in Europe around the end of the 18th century. Other English-speaking regions of the world experienced romanticism much later. Due to the depopulation of the countryside and the rapid expansion of overpopulated industrial towns, which occurred in the era roughly between 1750 and 1850, the Romantic period was one of significant social change in England and Wales. The Agricultural Revolution, which involved the enclosing of land and forced laborers off the land, and the Industrial Revolution, which gave them employment, were the two drivers that led to the relocation of so many people in England. Although it was also a protest against aristocratic social and political conventions of the Age of Enlightenment and a backlash against the scientific rationality of nature, romanticism can be regarded in part as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution. Many of the Romantic poets were greatly influenced by the French Revolution in terms of their political outlook. The Romantics, especially Wordsworth, are frequently referred to as \"nature poets\" since the landscape plays a significant role in their poetry. The longer Romantic \"nature poetry,\" however, raise more serious issues since they frequently reflect on \"some emotional difficulty or psychological catastrophe.\" 10

Victorian literature (1837–1901): The development of sage writing as a new literary form during this time allowed authors to \"convey thoughts about the world, man's situation in it, and how he should live.\" Benjamin Disraeli (1804–81), George Eliot (1819–80), John Henry Newman (1801–90), and Thomas Hardy (1840–1928) were all mentioned by John Holloway as writers of this genre. Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881), a Scottish writer, historian, and philosopher who rose to fame in the 19th century as \"the indisputable head of English letters,\" was first among them. The immensely prolific author, also known as the Sage of Chelsea, condemned the Industrial Revolution, advocated hero worship, and denounced materialism in a number of works written in Carlylese, the moniker given to his distinctive writing style. Eliot stated in 1855 that \"there is hardly a superior or active mind of this generation that has not been modified by Carlyle's writings,\" and that if all of his works were \"burned as the grandest of Suttees on his funeral pile, it would only be like cutting down an oak after its acorns have sown a forest.\" Anglo-Scottish philosopher and art critic John Ruskin (1819–1900) wrote in a like spirit, praising Carlyle as his mentor. Turner and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood were supported during the early years of his work, which was committed to aesthetics. Later, when speaking about ethics, he expanded on his ideas on political economy and educational reform, which would have a significant impact on practices both in England and around the world. English poet and critic Matthew Arnold (1822–1888; recognized as a wise writer) is most known for his condemnation of philistinism. Modernism (1901–1939): Early twentieth-century English literary modernism emerged as a reaction against the certainty, conservatism, and faith in absolute truth prevalent in Victorian culture. Charles Darwin (1809– 1882), Ernst Mach (1838–1916), Henri Bergson (1859–41), Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–190), James G. Frazer (1854–41), Karl Marx (1818–1833) (Das Kapital, 1867), and Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) were among the thinkers who had an impact on the movement. Additionally significant were the continental art movements of impressionism and later cubism. Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–81), Walt Whitman (1819–92), Charles Baudelaire (1821–67), Arthur Rimbaud (1854–91), and August Strindberg were significant literary forerunners of modernism (1849–1912). Thomas Hardy was a significant British lyric poet of the early twentieth century (1840–1928). Hardy was a significant character in the transition from the Victorian era to the twentieth century, despite not being a modernist. Hardy, a prominent novelist of the late nineteenth century, released primarily poetry during this time, but he lived far into the third decade of the twentieth century. Henry James (1843-1916), an important player in the late nineteenth-century literary transition between the Victorian and modernist movements, published major works of fiction well into the twentieth century, notably The Golden Bowl (1904). Heart of Darkness and Lord Jim, two of the modernist novelist Joseph Conrad's (1857–1924) most significant books, 11

were released in 1899 and 1900, respectively. However, the extremely innovative poetry of the Victorian Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889) was not published until 1918, many years after his passing, while the career of another significant modernist poet, the Irishman W.B. Yeats (1865-1939), started around the end of the Victorian era. One of the most important authors in English literature during the 20th century was Yeats. But even if modernism would go on to play a significant role in literature in the early years of the twenty-first century, there were many other excellent authors like Thomas Hardy who rejected modernity. Rupert Brooke (1887–1915) and Walter de la Mare (1873–1956), two Georgian writers, preserved a traditional style of poetry in the first half of the 20th century by fusing romanticism, sentimentality, and hedonism. Along with Wilfred Owen (1893–1918), Rupert Brooke (1887–1915), Isaac Rosenberg (1890–1917), and Siegfried Sassoon, Edward Thomas (1878–1917), a poet from Georgia, is one of the First World War poets (1886–1967). British drama benefited from the contributions of Irish authors George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950), J.M. Synge (1871–1909), and Seán O'Casey. While Synge's plays date from the first decade of the twentieth century, Shaw's career began in the final decade of the nineteenth century. The Playboy of the Western World, Synge's most well-known drama, \"generated fury and riots when it was first staged\" in Dublin in 1907. The Edwardian theater was transformed by George Bernard Shaw into a forum for discussion of significant societal and political concerns. H. G. Wells (1866–1946), John Galsworthy (1867–1933), winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1932, and E.M. Forster (1879–1970) are three novelists who are not regarded as modernists, despite the fact that Forster's work is \"frequently regarded as containing both modernist and Victorian elements.\" While his early novels explored the limitations and hypocrisy of Edwardian society in England, Forster's most well-known work, A Passage to India 1924, represented challenges to empire. Rudyard Kipling (1865–1936), a prolific author of novels, short tales, and poetry, was undoubtedly the most well-known British author of the first half of the 20th century. T.S. Eliot, an American poet, was another significant early modernist poet in addition to W.B. Yeats (1888–1965) Despite being born and raised in America, Eliot acquired British citizenship in 1927. His \"Prufrock\" (1915), \"The Waste Land\" (1922), and \"Four Quartets\" are among his best-known compositions (1935–42). After Joseph Conrad, other significant early modernist novelists include Dorothy Richardson (1873–1957), whose book Pointed Roof (1915) is one of the earliest uses of the stream-of- consciousness technique, and D.H. Lawrence (1885–1930), whose books The Rainbow (1915) and Women in Love (1920) were both published despite being immediately seized by the police. James Joyce's influential modernist book Ulysses then came out in 1922. \"A manifestation and synthesis of the entire movement,\" has been said of Ulysses. Modernism (1923–1939): Hugh MacDiarmid (1892–1978), a Scottish poet who started writing in the 1920s, and Virginia Woolf (1882–1941), a prominent stylistic innovator best known for her work on Mrs. Dalloway 12

(1925) and To the Lighthouse (1941), are two significant British authors who wrote between the World Wars (1927). This attempt to resurrect poetic theatre was started by T.S. Eliot in 1932 with Sweeney Agonistes, and it was continued with three additional plays after the war. In Parenthesis, a modernist epic poem based on World War I experiences of poet David Jones (1895-1974), was released in 1937. A tradition of working class novels really produced by working-class background writers, starting in the 1930s and 1940s, was a significant advance. Jack Jones, a coal miner, James Hanley, a stoker whose father had worked at sea, Lewis Jones from South Wales, Harold Heslop from County Durham, and others were among them. A Glastonbury Romance by John Cowper Powys and the renowned dystopia Brave New World by Aldous Huxley (1894–1963) were both released in 1932. The novel Murphy, Samuel Beckett's (1906–1989) debut significant work, was released in 1938. Brighton Rock, Graham Greene's (1904-1991) first significant book, was released in the same year. Finnegans Wake, in which James Joyce invents a special language to convey the consciousness of a dreaming figure, was then published in 1939. W.B. Yeats, another Irish modernist poet, passed away in 1939. W.H. Auden, a British poet who lived from 1907 to 1973, was a notable modernist throughout the 1930s. Post–modernism (1940–2000): When it comes to English literature, \"When (if) modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been argued almost as vehemently as when the change from Victorianism to modernism occurred,\" even though some have considered modernism ending by around 1939. In truth, a number of modernists, such as T.S. Eliot, Dorothy Richardson, and Ezra Pound, were still active writers and publishers in the 1950s and 1960. In addition, Samuel Beckett, born in Ireland in 1906, continued to write substantial works until the 1980s despite some viewing him as a post-modernist, while Basil Bunting, born in 1901, produced little until Briggflatts in 1965. Dylan Thomas and Graham Greene, whose works date from the 1930s to the 1980s, were among the British authors active in the 1940s and 1950s. Evelyn Waugh and W.H. Auden published throughout the 1960s. Both a reaction to the Enlightenment concepts implied in Modernist literature and a continuation of the experimentation championed by modernist authors, postmodern literature frequently employs fragmentation, paradox, dubious narrators, etc. Like postmodernism as a whole, postmodern literature is hard to define, and there is little consensus regarding its precise traits, range, and significance. The American authors Henry Miller, William S. Burroughs, Joseph Heller, Kurt Vonnegut, Hunter S. Thompson, Truman Capote, and Thomas Pynchon are examples of postmodern writers. 13

1.2DIVISION OF ASSAMESE LITERATURE ( ERAS): Early Assamese:The Proto-Eastern Kamarupa language, also known as early Assamese or Puroni Oxomiya, is a predecessor of current Assamese. It appears in writings from the Kamata kingdom and the remainder of Assam's Brahmaputra valley that date from the 14th century to the end of the 16th century. The Pre-Vaishnavite period and the Vaishnavite sub eras can be distinguished in early Assamese literature. The time preceding Sankardeva's arrival and the Vaishnavite period that his literary endeavors helped to establish is referred to as the Pre- Vaishnavite Era. Hema Saraswati and Harivara Vipra, two of the earliest Assamese authors, penned Prahlada Charitra and Babruvahana Parva, respectively, under the patronage of King Durlabhanarayana of Kamatapura, who ruled in the late 13th or early 14th century. Rudra Kandali and Kaviratna Saraswati, who wrote Drona parva and Jayadratha vadha, are the following two notable poets from the same era. But Sankardeva respectfully refers to Madhava Kandali as his predecessor and is considered to be the greatest poet of this era. With the support of Mahamanikya, the Kachari (Varha) ruler of Central Assam at the time, Madhava Kandali flourished at the end of the 14th century and completed the translation of the entire Ramayana. Middle Assamese: The 17th century AD marked the beginning of the Middle Assamese Literature Period, which lasted until the 19th century AD. The prose chronicles (Buranji) of the Ahom court were in power throughout this time period in Assamese literature. The Ahoms had a built-in desire and propensity for writing about history. The Ahom rulers adopted Assamese as the court language, so historical chronicles started to be written in Assamese after they were initially written in their native Tibeto-Chinese language. Court accounts started to be written in a colossal amount from the beginning of the 17th century. These chronicles, accounts, or buranjis, as the Ahoms called them, significantly diverged from the style of the religious writers. Absent the minor changes in grammar and spelling, the Assamese language is essentially modern in thought and substance. During the Middle Assamese literature period, the Ahoms also produced a large body of technical literature based on Sanskrit works on astrology, medicine, mathematics, music, dancing, and other topics. Not only does Assamese buranji literature represent an unsurpassed literary style in all of India, but it also contains priceless historical information. A multitude of devotional songs and translations from the Sanskrit canon were provided by the poet Shankara Deva (1449–1568) during the height of the Bhakti Movement in Assam in the 15th century, further enhancing the course of the literary development of Assamese literature. Kirtana-ghosa, Bhakti-pradipa, Rukmini-harana, Harischandra-upakhyana, and Bali-chalana are among Sankara Deva's finest creations. The other well-known works of the middle period in Assamese literature included Madhavadeva's Rajasuya Yagna and Vara-Gita, as well as Rama Saraswati's rational and incredibly eloquent translations of the Mahabharata and Vadha Kavyas (lore from the Puranas). 14

Many translations from the Epics and Puranas were provided throughout the 16th to 19th century, which is considered the middle Assamese literature epoch, along with the kavyas, which were further based on their narrative. Assamese literature also generated a sizable amount of devotional compendiums, secular and love poetry, and biographies. Modern Assamese: The easternmost group of Indo-Aryan languages includes Assamese. The Early Assamese period (6th to 15th century AD), the Middle Assamese period (17th to 19th century AD), and the Modern Assamese period can be used to broadly categorize the history of Assamese literature (late 19th century onwards). Beginning of Modern Assamese: Although Assam's history can be traced back to the fourth century AD, artifacts from earlier periods, such as cave paintings and pot etchings, hint at a possible prehistory. Nearly all scholars agree that the Charyapadas are the first works of Assamese literature. The Charyapadas are Buddhist hymns that were written between the eighth and twelfth centuries. By the way, these texts also translate into Bengali and Oriya. These songs' phonological and morphological traits have a striking resemblance to several Assamese songs that have survived to this day. Despite the extensive historical records of the pre-Ahom kingdom, 23 \"siddha-purusas\" wrote mystic lyrics known as \"caryas,\" which contained esoteric theories and sensual practices of the later Sahajayana school of Mahayana Buddhism (8th to 12th century A.D). Hema Saraswati, who lived in the late 13th century, is the earliest Assamese author. His Prahlada-Charita, which is based on the Sanskrit Vishnu Purana, shows Assamese that has been fully sanskritized. Early in the 14th century, other poets in the Kamatapur court, such as Harihara Vipra (Harivara Vipra) and Kaviratna Sarasvati, translated scenes from the Mahabharata into Assamese verse. The earliest famous Assamese poet was Kaviraja Madhava Kandali, who lived in the fourteenth century. His only surviving works are a Ramayana adaptation and the narrative poem Devajit. Durgavara, another outstanding poet, used songs to retell the Ramayana. There is a sizable collection of unattributed texts known as the \"Mantras\" that date back to a time before 1500. The \"Mantras\" include miraculous cures for different ailments, including snakebites, ghosts, and demons. The writing of the buranji, a sort of prose history of the Ahom kingdom, which in addition to providing an authentic history of Assam, developed the culture of the written word in Assam, was perhaps the most significant contribution of the Ahom rule. The position of \"Likhakar Barua\" was formed especially for composing manuscripts that documented the activities of the many departments ruled by the King. On sanchi leaves, the majority of the manuscripts are written. Bhakti movement: The \"Bhakti\" movement, which the great Sankardev began, marked the beginning of the finest age of Assamese literature. There was a lot of writing produced, including songs, poems, and chants, to propagate this cause. Like Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism, Shankari faith is also based on the written word, in this instance Srimanta Sankardev's. In the \"Namghar\" or 15

\"The House of Praise,\" the evening prayers honor God with music, chants, and the reading of sacred scriptures. The final canto of the Ramayana, several passages from the Bhagvata Purana, Kirttanaghosha, Rukmini-harana, a narrative poem that describes a moment in Krishna's life, the Bhakti-pradipa, and the Nimi-nava-siddha-samvada are among his 27 compositions that are considered to be the most significant. He has produced a number of Maithili-influenced dramas. He also popularized the \"Bargeet,\" or religious poems, which are still read widely today. Three important volumes of Vaishnavism were written by Bhattadeva, the father of Assamese prose literature: Katha Geeta, Katha Bhagawat, and Katha Ratnawali. He also wrote some other excellent books. The \"Charit Puthi\" grew and flourished during the 17th century, which is well known (biographies). Coming of the Missionaries: Only after the arrival of the missionaries did the first printed book make its way into Assamese literary circles; it was the New Testament (Dharmapustakar Antobhag), which William Carey printed in 1813 with the aid of Atmaram Sharma and the full Bible in 1833. The first printing press was established in Assam by missionaries, who, like in other regions of the nation, were motivated by the desire to spread Christianity. Given that Christianity is a written religion and that missionaries sought to be easily accessible to the locals, they frequently learned the local tongues while translating the Bible (more specifically, the New Testament than the Old Testament) for use by laypeople. Numerous pamphlets, magazines, and other similar media were also employed for this purpose. The Reverend Dr. Nathan Brown is the first name that springs to mind when discussing the American Baptist Mission Press, the first press to be established in Assam.Nathan Brown was born in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, in the United States on June 22, 1807. He received the top grade in his class when he left Williams College in 1827. On May 5, 1830, he married Eliza Ballard. He served as The Vermont Telegraph's editor and Associate Principal at Bennington Seminary for a short period of time. He went to the Newton Theological Institute to get ready for his missionary job. His graduation was in 1832. In 1833, the American Baptist Missionary Union sent him to Myanmar as a missionary. The Commissioner of Assam, Captain Francis Jenkins, asked him to go to Assam. The \"Shan Mission,\" which aimed to assist the British government in enlightening, perfecting, and educating the warrior tribes of Shan, Khamtis, and Singphos, was launched in response to this request. Brown and his friend Oliver Cutter set sail for Calcutta with their printing press. They made a halt in Calcutta before starting their river journey to Sadiya. On March 23, 1836, they arrived at their destination after a protracted, exhausting, and hazardous journey. Brown's arrival marked the beginning of a period of literary development in the area, which coincided with the installation of the first printing press in Assam. Brown was forced to move his base from Sadiya to Joypur in Naharkatiya in 1839 and subsequently to Sibsagar in 1843 due to insufficient support from the Mission and tribal hostility in Sadiya. He thought Sibsagar was a superior base of operations. Upper Assam is actually thought to be the center of printing and the 16

original birthplace of the printed book in Assam. The place he was at until 1855. Brown traveled on foot from Sibsagar to Guwahati around the end of 1844, stopping in communities along the way to research the people's various cultural origins. On January 25, 1845, he and two other missionaries, Miles Bronson and Cyrus Barker, established the first Baptist church in Panbazar, Guwahati. In addition, Brown paved the way for the establishment of schools around the state. By 1846, he had started 14 Assamese-medium schools in and around Sibsagar. When it was first published in 1848, Rev. Nathan Brown's Grammatical Notes of the Assamese Language were not meant to be taken as a grammar of the Assamese language; rather, \"they were begun with the purpose of printing only a few sheets, for private use of the most common grammatical forms.\" The first Assamese grammar manual, however, was shortly based on this work. He produced books on basic geography and arithmetic that were far superior to Bengali textbooks at the time. His wife Eliza, who is also a translator, supported him in this endeavor. In addition, Brown was a pioneer in the discovery, editing, and publication of lost manuscripts. Brown was involved in assamese teaching, translation, and book preparation. He translated a catechism and made it available in Assamese. Brown discovered that the Assamese Bible, written by William Carey and distributed by the Serampore Mission Press at the time, was idiomatically insufficient since it borrowed vocabulary from Bengali and Sanskrit. Therefore, he started the task of translating the Bible into plain and straightforward Assamese, and his press was used to publish the New Testament in 1848. Brown was a pioneer in the field of authoring textbooks. His writings on basic mathematics, Pratham ganana (1845), Dutio ganana (1855), and geography, Bhugulor biboran (1851), were far superior to the Bengali textbooks that were then used in schools. Additionally, he assamese-translated and disseminated John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. Eliza Brown, the husband's wife, also produced children's books and a dozen tracts in Assamese and translated them. Brown departed Assam for the United States on February 13, 1855, after 20 years of fruitful service, due to ill health and some issues in the Home Mission. Orunodoi era: The Baptist Missionary Press in Sibsagar produced Orunodoi, the first Assamese magazine, which was originally printed in January 1846. \"The Orunodoi, monthly paper, devoted to religion, science, and general intellect\" was the magazine's slogan. Although the press was sold in 1883, it was still published until 1879. Editors of this publication include William Ward, Dr. Nathan Brown, A.H. Denforth, and others. The paper still primarily focused on spreading Christianity, but it also included pieces on science, current events, astrology, history, and local anecdotes. Anandaram Dhekial Phukan, Hem Chandra Baruah, and Nidhi Levi Pharowal were three important members of the Assamese literary community who were highlighted in this work, which contributed to the assimilation of the Assamese intelligentsia. Orunodoi, which means \"the dawn,\" was Brown's greatest achievement. While Oliver Cutter was involved in the magazine's printing and publication, Brown handled the editing duties. Until he went for the US, Brown served as this magazine's editor. Under his editorial direction, Orunodoi published history 17

by making the texts of ancient chronicles like Chutia Buranji, Purani Asom Buranji, and Kamrupar Buranji available in properly edited form. Additionally, he helped Assamese academics publish while patronizing a number of them. These books include Asom Buranji by Kashinath Tamuly Phukan (1842), Axomiya Lorar Mitro by Anandaram Dhekial Phukan (1849), A Few Remarks on the Assamese Language and on Vernacular Education by Anandaram Dhekial Phukan (1855), and A Spelling Book and Vocabulary in English, Assamese, Singpho, and Naga by Brown. After Brown, the Orunodoi continued in use until 1880, with sporadic pauses. Several newspapers and periodicals were published in Assam in the second part of the 19th century, following Orunodoi's lead. Among these were the Asam Bilasini (1871), published by Dharma Prakash Press, Auniati Satra, Majuli, the Asam Darpan (1874), Tezpur, the Asam Mihir (1872), the Goalpara Hitshadini (1876), the Chandrodaya (1876), the Asam Dipak (1876), the Jonaki (Calcutta, 1889), and the Assam News (an Anglo-Assamese (1886, Calcutta). On March 19, 1811, Oliver Thomas Cutter was born in Lexington, Massachusetts. At the age of twenty, the American Baptist Missionary Union appointed him as a missionary printer and publisher to Burma. In 1831, he embarked on a ship out of Boston with his wife, Harriet Low Cutter, and a steam printing press. In Burma, he was joined by Nathan Brown and his spouse Eliza Brown. The Shan Mission was launched by the Cutters and Browns as they headed for Assam. Jenkins, the Assam commissioner, also pledged to pay Rs 2,000 toward the purchase of a printing press. The primary responsibility of Cutter was to print and distribute books, most of which were written or translated by Brown. Upon their arrival, Captain Jenkins gave them a sizable printing press and donated Rs 500 to finance it. They released novels in Khamti, Singpho, and Assamese. The wife of Cutter was actively involved in the school's teaching staff and the publication of books. To get more type for his press, Cutter traveled to Calcutta. Cutter got active in starting more Assamese schools after moving their headquarters to Joypur, close to Naharkatiya, in 1839. He also wrote a 252-page Vocabulary and Phrases in English and Assamese, which was published in 1840 from the Mission Press in Joypur. In 1841, Brown moved to Sibsagar in search of a more hygienic and accommodating workplace, while Cutter remained in Joypur and oversaw the operation of the presses that were under his purview. Joypur, however, quickly became a very difficult site to work in and also inconvenient for printing due to threats from the natives, for which Cutter had to hide his presses due to tribal outcry against the conversion activities carried out by the missionaries. Finally, in 1843, Cutter relocated to Sibsagar and set up a printing factory next to the cantonment on the bank of the Dikhow River. He collaborated with Brown on the translation and publication of a wide range of books and pamphlets. Besides the Assamese translations of the Bible, hymnals, tracts, and schoolbooks, Cutter oversaw the publication of a sizable number of additional works at the Mission Press. Cutter quit his job with missions in 1853 to become the Calcutta Government Press's superintendent. Locals still refer to the Sibsagar location where Cutter built the printing press as Chapakhana. Along with 18

Edward Gait, John Berry White, and Charles Alexander Bruce, the Asom Year Book 2008 lists Cutter, Brown, and Bronson as three of the six foreigners who provided charitable aid to Assam. While Nathan Brown and Miles Bronson are widely known for their contributions, the Reverend William Ward, a junior missionary who is less well known, was crucial in spreading the word about the book's printing in Assam. Ward was born in Sheffield, Ohio, on August 28, 1821. In 1848, he received his degree from Madison University. He was assigned to Assam by the American Baptist Missionary Union. In April 1851, he and his wife Cordelia arrived in Guwahati. He spent the first six years of his career in Guwahati before spending an additional ten years there. When Ward's first wife Cordelia passed away in 1859, he wed Susan, the widow of a missionary, in 1860. Ward was the epitome of a linguist. He published the Bible's Genesis, Exodus, and Psalms translations through the Mission Press in Sivasagar. For a new edition, Ward made revisions to the Assamese hymnal Khristio Dharmageet and added a large number of new and translated hymns. The author of 63 hymns was attributed in the book's fourth edition, which was released in 1890. Nathan Brown and Ward both contributed to the development of Orunodoi. From 1861 through 1873, he edited and published this magazine, as well as writing numerous pieces for it. Hem Chandra Baruah advised Ward to switch the Orunodoi orthography from the earlier, more straightforward Jaduram Deka Baruah system, which Brown had modified, to the current Sanskrit system. In January 1861, Ward changed the spelling of Orunudoi by substituting the cerebral 'n' of the Assamese alphabets for the dental 'n'. This was a turning point in the assamese language's evolution. Susan, the wife of Ward, worked as an editor for a few issues of the Orunodoi magazine. She updated Harriet Cutter, wife of missionary Oliver Cutter, who wrote Vocabulary and Phrases in English and Assamese (1841), adding numerous new vocabularies to bring the total to about 4500 entries. This work was then published in 1864 by Mission Press, Sibsagar, as Brief Vocabulary in English and Assamese with Rudimentary Exercises. Before Bronson's A Dictionary in Assamese and English, which was released in 1867, this was the first book of its kind. Additionally, she wrote A Glimpse of Assam (1884). Growth of printing in the 20th century: Around the turn of the 20th century, a number of presses were established in Dibrugarh, and Assam saw the beginning of printing and publishing (also in Upper Assam). Radhanath Changkakoti founded the \"Radhanath Press\" on May 9, 1881, which was Dibrugarh's first press. Around the same period, Shivnath Bhattacharya founded the \"Bhattacharya Press,\" which mostly printed religious and school textbooks. The \"Sadasiva Publisher\" was founded in 1905 by tea plantation Nandeswar Chakravarty, while the \"Ahom Press\" was another significant press founded in 1910. Chandra Kumar Agarwalla worked hard to establish the \"Assam Printers and Publishers Limited,\" a joint venture with Nimoni Phukan, Sadananda Dowerah, and Lakshminath Phukan. Important presses were founded during that time, such the \"Borooah Press,\" founded in 1928 by Guna Govinda Borooah, the \"Bholanath Press,\" founded by Bholanath Gohain, the \"Rajkhowa Press,\" the \"Jagaran Press,\" etc. Anandaram Dhekial Phukan 19

is one of the earliest native names in Assamese print. A writer and government worker named Phukan (1829–1858), he backed the American Baptist Mission Press, its founders Brown and Bronson, and their efforts to spread Assamese. Phukan was a brilliant student who focused on English literature. He was one of the first pupils at the Francis Jenkins-founded school and later attended Presidency College in Calcutta. At the age of seventeen, he began his literary career by submitting articles to Orunodoi. Then, after modeling Axomiya Loraar Mitro after English textbooks, he published it through the Mission Press in Sibsagar. In order to make the case for Assamese language, he wrote a brochure titled A few words on the Assamese Language, and on the Vernacular Education in Assam, printed 100 copies from the Mission Press, and distributed it to various government authorities.The larger fight against \"foreigners\" included Assamese printing. Assamese's replacement as the official language of Assam generated an identity crisis that sparked a movement against \"bohiragata,\" dislike of the mandated language, and a parallel fight to recover a community's collective voice. In his work titled \"The Growth of Print Nationalism and Assamese Identity in Two Early Magazines,\" Uddipan Dutta writes that Bengali linguistic hegemony was seen as the real threat to the developing Assamese nationality rather than colonial economic exploitation. Jonaki era: Age of Romanticism during the Jonaki Period in Assamese Literature The Jonaki era is often referred to in Assamese literature as the Romantic era. This zeal led to the publication of the Jonaki journal by \"probashi\" Assamese students in Calcutta. The slogan of the early Assamese intelligentsia was \"Bhxr bikx holehe jtir bikx hobo\" (The nation develops only when the language develops), and they started the process of standardizing the language by standardizing orthography, writing grammars and dictionaries, and most importantly, by using a standardized version in print. As a direct result of the efforts of this group of young men, the language spoken in Upper and Middle Assam at the end of the nineteenth century was adopted as the official standard language of Assam, according to Uddipan Dutta in the same essay. The Assamese language was actively developed by the students who were residing in Calcutta's numerous \"messes\" around the end of the nineteenth century. The publication was founded as a result of the foreign students' weekly meeting at the mess at 67 Mirzapur Street on Saturday, August 25, 1888, according to an issue . As a result, \"Axomi Bhx Unnati Xdhini Xabh\" was formed. The organization's main goal is to advance Assamese language and literature. In order to achieve this goal, the organization works to preserve the old Assamese texts that are still in existence, translate significant works from Sanskrit and other languages into Assamese that aren't available in the mother tongue, encourage reading among the populace, introduce pure grammar and orthography in place of impure orthography and grammar, and establish one common written language throughout Assam. However, it was somewhat oddly a Marwari businessman from Tezpur who would ultimately help the Sabha, which lacked the funds to get the journal printed. The \"Agarwalla\" family of Tezpur is obviously a household name in the field of Assamese literature, with the most prominent member being the independence fighter, singer, writer, filmmaker, and poet Jyotiprasad Agarwalla (1903–1951). Like the Baptist missionaries, 20

Haribilash Agarwalla (1842–1916) published works in Assamese, and his son Chandra Kumar Agarwalla, who rose to prominence as a writer in the late 19th and early 20th century, assisted in the printing, publication, and editing of Jonaki. The magazine's name, Jonaki, was chosen by Chandra Kumar, who was also a member of the Sabha and a student at Presidency College in Calcutta.Chandra Kumar offered to publish and edit the magazine on the stipulation that each Sabha member submit an article for publication as well as take part in the magazine's operational activities. Any of these two rules that are broken would incur a Rs 15 fine. There is no indication of the magazine's debut publication date in it. There are only two mentions: the Assamese month \"Mgho\" and the year 1889. It is generally accepted that the initial date of publication is February 9, 1889. We receive varying information regarding the magazine's circulation and the year it was last published. However, it is generally accepted that Jonaki continued to be published from Calcutta until 1898: a total of 69 issues were published, with 11 issues in the first year, 12 issues in the second, 10 issues in the third, 11 issues in the fourth, 7 issues in the fifth, 11 issues in the sixth, 6 issues in the seventh, and 1 issue in the eighth. In the year 1901, Jonaki was once more published from Guwahati, where it remained until 1903. Chandra Kumar, a leader in the Assamese journalism movement, launched the Asamiya, an Assamese weekly, in Dibrugarh in 1918. He started publishing it in 1924 through his newly founded \"Asamiya Firm\" press in Kharghuli (Guwahati).Another significant journal from this time period is called Bijuli (1891), which means thunder. Like Jonaki, it was also a student publication that the Assamese Literary Club brought back from Calcutta.Lakshminath Bezbaroa, a renowned literary figure, created the monthly periodical journal Banhi, which translates to \"flute.\" He served as both the editor and publisher of this publication, which had a significant impact on the assamese writers and poets. From 1909 through 1940, the journal was published. Dr. Nathan Brown published the Assamese translation of John Bunyan's Pilgrims' Progress as Jatrikor Jatra in Orunodoi in 1848. For Assamese readers, it was their first experience reading a \"novel.\" It was published as a book in 1857. Another missionary translated the Bengali book Phulmoni Aru Karuna into Assamese in 1854. The Baptist Mission Press released A. K. Gurney's Kaminikanta, the first original \"novel\" in Assamese, in 1877. Alokeshi Beshyar Bishay, written by M. E. Lesley, was also released that year. The following year, Gurney's Koni Beheruar Bishay was released. These novels were all written with the intention of spreading Christianity. Because they are continuous narratives with a single theme, they are referred to be novels. These are at most novel prototypes, and they contributed to the development of the novel in Assamese literature. Bhanumati, written by Padmanath Gohain Baruah and first serialized in Bijuli magazine from 1890 to 1891, is usually regarded as the first \"real\" novel to be written in Assamese. The other significant book was Padumkuwori by Lakshminath Bezbaroa, which was released in 1891. Rajnikanta Bordoloi, who belonged to the Axomi Bhx Unnati Xdhini Xabh, wrote the significant Assamese novel Miri Jiyori in 1894. Because he spent a lot of time conducting research for E. A. Gait's A History of Assam, Bordoloi is better known as the Walter Scott of Assamese literature and a writer of historical fiction. The inaugural edition of the first English weekly, The Times of Assam, was published on January 5, 1895, and it was printed at 21

the \"Radhanath Press\" in Dibrugarh. It was edited by Radhanath Changkakoti, who set up the press with the assistance of Dr. John Berry White, the district's chief physician. Dr. Berry White himself owned twenty-five shares in this press, and on his advice, Mr. John Davidson, the Superintendent of the Upper Assam Tea Company, also bought twenty-five shares. Berry White, however, departed for England before the company could be consolidated, and although it is rumored that the man sent a press, which the railway manager did not deliver to Radhanath, the press unhappily caught fire in 1883. Radhanath had set up the press with money raised from friends. Radhanath, though, got to work assembling a new press. He traveled to Calcutta in 1893 to testify before the Royal Opium Commission, and on the way back to Assam, he amassed enough funds to start a newspaper. He invested 600 rupees to launch The Times of Assam. Due to its inability to compete with the nationalist Assam Tribune (4 August 1939, Baruah Press, Dibrugarh), which was also tarnished as being pro-British, the paper was dissolved in 1947. Congressman Jivan Ram Phukan attempted to resurrect it briefly in 1948, but the effort was unsuccessful.Dainik Batori, the first Assamese newspaper, was released on August 12, 1935, from Thengal Bhawan, which is located 8 kilometers from Jorhat town. The tabloid was created by tea tycoon Shivaprasad Barua. Additionally, he had previously overseen Sadinia Batori, a newspaper. Bagmibor Nilmoni Phukan was selected to serve as the editor of the Dainik Batori when it first began. \"Even though Mafajal Hussain (Baputa) published the one-page local daily Nagarar Katha, which solely covered Jorhat town news and came out approximately a month before the Dainik Batori, critics are hesitant to classify it as a full-fledged daily newspaper. It was acknowledged as the town's daily local newspaper. In order to run the paper effectively, Shivaprasad Barua hired up to 55 staff and purchased a printing machine from Calcutta. It was eight pages long. The paper's length was 45 cm and its width was 30 cm. Mahendra Deka Phukan created the insignia on the inaugural issue of the newspaper, which features a banana tree and a floral garland. Aai! Tur batori pahare-bhoiyame, Jane-juriye bowak, which translates as \"The news of Assam will reach everywhere, all the hills and dales in the State,\" was written inside the symbol. Eastern Herald and Citizen were two other significant newspapers in Assam at the start of the 20th century. Comparable to a poetry review, poetry analysis examines the language and rhetorical devices employed by a poet. It also requires expressing individual opinions about the poem and dissecting the poet's literary devices. However, it goes beyond the words that are spoken (Headrick, 2014). Understanding the motivation behind a particular poetry requires reading between the lines. Therefore, it might be necessary to conduct some background research on the poet's author and its historical context. Poetry analysis is a critical evaluation of a poem that considers its profundity and weight. It focuses on several parts of a poem, including the subject, theme (or meaning), tone, literary devices or speech figures, form, the poet's mood, and the reader's reaction. Poetry analysis offers a broader and wider view of the poem, its reality, its hidden meanings between the lines, a study of the poet's thinking, feeling, and intention behind a poem, in addition to analyzing the 22

techniques utilized in a poem. The various methods of poetry analysis are useful resources for examining and evaluating the poem. Research on the poet (author), the age (time period), potential causes, and the context of the conceptualization of the poem are essential components of every review or analysis. Poem: A poem is a group of spoken or written words that vividly and imaginatively communicates thoughts or feelings. A specific rhythmic and metrical structure makes up a poem. In truth, it is a literary approach that differs from prose or everyday speech since it is either written in free verse or a metrical pattern. Writers or poets find it easier to convey their emotions through this medium because they find it difficult to do so through other outlets. It serves as guidance to lead the readers in the proper direction. Additionally, occasionally it teaches children a moral lesson using trite language. Types of Poem: haiku : A style of Japanese poetry known as a haiku has three lines that are not rhymed and typically have five, seven, and five syllables each. Free Verse: Free verse is composed of lines without rhymes or meter but with a natural rhythm. Epic: A kind of a protracted poetry, frequently written in blank verse, in which the poet depicts a person in a significant historical or mythic action. Ballad : A ballad is a sort of narrative poem where the subject of the story is frequently folklore or tradition. It might appear as a song or as a morality tale. Sonnet : A fourteen-line lyrical poem known as a sonnet uses iambic pentameter and mood or tone shifts after the eighth line. Elegy: Elegies are melancholy poems in which the author mourns the passing of a topic yet offers solace in the last lines. Epitaph : An epitaph is a brief poem inscribed on a gravestone. Hymn : A hymn extols spirituality or the magnificence of God. Limerick :A comical poem known as a limerick has five anapestic lines, the first, second, and fifth of which have three feet and the third and fourth of which have two feet, with a precise AABA rhyme pattern. Villanelle : A villanelle is a nineteen-line poem written in the French manner, consisting of a three-line stanza, five tercets, and a concluding quatrain. Each stanza's opening and third lines have a refrain. 23

1.3 LAKSHMINATH BEZBARUAH AND HIS CONTRIBUTION TO ASSAMESE LITERATURE Lakshminath Bezbarua, a writer of modern Assamese literature, was an Assamese poet, novelist, and playwright (14 October 1864 - 26 March 1938). He was one of the literary giants of the Jonaki Era, the romantic era in Assamese literature, when he gave the then-stalled Assamese literary caravan a new push with his essays, plays, novels, poetry, and satires. Through his satirical works, he replied to the current social climate in an effort to bring about and maintain beneficial changes in the former. His writings captured the Assamese people's innermost desires. Assamese literature: Assamese literature is the full body of poetry, books, plays, short tales, documents, and other writings in the Assamese language (Assamese: romanized). Along with its cultural heritage and traditions, it also contains the literary works written in the language's earlier forms as it developed into the modern form. The Charyapada, which contains the first traces of the Assamese language, can be used to date the literary history of the Assamese language to the 9th to 10th centuries.It is generally agreed that Banikanta Kakati divided Assamese literature's history into three distinct eras: Early Assamese, Middle Assamese, and Modern Assamese. Charyapada :The Charyapada is a collection of mystical songs and poems from the tantric tradition of Assam, Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha that belong to the Vajrayana school of Buddhism. It is thought to be the earliest collection of verses written in the Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Odia, Magahi, Maithili, and many other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, and it was composed between the eighth and the twelfth centuries in an Abahatta that was the ancestor of those languages. The Bengali-Assamese dialect that is currently spoken is the closest match for Charypada when written in that script. At the beginning of the 20th century, Haraprasad Shastri rediscovered a palm-leaf copy of the Charypada at the Nepal Royal Court Library. The Tibetan Buddhist canon included the Charyapada as well. The Carypada were intended to be songs of realization. These spontaneously written songs of realization had words that described a practitioner's encounter with the enlightened state. Songs of realization were a component of the ritual assembly of practitioners in a ganachakra, as Miranda Shaw explains: The tantric dances and music that are performed as the feast's grand finale must never be revealed to outsiders. To reflect their enhanced lucidity and exquisite raptures in improvised verse, the revelers may also compose \"songs of realization\" (caryagiti). One of the forerunners of contemporary Assamese writing was Lakshminath Bezbarua (1868– 1938). He was a talented poet, author, satirist, playwright, and author of children's books. O Mur Apunar Dekh, the Assam state anthem, was written by Lakshminath Bezbarua. In Assam, he is well known as Rasaraaj and the Sahityarathi (literally, the Charioteer of Literature) (King of humor). 24

Fig 1.1 Lakshminath Bezbarua On November 1868, Lakshminath Bezbaroa was born close to Ahatguri, Nagaon. Dinanath Bezbaroa, a top figure in the British government, was his father. Lakshminath Bezbaroa spent his infancy moving across Assam because of the nature of his father's work. He attended Sibsagar Govt. High School in Sibsagar for his early education. He later earned his degree from Calcutta's City College. Bezbarua obtained his M.A. and B.L. degrees from the University of Calcutta after graduating. Their family eventually made Sibsagar their home. A niece of the renowned Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore, Pragyasundari Devi, was married to Lakshminath Bezburuah. In Guwahati in 1921, he served as the conference's president. Bezbarua was elected president of the Assam Sahitya Sabha's seventh annual session, which was held at Guwahati, in 1924. On March 26, 1938, Lakshminath Bezbarua passed away in Dibrugarh. Lakshminath Bezbaruah wrote Assamese literature with integrity. He was a novelist, the editor of the Journal Jonaki, a playwright, and a poet of contemporary Assamese literature. Jonaki, the first work in current Assamese literature, was written by Laxminath Bezbaruah. Under Chandra Kumar Agarwala's direction, the renowned Assamese monthly Jonaki was founded during this time. He served as the Journal's editor and publisher. This project included active participation from Lakshminath Bezbaruah. He began writing significantly under the alias Kripaabar Baruah in the second year of the journal Jonaki, where his first satirical works initially appeared. For over 50 years, Lakshminath Bezbaruah was the literary titan of Assam. He spent his entire life working to restore the literary greatness of Assamese. At that time, Assamese was not used in the state's colleges or universities. In an ongoing conflict with many of his contemporaries, Lakshminath Bezbaruah worked to establish an appropriate position for Assamese in the state. His literary and cultural crusade worked to advance Assamese society as a whole. Lakshminat Bezbaruah was a contemporary Assamese poet, playwright, novelist, and short story writer from India. He was one of the literary giants of the Jonaki Era, the romantic era in Assamese literature, when he gave the then-stagnant Assamese literary caravan a new impetus with his essays, plays, novels, poetry, and satires. He used his satirical works to get information about the current social climate in order to bring about long-lasting improvements in the past. 25

His writings captured the Assamese people's innermost desires. The Assam Sahitya Sabha conferred the honorary title of \"Roxoraj\" on Bezbaruah, which is wholly original. Roxoraj, which in Assamese literature means \"The King of Humor,\" is known for his enduringly well- read satirical writings under the pen name \"Kripaabar Baruah,\" a fictitious persona he developed and played as the main character in such works. In the Assamese literary community, he is also referred to as the \"Sahityarathi,\" which means \"Charioteer of literature\" because of his proficiency in all literary genres. Personal Life: In 1864, Lakshminath Bezbaruah was born. Lakshminath Bezbaruah was born in a ship while on a Brahmaputra sand bank at Ahatguri, close to Nagaon. His father worked for the British government as a top officer. Dinanath Bezbaruah was his father's name. Looking back on his somewhat unique, it had been common to welcome the baby by blowing conch shells and doing other auspicious rites in those days when a son was born. Bezbaruah, however, was forced to return to the world under such exceptional circumstances without receiving any proper greeting ceremonies. Lakshminath Bezbaruah was raised throughout Assam, before his family finally settled in Sibsagar. Lakshminath Bezbaruah attended the Sibsagar Government High School for his early education. Following his completion of his studies for his F.A. at the town college, he received his B.A. from the General Assembly's Institution in Calcutta, then continued his studies for his M.A. and B.L. at the University of Calcutta. Following his marriage to Pragyasundari Devi, Lakshminath Bezbaruah passed away in Dibrugarh, Assam, in 1938. Literary composition: Bezbaruah was given the honorary title of \"Roxoraj\" by the Assam Sahitya Sabha on December 29, 1931, at its Sibsagar session. The term \"Sahityarathi\" was first used for Bezbaruah in the Assam Sahity Sabha's congratulations letter. For his enduringly popular satirical writings under the pen name \"Kripaabar Borboruah,\" a false personality he established and portrayed, and the main character in such works, Roxoraj, also known as \"The King of Humor,\" earned him the title in Assamese literature. He was also well-known in the Assamese literary community and was known as the \"Sahityarathi,\" or \"Chariateer of Literature,\" due to his knowledge of all literary genres. Not only was Lakshminath Bezbaruah the first Assamese storyteller, but he also established the foundation for many other facets of Assamese literature. From 1890 to 1938, he made significant contributions to Assamese poetry, stories, theater, novels, essays, funny literature, biographies, autobiographies, memorials, and journalism. In 1890, Bezbaruah launched his writing career with the serialization of the farce Litikai, which was taken from the first issue of Jonaki megazine. He published eight plays, four comedies, three historical works, one act dramas, three biographies, and a few autobiographies. He also wrote for children. He assembled Assanian folktales (Xadhukotha) and added a few brand-new ones on his own, all to the benefit of doting parents and babysitters. His short stories included funny undertones while addressing many aspects of Assamese society. When it comes to producing prose, Bezbaruah was as inventive and prolific. His favorite genre to write in was the historical 26

book, and when he wrote the renowned Podumkuwari, he simply positioned himself as the master of this subgenre in Assamese literature. The book had been released in 1905. He had another benefit in creating the foundation for contemporary Assamese writing thanks to his usual grasp of both western and classical perspective. His short stories date back more than a century. Even Jyotiprasad Agarwala's debut Assamese film, Joymoti, was inspired by Lakshminath Bezbaruah's drama. Bezbaruah was deeply moved by Jyotiprasad Agarwala's Joymoti and expressed this to the director in his final days by penning a letter of praise for the movie. His era's social structure, environmental conditions, and lifestyle choices were all distinct. A society under takes marked modifications with the passing of \\syour time. However, it's noteworthy that despite the passage of time, a number of the characters from Bezbaruah's novels continue to have resonant language and personalities. The main goals of the Journal Jonaki were the reformation of Assamese society and the rediscovery of the wonder and wealth inherent in Assamese heritage and folklore. Lakshminath Bezbaruah was the most straightforward work of Jonaki literature. Between 1910 and 1935, Bezbaruah edited the Journal Banhi and was successful in awakening the Assamese people's dormant creative impulse. The national anthem or state song of Assam is \"O mur apunar desh.\" It was composed by Kamala Prasad Agarwala and attuned by Lakshminath Bezbaruah, and the song itself is one of his best poems. It was first printed in 1909 in Banhi, an Assamese megazine. The author's passion for her native land and upbringing served as inspiration for her historical tales. Respect should also be shown to the national and personal heroes who served as the author's primary source of inspiration. The fundamental drivers behind the development of historical dramas were societal respect for revolution and patriotic santiment for one's own history. Three historical dramas, Joymoti Konwari, Chkradhwaj Singha, and Belimaar, were written by Lakshminath Bezbaruah. In addition, he wrote four comedic plays: Litikai, Nomal, Paachoni, and Chikorpoti Nikarpoti. He was the first Assamese writer of a short story. He produced a wealth of Assamese literature with his numerous short stories. He published four collections of short stories: Surabhi, Xadhukothar Kuki, Jonbiri, and Kehokoli. His autobiography was titled \"Mor Jibon Sowaran.\" His autobiography includes detailed explanations of all of his life's events. We may learn about many of the laws and customs of the traditional Assamese society through his memoirs. His collection of tales includes the wildly popular Burhi Air Xadhu, Koka Deuta Aru Nati Lora, and Junuka, all of which were published between 1909 and 1913 and continue to fascinate readers of all ages. Dinanath Bezbaruahar Xankhipto Jibon Charit, Sri Sri Shankardev, Mahapurush Sri Sankardev, and Sri Madhabdev are just a few of the biographies he penned. His 1906 publication of the translated work \"Bharat Barhar Buronji,\" which attests to his historical awareness and consciousness. Kripabor Baruahar Kakotor Tupula, Kripabar Baruahar Obhotani, Barbaruahar Bhabar Burburani, and Barbaruahar Buloni are examples of satire pieces written by Lakshminath Bezbaruah. Lakshminath Bezbaruah also wrote the collections Kamat Krititwa Labhibar Xonket, Bhagwat Kotha, Bharatbarshar Buronji, Tatwa Kotha, Sri Krishnakatha, The Religion Of Love And Devotion, Axomiya Bhaxa aru Xahitya, History Of Vaishnavism In India, and Raxolila Of Sri Krishna. Bezbaruah was an outspoken liberal, and his observations of people and environments always 27

had a strong sense of justification. His provocative works on the role of religion in daily life demonstrate both his rationalization and his liberal worldview. Lakshminath Bezbaruah was a prominent figure in contemporary India's creative and intellectual revival. As a person's being Lakshminath Bezbaruah was honest , truthful and \\sopen minded. He was a product of the Bengal renaissance, which is to say that he represents the western world's authentic romantic idealism. He admired the strong Renaissance values that Anandaram Dhekial Phukan, an Assamese dreamer and visionary, had demonstrated during his lifetime. Lakshminath Bezbaruah was a wonderer in his real world, much like the stereotypical romance hero. He traveled much throughout his life, even reaching the Assam forest and the jungles of Sambalpur. He would later draw inspiration for his prolific writing from these encounters. Lakshminath Bezbaruah was an Indian poet and playwright of modern Assamese literature. He was deeply patriotic and stayed true to his first love, literature. He was one of the literary giants of the Jonaki Phase, the romantic era in Assamese literature, when he gave the sluggish Assamese literary caravan a new impetus with his essays, novels, and satires. 1.4 PATRIOTISM OF THE INDIANPOET LAKSHMINATH BEZBARUA Indian poet, novelist, lyricist, translator, critic, social critic, cartoonist, self-styled writer, and dramatist of contemporary Assamese literature is Sahityarathi Lakshminath Bezbaruawa. He was one of the literary giants of the Jonaki era, the period of romanticism in Assamese literature, when he gave the genre a new lease on life with his essays, dramas, fiction, poetry, and satires. Bezbaroa began writing in the first issue of Jonaki magazine with the farce \"Litikai,\" which was serialized. He produced eight plays, four farces, three historical works, a one-act play, three biographies, and two autobiographies. He also wrote for young readers. He gathered and edited Assamese folktales (Xadhukotha) and, on his own, added quite a few fresh tales to the collection for the benefit of devoted parents and babysitters. The first short tale writer in Assam was Bezbarua. His short stories included funny undertones while addressing many aspects of Assamese society. RasarajBezbarua wrote three historical plays: Chakradhaj Singha, Joymoti Konwori, and Belimaar. He was known as a patriotic dramatist. The Assam state anthem is a patriotic song he wrote called O Mur ApunarDex. Patriotism of Bezbarua poems: The writings of Lakhsminath Bezbarua accurately portrayed and expressed the Assamese people's national heritage and country traditions. His poetry is therefore perceived as reflecting a similar manner of living. Bezbarua poetry show the influence of Assamese folk songs, Bihugeet, Banghosha, Ainam, Dhainam, Dehbisarorgeet, as well as songs and Vaishno tradition poets' philosophies. The tradition of the love of the state was continuously flowing in the soul of the Bezbarua, inspired by the romantic ideas of Western literature and the love of the nation's citizens. The profile of national culture and tradition therefore echoed the feeling, sound, tone, and rhythm of his poetry. His well-known patriotic poems include Bean Baragi, Brahmaputra Sangeet, and Asom Sangeet. 28

In his poem \"Bean Baragi,\" poet Bezbarua imagines Assam in the past, hoping that its peace has not been disrupted. Nevertheless, his mind is compelled to hear Assamese customs and pride. \"Xuna oi BoiragiAnandarKahini/AsomarJoxRakhi Hiya Mur hero balawantahua/ParanUthakUllasi ******** ******** ******* NatunPranarnasakujuri/ DipitiDhali de tat, PuraniPrithivina-koi Sai lou/ He bin exaromaat.\" One feature of Bezbarua's poetry is social reform. He has presented a variety of social issues with a constructive attitude. His writings have continued to portray modern culture in a constant manner. That is the genuine patriotism that he holds in his heart and thoughts. \"O Mur apunarDex O Mur sikuniDex Ene Khan Xuwala Ene Khan Sufala Ene Khan MoromarDex. *****. ***** ***** Sai Lou ebarmukhanitumar Hepahmurpoluanai.” ( BezbaruaAsomSangeet) He continued to make efforts to portray the characteristics of Assamese to the outside world. He has included references to his close friendship with Assam in a number of poems. It is clear from the cited this stanza how much he loved his nation. \"Ami AsomiyaNahauDukhiya KihorDukhiyahou SakaluAsilSakalu As NuxunuNalauGom.” The poem \"MorDesh,\" which was penned by Bezbaruahe and is also known as the Asomarsuriyasuwadi mat, Keru Moni of the language, the national culture, and the devotion of the people, is sung in the Assamese national song. With the primary resources of Assamese fooding life like KujiThekera, PokaKharisa, DhekiaXaak, etc., Assam's unending natural beauty has distinguished the nation's way of life from other nations. 29

\"Kotaseene Saul Panitdilevaat? Kotaseenekujithekeratengai Jai daat? KotPabaPokaKharisa, Kot Shelia Xaak? Ethadoikotenenejaidhulejaak?” (Amar Janmabhumi) The poetry of Bezbarua is a delightful fusion of the East and the West. He has produced a number of poems using that model. The aforementioned line is from the poem \"EmanDeshtipabeNaguKuthai\" by Bengali poet Drijendralal. The upbeat poet Bezbarua has put an end to the assamese people's current state of mind and has given the culture of the assamese community a new hope in the vitality and harmony of the people. BazakDobaBazakShangkha BazakMridong,Khul Asomakounnatirpathat Joy AaiAsom Bol.” Due to the poet's deep love for their caste and their nation, these fundamental poems have been removed from his or her memory. Works of Lakshminath Bezbarua:  Poetry Collection: Kodam Koli (1913), Podum Koli (1968)  Novel: Podum Kunwari (1905)  Short Story Collection: Surabhi (1909), Xadhukathaar Kuki (1912), Jonbiri (1913), Kehokali  Children’s literature: Junuka (1910), Burhi aair xadhu (1911), Kokadeuta aaru nati lora (1912), Baakhar  Plays: Joymoti Konwari (1915), Chakradhwaj Singha (1915), Belimaar (1915), Litikai (1890), Chikarpati-Nikarpati (1913), Nomal (1913), Pachoni (1913)  Comic Plays: Litikai (1890), Nomal, Paachani, Chikarpati – Nikarpati  Autobiographical: Mor Jiban Sowaran, Patralekha, Dinalekha  Biographies: Dinanath Bezbaruar Xankshipta Jiban Charit, Sri Sri Shankardev, Mahapurush Sri Sankardev Aru Madhabdev  Collection of satire essays: Kripabor Barbaruar Kaakotor Topola (1904), Kripabor Barbaruar Obhotani (1909), Barbaruar Bhabar Burburani, Barbaruar Bulani  English Books: The Religion of Love and Devotion (1968),History of Vaishnavism in India, Rasalila of Sri Krishna 30

Contribution to Assamese Literature: Lakshminath Bezbaruah made significant contributions to all facets of Assamese literature. He wrote plays like Chakradvaj Singha, Joymati, Belimar, Litikoi, Nomal, and Pachani, among other historical and humorous works. Through his smart and humorous works, published as Kripabar- Baruar Kakatar Topola and Kripabar Baruar Bhabar Burburani, he revealed the flaws in Assamese society. His only novel, Padumkunwari, and collection of poems, Kodamkali, are both written by him. Lakshminath Bezbaruah is responsible for giving the Assamese short narrative a solid and clear structure. Additionally, he compiled Assamese folktales, which he then published in two volumes under the titles Burhi Air Sadhu and Kakadeuta Aru Natilora. He was inspired to create the biographies of Madhavdeva and Srimanta Sankardeva as well as the theological treatise Tattvakatha by his studies of Vaishnava literature and religion. He even created textbooks in Assamese so that the language may develop in all directions. Last but not least, Bezbrauah was the editor of Banhi, a significant monthly that helped usher in a new age in Assamese literature. 1.5 IMPACT OF MAGAZINES IN CREATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ASSAMESE SHORT STORIES Newspapers and magazines play a crucial part in the growth of prose writing across all world languages, and this is clearly seen. Through newspapers and magazines, new consciousness arose in Assamese literature. Periodical \"Arunodoi\" was first published in 1846 as a result of Christian Missionaries' efforts. As a forerunner of this awakening, (Editor: Oliver Thomas Cutter) was published. Besides the ancient and classical. Since 1889, \"Jonaki,\" a journal of literature that has been graced with fresh subject-matters and aesthetics (Editor: Chandrakumar Agarwalla) identified new areas of Assamese literature through its literary compilations. A brief Assamese narrative The book \"Xeuti\" was released in \"Jonaki.\" Assamese short tales and their evolution. Numerous magazine-centric eras, such Jonaki, Awaahan, Ramdhenu, etc., have evolved to the present day. In actuality, short stories have been evolving based on magazines for some time. The major methodologies used to prepare this research article are analytical, historical, and observational. DATA COLLECTION SOURCE: The primary sources used in the writing of this research report are secondary sources. Different books, magazines, periodicals, and the internet are used as secondary sources of data collection in regard to the topic matter. Genesis of assamese short stories: Since the beginning of time, Assamese people who depend on nature have been telling wonderful oral tales and myths using flora, wildlife, and other natural phenomena as their subjects. These tales are similar to those told in other languages around the world. When Assam's feudal social system was established, Assamese short stories practically broke off from nature 31

and tended to focus on topics related to royal families as well as everyday life. In actuality, those stories had no explicit references to moral or ethical principles. In the hands of Italy's Boccaccio, the stories of the world that traced the course of evolution in the 14th century took the form of short stories, and in the final decade of the late 19th century, Lakshminath Bezbaruah, the stories of ancient Assam did the same. It can be argued that, before Bezbaruah, the foundation for Assamese short stories was laid in the magazine \"AsomBondhu\" in the year 1885. This was especially true of Lambudar Bora's \"Sadanandar Kalaghumati,\" \"Sadanandar Samachar,\" and other satirical works from that era. On the basis of these tales appearing in \"Asom Bondhu,\" it is possible to say that the hilarious tales of the \"Jonaki\" era first appeared. The origins and development of Assamese short story history are linked to the state's political, social, and literary activities. The political unrest in Assam on the one hand, and the emergence of hybrid cultures under colonialism on the other, damaged and soiled Assam's national way of life. Numerous uncivilized tendencies, blue-blooded hypocrisy, religious neglect, etc., have a negative influence on Assamese minds. On the other hand, a group of Assamese writers, including Hemchandra Baruah and Gunabhiram Baruah, hold the pen with the intention of generating fresh ideas. Lakshminath Bezbaruah also immersed himself in the literary meditation, exposing Assam's pitiful social landscape and uncultured attitudes to restore a healthy social environment. Along with the French Revolution and European Enlightenment Movements' effects, Assam experienced a new way of thinking thanks to the arrival of the Renaissance in western nations. Assamese short stories may have originated as a result of these kind of thinking. The Assamese story literature first took the form of a short story in 1892, in addition to the tales. The first Assamese short story, \"Xeuti,\" by Lakshminath Bezbaruah, appeared in \"Jonaki\" in issue #4 of the fourth volume in 1892. This first short narrative, which was inspired by issues facing women, conveyed tolerance for human flaws and the traditional significance of virginity (chastity), which was a product of immature attitudes. Through literature, Bezbaruah attempted to closely analyze the lives of individuals from various socioeconomic strata by observing their joy and sorrow, laughter and tears, mistakes and errors, belief and doubt, etc. He introduced that class in a representational manner through the story's type characters while also denouncing individuals. The first collection of short stories by Bezbaruah was released in 1909. His other collections of short stories include Sadhukathar Kuki, Junbiri, and Kehukali. Of course, not every story in his books is a short story. Tale's varied stories mirror the form he uses. His second collection of short stories, \"Sadhukathar Kuki,\" contains the tale-like \"Gharpata Kaka\" and \"Mulakhuwa Buda\" that were first published in \"Jonaki.\" From this point on, it is assumed that Bezbaruah didn't make many distinctions between the short story and the tale. He assumed that Tale was a simple proverb or a saint's moral instruction. The old learned people in ancient Assam conveyed advice and taught norms and regulations to the people as well as their offspring using this perceptible oral storytelling, according to Bezbaruah. With this perception, he gave it the term 32

Tale. It is notable that Bezbaruah utilized the English term \"Tale\" instead of \"short narrative\" in his writings (preface, Burhi Aair Sadhu). The name \"Tale\" was also utilized in western literature by authors like Hoffman, Edgar Allan Poe, and Nathaniel Hawthorne to describe this kind of literature. The phrase \"short narrative\" was in usage in Europe in the late 19th century. With this, it is thought that the current of neo-literature advanced as a tale in the first decade of the nineteenth century in Europe and America; similarly, in Assamese language in the hands of Bezbaruah, \"Tale\" bloomed in the beginning of the last decade of the same century. In one place, Bezbaruah referred to \"Bhadari\" as a Tale, and in another, he described it as a story. It is certain that in Bezbaruah's hands, a traditional tale and a contemporary Assamese short story came together. Many of his pieces fall short of the standards for contemporary short stories. Although his works \"Bhadari\" and \"Kehukali\" demonstrate that Bezbaruah had sufficient grasp of the short story form. The notable storytellers who found a special position in the first magazines of Assamese short stories after Bezbaruah are: Sarat Chandra Goswami, Nakul Chandra Bhuyan, Dandinath Kalita, Suryakumar Bhuyan, Lakshminath Phukan, Mitradev Mahanta, and Mohichandra Bora. The storybooks \"Golpanjali\" (1914), \"Moina\" (1920), \"Bazikar\" and \"Paridarshan\" by Sarat Chandra Goswami. The first collection of Assamese short stories may be found in Nakul Chandra Bhuyan's \"Churangchuwar Chara\" (1918), Dandinath Kalita's \"Satsari\" (1925), Suryakumar Bhuyan's \"Panchami\" (1927), and others. In reality, all of those storytellers shifted their focus away from traditional fairy tale themes and toward more contemporary ones. These authors built a substantial foundation of Assamese short stories. Role of magazines in creation and development: Newspapers and modern journals are crucial for expressing the foundation of ideas and opinions in today's society. The study of literary history demonstrates that newspapers and magazines made significant contributions to the growth of all genres of literature. English prose has been able to develop sufficiently since the publication and commencement of newspapers and magazines, yet books have been written in Europe from the time of Chaucer, according to Dr. Nagen Saikia. (Goriyoshi, May 1996; Adhunik Asomiya Bhakha Bikakhat Alochanir Bhumika) The analysis of short stories showed that they were contributed by 19th-century contemporary journals and magazines. The demand for short articles grew throughout Europe at that time to meet the needs of contemporary publications. Focusing on the significant role that magazines played in the creation and growth of short stories, Grahams Magazine, Harparch Magazine, Putnamch Magazine, and Atlantic Magazine all experienced significant growth in the United States. - Short stories are described by Edgar Allan Poe as the \"offspring of American magazines.\" In India, the newspaper-magazines founded by Christian missionaries and British intellectuals marked the beginning of the formation of the modern Indian language and literature. In this light, it is hard to divorce the magazine-newspapers from the emergence and growth of the contemporary Assamese language literature. The Assamese language literature in Assam developed over a long period of time, beginning with the first modern pioneering magazine, 33

\"Arunodoi,\" and continuing with \"Jonaki,\" \"Abahan,\" and \"Ramdhenu,\" up to the present. Actually, western ideas were initially introduced to Assamese literature through the magazine \"Arunodoi.\" The foundation of Assamese literature has been magazines since the \"Jonakiage\" period. When focusing on the succeeding magazines after \"Jonaki\" — such as — \"Banhi,\" \"Abahan,\" \"Jayanti,\" \"Ramdhenu,\" etc. — right from the publication of the first Assamese short story \"Xeuti,\" one can clearly see how the Assamese short story found a complete shape with the new features of modern literature. Up to 1992, there were primarily three stages in the development of Assamese literature. The interesting thing about this is that each of the three stages is named after a magazine. The Jonaki Age (1889–1929), the Abahan Age (1929–1940), and the Ramdhenu Age are those (1940-1970). The history of Assamese literature, in the words of HomenBorgohain, \"proves that every new Assamese literary movement or age largely magazine centered.\" It denotes the rise of a new literary movement focused on publications with unique features and the emergence of a few new authors. Three of the most renowned periodicals in Assamese literature are \"Jonaki,\" \"Abahan,\" and \"Ramdhenu.\" (Ramdhenu, Preface) Of course, Assamese short stories span from the \"Jonaki\" era to the present day during the later eras of its century-long history, which begins in the 1970s and is known as the \"Present Age.\" The periodical \"Jonaki,\" which characterized the social and intellectual climate of the entire 19th century, seemed to have a limitless impact on the development of Assamese short stories. The Bezbaruah stories that were published in \"Jonaki\" showed the low-middle class and middle class rural people's lifestyles. These tales mocked people's suffering and joy in life, hypocrisy, nature's portrayal, uncultured attitudes, superstitions, and imitations. Although Bezbaruah's stories mostly focused on personal values, several of them sparked social critique. After the \"Jonaki,\" the journal \"Abahan,\" which was published starting in 1929, added a few distinct elements in the area of Assamese short stories as opposed to the \"Jonaki\" era. The Second World War and its events had an impact on social and intellectual life styles in many parts of the world at the time the journal \"Abahan\" was published. The last romantic notions were found in various stories published in \"Abahan,\" but the desire to create social ideals was particularly emphasized. The storytellers of the \"Abahan\" era included Lakshmidhar Sarmah, Radhikamohan Goswami, Nagendra Narayan Chaudhary, Holiram Deka, Bina Baruah, Trailukiyanath Goswami, Roma Das, Krishna Bhuyan, Munin Borkotoki, Sayed Abdul Malik, Suprabha Goswami, and Pajiruddin Ahmed. Marx and Freud have had an influence on Lakshmidhar Sarmah's short works. Middle class romantic fantasies, adultery, biological urges, emotional tensions, etc. are exposed in Roma Das' stories. Similar to this, Sayed Abdul Malik's writings about romantic love, attraction to biological love, and villains provide a character sketch of the dark social sphere that includes prostitutes. This developed new qualities in the history of Assamese literature without separating from the actual elements of the \"Jonaki\" era stories of 34

\"Abahan,\" as well as a new age and a group of enthusiastic story writers. Therefore, in Assamese short stories, the \"Abahan Age\" can also be referred to as the \"Expansion Age.\" The third era in the history of Assamese short stories is known as \"Ramdhenu.\" The \"Post-War Age\" is another moniker for this period. After the magazine \"Jayanti\" greatly increased the number of gifted short tales in the \"Abahan\" magazine in the 1940s, the publication of \"Ramdhenu\" in 1951 gave Assamese short stories an added boost of strength and vitality. After independence, confrontations and clashes were used to demonstrate modern thought. Instead of romantic notions and fantasies, skepticism about contemporary lifestyles that sparked a new wave of curiosity and the publication of the journal \"Ramdhenu\" at this time established itself as the realm of Assamese language literature. Short stories by Ramdhenu changed their course from the former, radically opposing from their tradition and accepting new points of view, as they developed in the background of \"Abahan.\" Realistic viewpoints, human values, and social and political consciousness all had prominent roles in these stories. Actually, \"Ramdhenupages \"'s reflected the passage of time. Instead of happy and sad stories, the stories of \"Ramdhenu\" portrayed rage, jealousy, protest, etc., among other social, political, and economic issues. A forceful representation of the Frayedian Sexual Theory was discovered in the hands of a storyteller like Homen Borgohain. Of course, a storyteller like Mohim Bora produced stories that captured the pain-pleasure and desire-ambition of simple and typical rural life, enhancing the quality of \"Ramdhenu's\" stories. Bhabendranath Saikia was a powerful author of \"Ramdhenu\" who carefully considered human emotions, transformed the changes of all stages of human existence, and communicated them in the stories in a realistic manner. On the other hand, Saurav Kumar Chaliha, one of the best tale authors of this era, also revealed the realization of loneliness brought on by the mechanical contemporary people in the pages of \"Ramdhenu.\" The names of some of the talented authors whose works have appeared in this magazine throughout the history of Assamese short stories include Sayed Abdul Malik, Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya, Prafulla Dutta Goswami, Jogesh Das, Sneha Devi, Lakshminandan Borah, Nirupama Borgohain, Chandraprasad Saikia, Silbhadra, Atulananda Goswami, Padm It is important to note that several of these authors have continued to produce stories without limiting them to the \"Ramdhenu\" era. Even after \"Ramdhenu\" stopped being printed, these authors continued to make significant contributions to the history of Assamese short stories. In reality, this magazine was where most writers of this generation expressed themselves. The \"Golden Era\" of Assamese short stories might be characterized as the time of \"Ramdhenu.\" The journals \"Natun Prithivi,\" \"Sampratik Samayiki,\" \"Prabah,\" and afterwards \"Asomiya,\" \"Prakash,\" \"Prantik,\" and \"Goriyoshi\" have played significant roles in the creation of short stories after \"Ramdhenu,\" or since 1970. The manner the periodicals \"Jonaki,\" \"Abahan,\" and \"Ramdhenu\" established several eras in the development of Assamese language literature. The time period of any magazine from the final decade of the 20th century will be named as a specific era with recommendations that cannot be disregarded, even though it has not yet been given a name. The two top literary journals, Pratik and Goriyoshi, will undoubtedly vie for the honor in this regard. These two periodicals, Pratik and Goiyoshi, have been published intermittently between 1981 and 1993 and have experienced 35

significant growth. Additionally, \"Prantik\" and \"Goriyoshi\" had a particularly strong influence on the eras of Assamese writing throughout the latter decade of the twentieth century. Pratik, which has been published continuously since the 1980s, has developed its own literary environment. This publication makes a significant contribution to the canon of Assamese short stories, including topics such as science as well as social, cultural, political, and economic ones, among others. A few storytellers have established themselves as successful storytellers with the aid of \"Prantik.\" The editor's responsibilities are closely related to any newspaper or magazine. The editor's interests and opinions play a major role in the magazine's quality. The editor is actually a major driving force behind the growth of a magazine. In this instance, the name of Bhabendranath Saikia, the founding editor of \"Prantik,\" is significant. \"The magazine \"Prantik\" plays important role in the development of literary storywriters like us who expressed ourselves in the pages of Prantik,\" says Jyotish Sikdara, introducing himself in the pages of \"Prantik\" and later proving to be an established storyteller whose interviewing writing style is noteworthy in this regard. At that time, the honorable Dr. Bhabendranath Saikia, the magazine's chief editor, gave storytellers like us a lot of encouragement. He summoned numerous storytellers to his chamber and kindly pointed out the various plot holes to them. (Katha Guwahati, March 2005, Eleventh Issue) The Assamese literature has become robust thanks to the periodical \"Goriyoshi.\" Before its publishing, Goriyoshi proclaimed its goals and objectives and made a commitment to edit a magazine that would highlight contemporary life topics and offer chances to satisfy contemporary readers' expectations of original thinking. It was assumed to be real in the case of short fiction. Current Assam storytellers, both established and maybe new, are virtually always mentioned in connection with the magazine \"Goriyoshi.\" The founding editor of \"Goriyoshi\" is a well-known storyteller. The combined efforts of the tale writers and his astute editing gave the \"Goriyoshi\" stories additional potential. These tales successfully capture the era and add to the body of Assamese short story history. After \"Ramdhenu's\" publication ceased, \"Sampratik Samayaki\" (1977–84, edited by Nitya Bora), \"Asomiya\" (1968–70), and \"Prakash\" (1975) magazines continued to play an important role in the ongoing development of Assamese short stories. The editor of the periodicals \"Asomiya\" and \"Prakash\" was Chandraprasad Saikia. It wouldn't be fair to state that the 1963 publication of the newspaper \"Nbajug,\" edited by Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya, and the 1989 publication of the magazine \"Sutradhar,\" edited by Homen Borgohain, didn't help Assamese literature during its crisis in the years after the 1970s. For a brief time, the editors of \"Xirolu\" (1984) and \"Prahari\" (1985), Nabakanta Baruah and Jogesh Das, respectively, helped to build the literary milieu. Although after Jonaki, Abahan, and Ramdhenuto kept the stability of Assamese short stories and its development, their relevance is limitless, these papers and magazines may play a significant role in the navigation of Assamese short stories' progressive voyage. The Assamese magazines of the last ten years of the twentieth century include „Natun Prithivi“ (1971, edited by Dr. Hiren Gohain, Anil Rajkhowa, Tarak Chandra Goswami, joint editing), 36

„Pratik“ (1981, edited Bhabendranath Saikia), „Goriyoshi“ (1993, edited Chandraprasad Saikia), „Bismoy“ (1969, edited Sashi Phu In contrast to the \"Prantik\" and \"Goriyoshi\" stories, some publications place a strong emphasis on giving readers of a given age group enjoyment instead of intellectual doses. Natun Prithivi's goal is undoubtedly unique compared to others, yet it also falls short of producing a literary environment. However, \"Pubali\" and \"Srimayee\" were only interested in feminism. Similar to this, amusing periodicals such as \"Abikal\" (1995, edited by Satish Bhattacharya), and \"Chichingphak\" (1998, edited by Bilashnandan) were only willing to accept light satirical waves as objective proposals. Many stories were published in all Assamese periodicals throughout the last decade of the 20th century, regardless of quality. However, romantic themes had a special home in the following journals, \"Bismoy,\" \"Trishnatur,\" and \"Rahasya,\" which published with one or two remarkable subject-matters or essay-type pieces. These tales were primarily inspired by topics of male- female romantic relationships. They were restricted to a particular area because of the extreme pornographic depictions in one or two magazines. It is believed that these stories were solely provided to amuse a group of young readers. Along with love stories, the periodicals \"Bismoy,\" \"Trishnatur,\" and \"Rahasya\" frequently featured detective, science fiction, and logical reasoning themes. Despite lacking social philosophy, these stories opened doors for fresh thought. As science-fiction authors, Dr. Dinesh Chandra Goswami and Bandita Phukan have earned a special position in Assamese short story history. Additionally, \"Bismoy's One Minute Tale\" is a continuous addition to Assamese short story history. The majority of the short story's appealing qualities were found in the pre-planned plots of one-minute stories. The name Pranjal Sharma Bashistha is essential in this case. The popularity of \"Anugolpa\" (flash fiction) in Assamese short stories is currently rising day by day. Beginning with \"Arunodoi,\" parts of modern daily, weekly, and biweekly newspapers and magazines have paved the path for newcomers to create stories as their initial forms of self- expression. These publications, which were released in honor of Puja and Bihu, featured a variety of fresh subjects and thought-provoking stories. Publishing their stories through magazines has contributed to the rich collection of Assamese short stories, which includes Gunindra Gayan, Banani Chaudhary, Basanta Kumar Bhattacharya, Satyasundar Baruah, Prahalad Kumar Baruah, Rangbong Terang, and Jatin Mipun, among many more. The magazines or supplements of the aforementioned newspapers, such as \"Sadin,\" \"Asom Bani,\" \"Dainik Asom,\" \"Dainik Janambhumi,\" \"Agradoot,\" and \"Amaar Pratinidhi,\" among others, are noteworthy in this context. However, because of the lengthy gaps between publications, these magazines are unable to sustain the continuity in the production of short tales, despite the fact that many of the stories they published indicated the juddering of fresh ideas. A vigorous flow of Assamese short stories began at the beginning of the twenty-first century with the publication and editing of \"Satsori\" by Homen Borgohain in 2005, \"Katha Guwahati\" by 37

Sonit Bijay Das in 2004 and \"Guwahati\" by Sonit Bijay Das in 2009, and \"Prakash\" by Rangbong Terang in 2012. The majority of storytellers are unable to break free from the traits of the \"Ramdhenu\" era, despite the fact that it is apparent that writers of the current generation have taken the effort to develop short story compositions while engaging in various experiments. Storytellers like Moushumi Kandali, Monoj Kumar Goswami, Phanindrakumar Dev Chaudhary, and Prasanta Kumar Das are notably notable in this area. The following authors also contributed significantly to the development of short stories written in the twentieth century during the final ten years of that century: Kul Saikia, Monoorama Das Medhi, Yeche Dorji Thanshi, Pranati Goswami, Arupa Patangia Kalita, Purabi Bormudoi, Modan Sarmah, Jeherul Hussain, Bhupendra Narayan Bhattacharya, Robin Sarmah, Phool Goswami, These stories were able to generate a fresh stream of ideas in Assamese story writing thanks to their inventive topic issues and writing techniques. The subject matter of the short stories of the latter \"Randhenu\" era includes themes like terrorism, political consciousness, unemployment, middle class conflicts like self-deceit, male- female affairs like biological attraction, and the pain of broken wishes, but each of these themes is presented in the stories from fresh angles that depart from conventional thinking. During this time, publications included stories with strong humanitarian sentiments as well as social perspectives. The subject-limit also includes issues related to women's rights, exploitation, skepticism, superstitions, and intergroup conflict. Storyteller Chandra Borpatra Gohain continuously contributed to the pages of Pratik during the final decade of the twentieth century, using the tribes' society in Arunachal Pradesh as the main source of his tales. Similar to this, Prafulla Chandra Bora, an author of \"Goriyoshi\" stories, introduced something new to the canon of Assamese short stories during the same decade by writing a series of stories in a biographical manner. It is a gift from the same decade as a writer who produced numerous works with a similar genre and theme throughout Assamese short story history. The Assamese story-literature has similarly been developed by the writers listed below, who are considered to be the primary sources of development: Arup Kumar Nath, Banti Senchuwa, Monalisha Saikia, Gitali Bora, Monika Devi, Pranjal Sharma Bashistha, Rashmirekha Borah, Sidhartha Sankar Bezbaruah, Parthbijoy Dutta, Bipasha Bora, Monoj. 1.6 SUMMARY  Lakshminath Bezbaruah, a well-known author from Assam, launched his literary career in 1889 with his Journal Jonaki. He significantly contributed to the growth and improvement of Assamese literature. He has written numerous plays, poetry, essays, and works of fiction, many of which have patriotic themes. The Assamese song \"O Mur Apunar Desh,\" which celebrates the nation, was written by Lakshmintath Bezbaruah. As 38

a result, Lakshminath Bezbaruah is known as a highly respected literary personality in Assam. He played a significant role in the development of Assamese literature.  Great thinker Lakshminath Bezbaruah was. He was an excellent speaker. He made it his life's work to improve Assamese society. For the Assamese, he represented the ideal. His altruistic work served as an example for them. In 1938, the great son of Assam passed away in Dibrugarh. His sarcastic works to bring about and maintain constructive improvements to the former will always be cherished by the vailing social environment. In his autobiography, he unflinchingly addressed the flaws and failings of his life and work. His literature mirrored the deeper desires of the Assamese people. among other things, the fact that he failed his law exam. After completing his studies at General Assembly College, Bezbaruah wished to pursue further education abroad. Bezbaruah decided to stay because, unfortunately, his religiously strict family did not support the idea. But during another pivotal time in his life, he was able to withstand fierce opposition.  Bezbaruah, who was raised in a purely Vaishnav atmosphere, encountered resistance when he chose to wed Pragyasundari Devi, the grand daughter of Maharshi Devendranath Tagore, according to brahmo traditions. Even the Tagore family's dowry of Rs 10,000 was declined by him. Bezbaruah, however, was not given the recognition he deserved during his lifetime, like many other outstanding writers. Before 1930, the general public showed little to no enthusiasm for any of the 25 works he authored. His tremendous output is often underappreciated even today. He lived in a house in Calcutta, which is now in ruins. Since he passed away on March 26 in Dibrugarh, the Asom Sahitya Sabha celebrates Sahitya Divas today every year.  It may be claimed that during its 130-year journey, the Assamese short story has acquired its full shape. It is undeniable that modern short stories have evolved significantly due to creative experiments. Our research has shown that magazines are the primary developmental source for Assamese short stories. Magazines have a significant impact on the development of current Assamese language literature in all areas, not just short tales (equally important in poetry). 39

 A short narrative in the Assamese language appeared in the journal \"Jonaki\" after sprouting in the journal \"Asom Bondhu.\"  B. The history of Assamese short story creation and magazine development are inextricably linked.  C. The three ages have been mostly identified in the history of Assamese short tales by the names of periodicals.  D. Despite the fact that the later years of the \"Ramdhenu\" era were not christened, periodicals created favorable conditions for story authoring. 1.7 KEYWORDS  Short-story: A short story is a work of prose fiction that can be read in one sitting— usually between 20 minutes to an hour.  Magazine: a periodical publication containing articles and illustrations, often on a particular subject or aimed at a particular readership.  Assamese short-story: a Short story written in Assamese  Development: the process of developing or being developed.  Impact: the action of one object coming forcibly into contact with another.  Conflict: A struggle between opposing forces in a story or play, usually resolved by the end of the work.  Exposition: The first stage of a dictional or dramatic plot, in which necessary background information is provided. 1.8LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What is English literature? 2. What is Restoration Age? 3. What is Augustan literature? 4. What is Romanticism? 5. What is modernism? 6. What is early Assamese? 7. What is Middle Assamese? 40

1.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Short Questions 1. Explain in brief about the personal life of Lakshminath Bezbarua . 2. Who composed The national anthem or state song of Assam? 3. List four works of Lakshminath Bezbarua? 4. Who is an Indian poet, novelist, lyricist, translator, critic, social critic, cartoonist, self- styled writer, and dramatist of contemporary Assamese literature? 5. When was Banhi printed? 6. Who was one of the literary giants of the Jonaki Phase, the romantic era in Assamese literature? 7. What is Litikai? Long Questions 1. Explain the Beginning of Modern Assamese? 2. What is Bhakti movement? 3. What is Assamese literature? 4. What is Charyapada ? 5. Who wasLakshminath Bezbarua ? 6. Explain Old English literature (c. 450–1066). 7. Explain Old English literature. 8. Explain Middle English literature. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which poetry is a lengthy and narrative work of poetry? a. Epic b. Balad c. Ode d. Elegy 2. The Proto-Eastern Kamarupa language, also known a. Puroni Oxomiya b. Middle Assamese c. Vaishnavite period d. Harivara Vipra 3. ______________ was a contemporary Assamese poet, playwright, novelist, and short story writer from India. a.Lakshminat Bezbaruah 41

b. Roxoraj c. Sahityarathi d. Charioteer of literature 4. Lakshminath Bezbaruah was born in ___________ a. 1864 b. 1964 c. 1966 d. 1896 5. The first collection of short stories by Bezbaruah was released in a. 1909 b. 1905 c. 1906 d. 1907 Answers: 1-a,2 – a, 3- a, 4- a, 5- a. 1.9 REFERENCES  Allen, Weter: Reading a Novel, London, 1965  Achyaryya , N. N. : Assam and North Eastern States Research Methodology and Sources, Gauhati ,1984  Chatterjee, S.K. : Places of Assam in the History and Civilization of India , Gauhati, 1954  Neog , Dimbeswar : New Light on History Assamiya Literature , Gauhati , 1962  Nath , Rajamohan :The Background of Assamese Culture , Shillong ,1948  Roy, Nirendranath: Shakespeare His Audience and his Readers ,Calcutta ,1965  Bezbaruah, Lakshminath. Burhi Aair Sadhu, Bhabani Print & Publications, Guwahati-7, 2009 [2]. Borah, Apurba(ed.) . Asomoiya Chutigalpa : Oitijya Aru Biborton, Jorhat Kendriya Mahavidyalaya Publication Cell, Jorhat, 2012 Website  https://www.indianetzone.com/40/middle_assamese_literature.htm  https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR2105471.pdf  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_literature 42

UNIT - 2THEME OF THE STORY: BHADARI THE TALKING PLOUGH ( P. VARKEY) STRUCTURE 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Biography of P. Varkey 1.3 The talking Plough 1.4 Summary 1.5 Keywords 1.6 Learning Activity 1.7 Unit End Questions 1.8 References 2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Know about P. Varkey  His contribution towards Indian literature  His works  The birth and death of P. Varkey  A story on the talking Plough  The Indian Independence Movement  The communist party 2.1INTRODUCTION Storyteller, screenwriter, and defender of freedom. He was born on July 1st, 1910, to Kattappuram Varki Joseph and Annamma in Edatwa, Alappuzha District. Later, he and his family relocated to Ponkunnum, Kottayam. after completing high school, obtained higher education or vidwan degrees in Malayalam. He afterwards started working as a teacher at Aalampally Government School. The first piece is a prose poem from 1939 titled Tirumulkasha. This initial effort also took home the University of Madras prize. The drama, titled Bhadayoyojapikal, was written and directed by him in 1942 while he was a teacher at Alamappally Government School during the school's annual school year. Because he wrote fiction, the school administration dismissed him from his position as a teacher. In 1946, he was sentenced to six months in prison for protesting the Travancore Diwan's regime. 43

He was an active member of the communist movement and served for five years as the Progressive Art Literary Organization's secretary. He contributed to the founding of the National Book Stall and the Sahitya Karganda Cooperative Society. About fifty of his works, including plays and short tales, have been published. Film adaptations of his works include Navalokam, Althara, Katpuokkal, Pearl View, and Makam Bharti Manga. He also produced the movie Makam Bharti Manga and wrote the screenplays and dialogue for fourteen other movies. 2.2BIOGRAPHY OF P. VARKEY Ponkunnam Varkey: Ponkunnam Varkey was a writer and activist from Kerala, India, who lived from 1 July 1910 to 2 July 2004. In Kerala, Varkey was a pioneer of the literary authors' cooperative and the progressive writers' forum. He presided over the Sahithya Pravarthaka Co- operative Society and the Kerala Sahitya Akademi. He served as Purogamana Sahithya Sangatana's secretary. Sahithya Pravarthaka Sahakarana Sangham counted him among its founders. Ezuthachan Puraskaram, the highest literary award established by the Kerala government, recognized him. Biography: Varkey has claimed that his upbringing was not one that was shielded, but rather one that followed the while he was still a student, and this interest informed the themes of his early writing. He joined a Catholic tenet of \"survival of the fittest.\" His interest in the Indian independence movement began school close to Ponkunnam after passing the Malayalam \"Vidwaan\" examination, which was the then-common qualifying test for language teachers. But because of his strained relationship with the administration, he left the school in 1942 when he was hired as a teacher at the Vernacular Middle School in Pampady. He soon quit this work, joined the independence struggle, and was put in prison. He had ties to the Communist Party for a while and served as the group's secretary for five years. Purogamana Kala Sahitya Sangham is a platform for progressive writers. He passed away on July 2, 2004, one day after turning 94. In 1991, his wife Claramma passed away. They have three daughters and four sons. Indian independence movement: In order to eliminate British control in India, a number of significant historical occurrences made up the Indian independence movement. From 1857 to 1947, it existed. Bengal gave rise to the first nationalistic revolutionary movement for Indian independence. Later, it spread to the newly founded Indian National Congress, where notable moderate politicians fought for indigenous' increased economic rights as well as the right to sit for Indian Civil Service examinations in British India. The Lal Bal Pal trio, Aurobindo Ghosh, and V. O. 44

Chidambaram Pillai took a more extreme approach to self-rule in the first part of the 20th century. Gandhi's non-violent and civil disobedience strategy was adopted by Congress during the last stages of the self-rule struggle in the 1920s. Intellectuals like Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Subramania Bharati, and Rabindranath Tagore promoted patriotism. Women's liberation and their involvement in the freedom struggle were pushed by female leaders including Kasturba Gandhi, Pritilata Waddedar, and Sarojini Naidu. B. R. Ambedkar promoted the interests of the oppressed groups in Indian society. Some leaders adopted a more aggressive strategy. After the Rowlatt Act, which enabled indefinite detention, this gained particularly widespread support. Protests were prompted by the Act all over India, but they were severely put down in Punjab Province (British India), where the Jallianwala Bagh massacre occurred. Revolutionaries including Bhagat Singh, Shivaram Rajguru, Sukhdev Thapar, Chandra Shekhar Azad, and Subhas Chandra Bose turned to violent tactics out of frustration with what they viewed as Congress' passivity. Bose notably founded the Azad Hind by joining forces with the Axis countries. In the meantime, government buildings were bombed and important British personnel were slain by Singh, Rajguru, Thapar, and Azad. The ideology of the Indian independence struggle was constantly changing. Despite being primarily anti-colonial, it also included ideas for independent economic growth with a civil- libertarian, democratic, and republican governmental system. The movement developed a strong socialist emphasis after the 1930s. The Indian Independence Act of 1947, which terminated Indian suzerainty and established Pakistan, marked its climax.Up until January 26, 1950, when the Constitution of India proclaimed the Republic of India, India was still a Crown Dominion. Up until 1956, when it ratified its first constitution, Pakistan was a dominion. East Pakistan proclaimed its independence as Bangladesh in 1971. Communist party: A political party that works to achieve communism's socioeconomic objectives is referred to as a communist party. The Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848), written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, is credited with popularizing the phrase communist party. The communist party directs the working class's political education and advancement as a vanguard party (proletariat). The proletariat's dictatorship is one of the ways the communist party, as the ruling party, exerts its authority. When the socialist movement in Imperial Russia was split into ideologically opposed factions, the Bolshevik faction (\"of the majority\") and the Menshevik faction, Vladimir Lenin established the idea of the communist party as the revolutionary vanguard (\"of the minority\"). Lenin suggested a small vanguard party run with democratic centralism to be politically effective, allowing for centralized control of a trained group of professional revolutionaries. Once a policy was decided upon, achieving political objectives required every Bolshevik to fully adhere to that program. The Menshevik group, which at first included Leon Trotsky, stressed that the party should not undervalue the role that large populations play in bringing about a communist revolution. After the October Revolution in 1917, the Bolshevik party—later the Communist Party of the Soviet 45

Union (CPSU)—took control of the government in Russia. Numerous revolutionary organizations around the world adopted the idea of communist party leadership when the Communist International (Comintern) was founded in 1919. The Comintern mandated that its members adopt the phrase \"communist party\" in their names in order to intellectually standardized the international communist movement and maintain central control of the member parties. The CPSU pioneered the application of orthodox Marxist interpretations to Russia, which resulted in the creation of Leninist and Marxist-Leninist political parties around the globe. The book Foundations of Leninism (1924), written by Joseph Stalin, served as the Comintern's official interpretation of Leninism after Lenin's passing. Purogamana Kala Sahitya Sangham: The PuKaSa, also known as the Purogamana Kala Sahitya Sangham (Progressive Arts & Literary Organization) an Association for Art and Letters, is a group of artists, authors, and people who like art and literature that is based in Kerala. On August 14, 1981, the organization was founded by Malayalam poet Vyloppilli Sreedhara Menon. The Deshabhimani Study Circle, which flourished in the 1970s, and the Kerala Jeevatsahitya Sangham, which was founded in 1937 by a group of left-leaning Congressmen under the leadership of E. M. S. Namboodiripad, are the two places where the PuKaSa's roots can be found. Literary career: Thirumulkazhcha, a collection of poems published by Varkey in 1939, received acclaim from literary heavyweights of the day. In 1939, it received a prize from the Madras government. Varkey quickly veered off course and opted for prose after realizing that drama and short stories were the best forms of writing for emulating spoken language. He used his literary prowess to start an unyielding fight against social injustice because he was already enmeshed in the immense churning that was happening in Kerala's social arena. He had a direct argument with the Diwan at the time because of this. In 1946, the administration of the princely state of Travancore (which is now a part of southern Kerala) banned his short stories Manthrikkettu and Model on the grounds of treason, and Varkey was sentenced to six months in prison. Varkey founded the National Book Stall in 1944 with the assistance of individuals like D. C. Kizhakemuri. The business, however, was a complete failure; a few years later, it amalgamated with the Sahithya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society (SPCS), the world's first writer's publishing cooperative, with Varkey serving as its president. Varkey has authored a volume of autobiography in addition to 24 volumes of short stories, 16 volumes of plays, two collections of poems, and one collection of articles (profiles of various public people and politicians). One of the best short stories in Malayalam literature, Sabdikkunna Kalappa, is one of his works. The tight bond between a farmer and his ox is described. 46

The degeneration in the halls of power and the corruption among the clergy are recurring themes in Varkey's books. His stories feature common rural people, primarily farmers and workers, and he writes in a straightforward, unostentatious manner. His writings were mostly concerned with interpersonal interactions and how people and environment interact. Varkey's literature accelerated the development of a supportive environment for social change in India during the first half of the 20th century. Varkey was proposed for the position of Kerala Sahitya Akademi president in 1973. Varkey received the Ezhuthachan Puraskaram, the highest literary honor bestowed by the Keralan government, in 1997. Film career: He produced two movies and created the screenplays for numerous others. He wrote the screenplay and dialogue for the movie Navalokam, which served as his entry point into the film industry. The censor board severely chopped the movie since the script had a lot of pro- labor language. Additionally, he contributed to movies like School Master, Vidhithanna Vilakku, Snehaseema, Bharya, Asha Deepom, and many others. Additionally, he produced the movies Chalanam and Makam Piranna Manka. Varkey was a Malayalam Cine Technicians' Association honorary member (MACTA). Major works of P.Varkey: Short stories  Kunakiriyam  Aniyara  Anthithiri  Veliyil Enikku Sthalamilla  Nivedanam  Idivandi'ailil ninnu  model  Ezhakal  Pottiya Izhakal  Nattuvelicham  Daham  Daivathekkal Njan pedikkunnathu  Hridayanadam  Sabdikkunna Kalappa  Democracy Plays  Kathirukanakkili  Bharthavu 47

 Jethakkal  Premaviplavam  Swargam Nanikunnu  Pooja  Njan oradhikappattanu  Vazhi Thurannu  Visarikku Kattu Venda  Karnan  Manushyan  Althara  Irumpumara  Chalanam  Thrumulkazhcha (Poetry)  Neeravi  Ente Vazhithirivu (Autobiography) Achievements: Ponkunnam Varkey (1910–2004) was a well-known author and activist in Kerala. He received a prize from the Madras Government in 1939 for his first collection of short stories, \"Thirumulkazhcha.\" He served as Purogamana Sahithya Sangatana's secretary. Sahithya Pravarthaka Sahakarana Sangham counted him among its founders. He was given the Ezuthachan Puraskaram, the highest literary honor established by the Keralan government. Ponkunnam Varkey: In jail for writing the story Writing a Story While in Prison The novella \"Model\" makes fun of Dewan CP Ramaswami Iyer for trying to impose the American system of government on the nation while disregarding the rights and interests of the populace. He received a prison sentence in the 1940s for authoring a short fiction titled \"Model\" that was critical of Sir CP's rule. This contradictory tale of a tailor forcing another tailor to sew a buttoned shirt of his own volition caused a lot of stir. The storyteller, who was imprisoned for disobeying the law, refused to apologise and release himself. The ruling class was equally enraged by the \"Mantrikett\" narrative. Are you a father as well, Anthony? , The thoughts of a selfless artist who fought tenaciously against the hypocrisies and selfishness of the priests are shown in Palengodan, Nonsense, One Devil, and Two Chitram. He felt a strong bond with Kesari and possessed a head that would not submit to the tyranny of authority. He published stories on a regular basis criticizing the wrongdoings of the priesthood and his society. 48

Varki's stories took on a new perspective as a result of his close connection with Kesari Balakrishna Pillai, who introduced him to the writings of Anton Chekhov and Mopassang and enabled him to convey new aesthetic sensations through writing. CP Ramaswamy Iyer's jail is where I am. A lengthy notification was also sent to me by the superintendent. I encourage class conflict among people through novels and plays. He is being held as a result. The government will take an apology into consideration. This was the statement made. The Chief Secretary had also given me a notice before that. I had to give up within twenty-four hours to avoid getting dismissed and punished at the time because I was influencing the next generation toward socialism. As a result of the story's writing. I can handle it. That brought me peace. His debut publication, Thirumulkastha, is a collection of prose poems. He then focused on the narratives. He has written autobiography, prose poetry, and stories on how he feels about the church. 2.3 THE TALKING PLOUGH Story of “The talking plough\": Varkey's translation of \"Sabdikkunna Kalappa\" is titled \"THE TALKING PLOUGH.\" He narrates the tale of a meager farmer named Ouseph and his ox, Kannan. Kannan is a member of the family of the poor farmer. Ouseph has not been exempt from the allure of social forces and new forms of exploitation. For the dowry and other costs associated with his daughter's wedding, he had to sell his beef and mortgage his paddy rice. He was astonished by Ouseph and Kannan's unplanned meeting among the animals held outside the municipal building with kill tags. He brings Kannan home, where his wife and daughter discipline him. The unfortunate creature passed away at the end of the night because he could not bear to see Ouseph's family suffer. The poor farmer Ouseph would forget about everything else because he loved his bull, Kannan, so much. He was therefore referred to as \"angry\" by the other farmers. Kannan really was an ox. Everyone was in awe of his strength and size. Ouseph and Kannan were able to communicate verbally and intellectually. Ouseph would never beat Kannan with a whip or yell at him. He talked to Kannan like a buddy. In the field, Kannan didn't require any encouragement. He understood the proper method and timing. Everything that was mentioned to him was clear to him. After the plow is finished, he will be free to graze. However, he would never eat bananas or baby coconut plants. After the plow is done, Kannan's body is washed. Although he disliked being bathed, he would submit because he adored his owner so much. Ouseph would carefully feed Kannan some banana skins and a handful of fresh grass. He would show Kannan attention, and the bull would begin to lick his master's dried sweat. 49

Ouseph must always be at the plow, according to Kannan. By listening to Ouseph's \"alap\" (music without words or sentences), he would forget the suffering and the labor. Pachan, a fellow farmer, took Kannan to the plow one day when Ouseph was sick in bed and started singing a \"alap.\" But in response to the man's complaint, Kannan gave him a hard kick to the right leg. Without taking a break, Kannan has worked for Ouseph for 12 years. But Ouseph was unable to draw any conclusions from it. Ouseph was not exempt from the allure of social forces and the new methods of exploitation under a decrepit feudal structure. The poor farmer had to take out a mortgage. To find the dowry for his daughter Katrikutti's wedding, he searched his rice field. In order to cover the wedding expenditures, he was also had to sell the oxen, including Kannan. When Kannan was sold, Ouseph was not there. He was in tears as he walked away. Kannan detested when the guests left the property. To see if his master was around, he cast a glance about. Ouseph brushed his tears away while standing beneath the archipelago. The other farmers advised Ouseph to seek his fortune in Malabar while he was having a difficult time. But every day he had to postpone his travels to Malabar. He wanted to get a fair price for the little property that was still available. Additionally, he wanted to glimpse the baby's little face that would soon be born to his daughter. Ouseph's plow and canvas-like cob were left in the stable after he lost his field. He wanted him to be back on the plow as he was looking at him. Like Kannan, he desired a pair of oxen as well as some land. Mariya, Ouseph's wife, charged her of neglecting the parental obligation of bringing her daughter to her husband's home dressed in new clothes. She was starting to receive teasing from her mother-in-law and sister-in-law. Ouseph lacked money, nevertheless. His wife Maria's success at a chitty brought him some luck utilizing the cash Maria provided her. To get new textiles for his daughter, Ouseph traveled to the city. He was greatly shocked by what he observed outside the municipal building. With other oxen who had been marked for slaughter, he met his Kannan. The wretched animals have informed him of the lack of humankind's compassion for other living things. With the funds intended to purchase new clothing for his daughter, he purchased Kannan. He drove Kannan back home. Ouseph's return from the market was eagerly anticipated by Maria and Katri, who were disappointed to learn that he and Kannan had returned empty-handed. He was accused of misleading him by Katri. Ouseph made an effort to comfort her by saying that for He had been a relative of Kannan's. However, mother and daughter have turned a deaf ear to all of his justifications. They began making fun of him. The wretched beast was successful where her own family failed. He passed away around midnight because he could not stand to see Ouseph's family suffer. At the conclusion, we observe Ouseph's broken heart and the plow above Kannan's dead body. 50