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Aristotle: Poetics - I 119 pleasure proper to it, as already stated it plainly follows that Tragedy is the higher art, as attaining its end more perfectly. Thus much may suffice concerning Tragic and Epic poetry in general; their several kinds and parts, with the number of each and their differences; the causes that make a poem good or bad; the objections of the critics and the answers to these objections. Chapter 1 3.5 Summary Aristotle proposes to approach poetry from a scientific viewpoint, examining the constituent parts of poetry and drawing conclusions from those observations. First, he lists the different kinds of poetry: epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, and most flute-playing and lyre-playing. Next, he remarks that all of these kinds of poetry are mimetic, or imitative, but that there are significant differences between them. The first kind of distinction is the means they employ. Just as a painter employs paint and a sculptor employs stone, the poet employs language, rhythm, and harmony, either singly or in combinations. For instance, flute-playing and lyre-playing employ rhythm and harmony, while dance employs only rhythm. He also addresses the question of non-poetic language, arguing that poetry is essentially mimetic, whether it is in verse or in prose. Thus, Homer is a poet, while Empedocles, a philosopher who wrote in verse, is not. While Empedocles writes in verse, his writing is not mimetic, and so it is not poetry. In tragedy, comedy, and other kinds of poetry, rhythm, language, and harmony are all used. In some cases, as in lyric poetry, all three are used together, while in other cases, as in comedy or tragedy, the different parts come in to play at different times.

The second distinction is the objects that are imitated. All poetry represents actions with agents who are either better than us, worse than us, or quite like us. For instance, tragedy and epic poetry deal with characters who are better than us, while comedy and parody deal with characters who are worse than us. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

120 Literary Criticism and Critical Approaches - I The final distinction is with the manner of representation: the poet either speaks directly in narrative or assumes the characters of people in the narrative and speaks through them. For instance, many poets tell straight narratives while Homer alternates between narrative and accounts of speeches given by characters in his narrative. In tragedy and comedy, the poet speaks exclusively through assumed characters. 3.6 Analysis The very first paragraph of the Poetics gives us a hint as to how we should approach the work: it is meant to be descriptive rather than prescriptive. That is, Aristotle is not so much interested in arguing that poetry or tragedy should be one thing or another. Rather, he wants to look at past examples of poetry — tragedy in particular — and by dissecting them and examining their constituent parts to arrive at some general sense of what poetry is and how it works. This is the same scientific method that Aristotle employs so successfully in examining natural phenomena: careful observation followed by tentative theories to explain the observations. The immediate and pressing question, then, is whether Aristotle is right in applying his scientific method to poetry. Physical phenomena are subject to unchanging, natural laws, and presumably a careful study of the phenomena matched with a little insight might uncover what these natural laws are. Aristotle seems to be proceeding with the assumption that the same is true for poetry: its growth and development has been guided by unchanging, natural laws, and the Poetics seeks to uncover these laws. The results are mixed. In some cases, what Aristotle says seems quite right, while in others his conclusions seem very limiting. We will examine this question further when Aristotle delves deeper into the elements of tragedy.

Before going any further, we might do well to clarify some terms. When Aristotle talks about “art” or “poetry” he is not talking about what we might understand by these words. “Art” is the translation of the Greek word techne and is closely related to “artifice” and “artificial.” Art for Aristotle is anything that is made by human beings as opposed to being found in nature. Thus, poetry, painting, and sculpture count as “art,” but so do chairs, horseshoes, and sandals. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aristotle: Poetics - I 121 Our conception of “art” is more closely (but not exactly) approximated by what Aristotle calls “mimetic art.” The Greek word mimesis defies exact translation, though “imitation” works quite well in the context of the Poetics. A chair is something you can sit in, but a painting of a chair is merely an imitation, or representation, of a real chair. Paintings use paint to imitate real life, and sculptures use stone. Poetry is distinguished as the mimetic art that uses language, rhythm, and harmony to imitate real life, language obviously being the most crucial component. This raises the question of in what way poetry imitates, or “mimics,” real life. The events in Oedipus Rex did not actually happen in real life. In fact, it is important that tragedy be fictional and that there be an understanding that the events taking place on stage are not real: no one should call the police when Hamlet kills Polonius. Still, tragedy deals with humans who speak and act in a way that real humans conceivably could have spoken and acted. It is important that there be an understanding that the account is fictional, but it must also be close enough to reality that it is plausible. There are significant differences between the kind of poetry discussed here and our conception of poetry. In modern times, the definition of poetry is closely linked to its being written in verse. Aristotle directly contradicts that definition, pointing out that ‘Empedocles’ philosophical verses are not poetry; they present ideas rather than imitate life. 3.7 Keywords/Abbreviations  Mimesis: Mimesis is a term used in literary criticism and philosophy that carries a wide range of meanings which include imitatio, imitation, nonsensuous similarity, receptivity, representation, mimicry, the act of expression, the act of resembling, and the presentation of the self. 

 Hubris: Hubris describes a personality quality of extreme or foolish pride or dangerous overconfidence, often in combination with (or synonymous with) arrogance. In its ancient Greek context, it typically describes behaviour that defies the norms of behaviour CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

122 Literary Criticism and Critical Approaches - I or challenges the gods which, in turn, brings about the downfall of the perpetrator of hubris. The adjectival form of the noun hubris is “hubristic”.  Nemesis: In ancient Greek religion, Nemesis, also called Rhamnousia or Rhamnusia (“the goddess of Rhamnous”), is the goddess who enacts retribution against those who succumb to hubris (arrogance before the gods).   Hamartia: Hamartia as it pertains to dramatic literature was first used by Aristotle in his Poetics. In tragedy, hamartia is commonly understood to refer to the protagonist’s error or tragic flaw that leads to a chain of plot actions culminating in a reversal from felicity to disaster.   Anagnorisis: Anagnorisis is a moment in a play or other work when a character makes a critical discovery. Anagnorisis originally meant recognition in its Greek context, not only of a person but also of what that person stood for. Anagnorisis was the hero’s sudden awareness of a real situation, the realisation of things as they stood, and finally, the hero’s insight into a relationship with an often antagonistic character in Aristotelian tragedy.   Peripeteia: Peripeteia is a reversal of circumstances, or turning point. The term is primarily used with reference to works of literature. The Anglicized form of peripeteia is peripety. 3.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. How does Aristotle define Poetry as imitation? 2. Why does Aristotle insist on the necessity of unity in the plot?

3. What does Aristotle say about the objects of imitation? 4. What are the three differences which distinguish artistic imitation? 5. Write a note on the origin and development of poetry. 6. Give a brief sketch of the rise of Comedy. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aristotle: Poetics - I 123 How did Aristotle define Tragedy? Write in brief about the different elements of Tragedy. Comment on the structure of the Plot. What constitutes tragic action? What are the two parts of the Plot? How should the tragic emotions of pity and fear be aroused? B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions Which is the only unity that Aristotle insists upon? (a) Unity of Action (b) Unity of Character (c) Unity of Place (d) Unity of Time 2. Which of the following is the most important? (a) Character (b) Diction (c) Plot (d) Harmony 3. Which of the following in not a part of Aristotle’s definition of tragedy? (a) It arouses pity and fear (b) It has an unhappy ending (c) It involves mimesis (d) It is performed rather than narrated 4. A complex plot must contain __________. (a) Peripeteia (b) Anagnorisis (c) Both (d) Either Which of the following is not a requirement for a tragic hero? The hero must be good

The hero must be male The hero’s character must be consistent The hero must be of high social order Answers: 1. (a), 2. (c), 3. (b), 4. (d), 5. (b). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

124 Literary Criticism and Critical Approaches - I 3.9 References http://www.english.hawaii.edu/criticalink/aristotle/index.html https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/aristotle/themes/ https://www.gradesaver.com/aristotles-poetics/e-text/sources https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/poetics/section1/page/2/ Belfiore, Elizabeth, S. (1992), Tragic Pleasures: Aristotle on Plot and Emotion, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP, ISBN 0-691-06899-2. Bremer, J.M. (1969), Hamartia: Tragic Error in the Poetics of Aristotle and the Greek Tragedy, Amsterdam. Butcher, Samuel H. (1911), Aristotle’s Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, New York. Carroll, M. (1895), Aristotle’s Poetics, c. xxv, Ιn the Light of the Homeric Scholia, Baltimore. Cave, Terence (1988), Recognitions: A Study in Poetics, Oxford. Carlson, Marvin (1993), Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present, Expanded ed. Ithaca and London: Cornell UP, ISBN 978- 0-8014-8154-3. Dukore, Bernard F. (1974), Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski. Florence, KY: Heinle & Heinle, ISBN 0-03-091152-4 Downing, E. (1984), “oἷον ψυχή: Αn Εssay on Aristotle’s muthos”, Classical Antiquity, 3: 164-78.

Else, Gerald F. (1986), Plato and Aristotle on Poetry, Chapel Hill/London. Heath, Malcolm (1989), “Aristotelian Comedy”, Classical Quarterly, 39: 344-354, doi: 10.1017/S0009838800037411. Heath, Malcolm (1991), “The Universality of Poetry in Aristotle's Poetics”, Classical Quarterly, 41: 389-402, doi: 10.1017/S0009838800004559. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aristotle: Poetics - I 125 Heath, Malcolm (2009), “Cognition in Aristotle's Poetics”, Mnemosyne, 62: 51-75. doi: 10.1163/156852508X252876. Halliwell, Stephen (1986), Aristotle’s Poetics, Chapel Hill.

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UNIT 4 ARISTOTLE: POETICS - II Structure: 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Overview 4.2 Perspective and Narrator 4.3 Poetics|Context 4.4 Keywords/Abbreviations 4.5 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 4.6 References 4.0 Learning Objectives

In this unit, the students will study Aristotle’s Poetics:  This brief text composed around 330 BCE, preserved in the form of students’ lecture notes.  Through various interpretations and applications, understand the profound impact on Western aesthetic philosophy and artistic production. 4.1 Overview Historians and literary experts commonly believe that Aristotle wrote Poetics as a response to Greek philosopher Plato’s negative framing of poets and poetry in The Republic (c. 360 BCE). Poetics is Aristotle’s treatise on dramatic performance poetry, in which he describes the different types of poetry and outlines their most important elements. This text was one of the first major CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aristotle: Poetics - II 127 treatises about drama in the West. Much of Western thought and philosophy owe their roots to the writings and teachings of Aristotle. Although fragmentary, Poetics has left its mark on the development of Western literature and theatre. 4.2 Perspective and Narrator Poetics is written in the first person wherein Aristotle addresses his readers and invites them into dialogue, using the first person plural us. About the Title Poetics is a treatise on poetry as it was conceptualized in ancient Greece. Aristotle uses the word poetics to include a range of artistic work that, in modern times, would be classified as poetry, drama, and theatre. Share Epic Poetry Epic poetry is a narrative or storytelling form that features a plot with a beginning, middle, and end and is built around a single action. This action is often broader and more far-reaching than that in tragedy, as epic poetry is not meant to be performed on the stage. Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey are primary examples, often referenced by Aristotle, of epic poetry. These poems cover large amounts of time and many different episodes of the characters’ experiences. For instance, The Odyssey has multiple working parts: it covers the 10 years of hardship and adventures that Odysseus must undergo to return home, but it also tells the story of Penelope and her son, Telemachus, as they attempt to fend off suitors and keep faith that Odysseus is still alive.

Aristotle explains epic poetry as poetry that uses heroic meter, which in classical Greek poetry is the same as dactylic hexameter, to convey its story. Hexameter refers to the meter, or pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables, of the poem. Dactylic describes a poetic foot, referring to the number and pattern of stressed syllables. A dactyl is one long followed by two short syllables. Hexameter indicates that there will be six feet in each line of the poem: the first five feet are dactyls, and the last foot is a two-syllable foot called a spondee. The rhythm created is something like DUM dah dah | DUM dah dah | DUM dah dah | DUM dah dah | DUM dah dah CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

128 Literary Criticism and Critical Approaches - I | DUM DUM. This structure is much more natural in Greek and Latin poetry and has not been successfully used in English poetry very often. Greek Tragedy Tragedy is different from epic poetry in the scope of its plot. It is a type of dramatic poetry that can be broken down into six elements: plot, character, thought, diction, lyrical song, and spectacular presentment (the acting or stage element). Tragedy has several requirements: There must be a tragic action, a reversal of situation, a reveal or recognition, and a stirring of fear and pity. The audience should then purge these emotions when it experiences catharsis at the end of the tragedy. Aristotle also argues that tragedies should almost always end with a reversal from good to bad fortune. Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were three great Greek tragedians whose work still exists today. Aristotle frequently uses their plays as examples when illustrating various points about the tragic form. Sophocles’s play Oedipus Rex, also known as Oedipus the King, tells the story of King Oedipus of Thebes who unknowingly fulfills a prophecy to kill his father and marry his mother. This play remains one of the most famous of the Greek tragedies and is still performed in modern times. Plot Plot is the key element in both tragedy and the epic poem. Aristotle illustrates how both these forms use imitation in order to create their characters and their plots. Plots must demonstrate unity in order to feel natural and believable and should evoke a feeling of catharsis in the audience. In Aristotle’s view, the characters are secondary to the plot, although he insists it is also vital to have characters perform believable actions that are consistent with their characters. Aristotle proposes that the plot in either type should be a unified whole based around the imitation of a central action. Plot always requires a beginning, middle, and end, and

Aristotle emphasizes the importance of each of these parts naturally being the cause or the effect of the next part. It is essential that plot develops in an organic way and not as a result of the poet’s forcing events via unlikely character actions or motivations. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aristotle: Poetics - II 129 Imitation In Poetics, imitation is the core idea behind the creation of any art. According to Aristotle, it is the primary motivation behind all poetry. Aristotle explains imitation in this context as the driving force behind humankind’s desire to create art. In the cases of drama and poetry, the thing being imitated is human action. Catharsis Catharsis is something that sets tragedy apart from epic poetry and other forms. Aristotle proposes that a tragedy should evoke an emotional response in the reader. More specifically, the tragedy should make the audience go through an emotional process that begins with their feeling a sense of horror or fear that in the climax and denouement of the play subsequently turns into a feeling of pity or sorrow. This allows the audience to purge their feelings and experience a feeling of wonder in the end of the story. Unity Unity of plot is crucial to both tragic and epic poetry, and it occurs when all parts of the plot work in harmony to create an organic whole. This means that the plot cannot jump around in space or time in confusing ways, and it should be based around a single main event. It is also important that the plot feels organic, meaning that the characters are not committing actions solely as tools of the plot. The characters should act and react in ways natural to them, and this should in turn play into the overall shape and movement of the plot. 4.3 Poetics|Context Share

Tragedy in Ancient and Classical Greece Aristotle lived in the period of Greek history known as Classical Greece. The period covered most of the 5th and 4th centuries BCE and is usually recognized as ending with Macedonian king Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BCE. From this period, only the works of three major tragedians — Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides — survive. Aristotle frequently references the works of these three writers as examples for his arguments about poetry and tragedy. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

130 Literary Criticism and Critical Approaches - I The earliest of the great Greek dramatists was Aeschylus, who lived between 525 and 455 BCE. He was a major participant in the dramatic competition held every year as a part of the Festival of Dionysus, where three tragedies would be presented followed by a lighthearted satire play. Although it is estimated that he wrote around 90 plays, only seven of his tragedies survive completely. Aeschylus significantly changed Greek tragedy by adding a second actor to the play — previously, only one actor played all of the parts, with a chorus narrating in the background. This allowed dialogue to develop between characters and consequently opened up more possibilities for the writing. Sophocles was born around 496 BCE in the village of Colonus, located just outside Athens, and died in 406 BCE in Athens around the age of 90. Not much is known about Sophocles’s life, and most of what remains are his works of tragedy. As with Aeschylus, only seven of Sophocles’s tragedies have survived in their entirety: Ajax, Antigone, Trachinian Women, Oedipus the King, Electra, Philoctetes, and Oedipus at Colonus. None of the exact dates are known for any of these plays, although Ajax is generally regarded as the earliest of the seven, and it is known that Philoctetes was first performed around 409 BCE. Sophocles’s tragedies usually focus on a few central characters with the protagonist exhibiting a major fault that leads tragically to his or her demise. His main character will usually make a crucial error of judgement, which affects each of the surrounding characters, moving the play and all its characters toward a tragic end. In contrast to Aeschylus, the action and tragedy of Sophocles’s plays usually take place within one generation of characters, instead of being spread over longer time periods. Euripides was a dramatist who lived and worked parallel to Sophocles. He was born around 484 BCE and lived until 406 BCE. Little is known of his personal life, but 19 of his plays survive today. Like Sophocles and Aeschylus, Euripides competed in the Festival of Dionysus, which he won four times over the course of his life. Euripides is notable for his rational attitude toward religion and for his realistic characters with normal human flaws. He commonly incorporates in his plays dialogue about contemporary philosophical or social issues. The tragedy of Euripides’s plays, unlike those of

Sophocles and Aeschylus, often comes about from a combination of chance, chaos, and character flaws. The gods do not interfere or affect the tragedy in any way, but instead CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aristotle: Poetics - II 131 watch the unfolding with disinterest. This realistic and true-to-life style is a signature of Euripides’s work. Each of these dramatists was influenced by a poet who lived hundreds of years before any of them. Homer, famous for the epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey (c. 8th century BCE), lived in either the 8th or 9th century BCE. Little is known about Homer, including whether or not he is responsible for the two epics. It has generally been agreed, however, that he likely did write, or at least contribute to, both poems. The Iliad is a tragic poem detailing the Trojan War. It is composed of various episodes, although Achilles is thought to be the main protagonist. The Odyssey tells the story of Odysseus, the king of Ithaca, who spends 10 years trying to reach home after the Trojan War. Meanwhile, his wife, Penelope, and son, Telemachus, fend off suitors who insist that Odysseus is dead in their attempt to marry Penelope. These two poems are foundational works to all subsequent Greek poetry and drama and are frequently referenced by later writers, including Aristotle. Writing of Poetics Much is unknown about Aristotle’s work Poetics, including precisely when it was written. As a result, it is difficult to say exactly what influences surrounded him when he wrote it. However, it has been argued that Aristotle wrote Poetics as a response to some of Plato’s criticisms of and challenges to the importance of poetry in Greek society. As a pupil, Aristotle frequently disagreed with his teacher, and this debate informed much of his later writing and theory. Plato saw poetry as of doubtful importance. In fact, he proposed that literature was a distraction or misdirection from the truth. Aristotle, however, suggests in Poetics that poetry and art arise from a human desire to imitate and that this desire is connected with the human experience of empathy.

Aristotle categorized rhetoric and the arts as productive sciences as opposed to theoretical sciences. Art, he argued, was a product of the human imagination, giving insight into the human condition. The theoretical sciences, on the other hand, represented the study of knowledge for its own sake. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

132 Literary Criticism and Critical Approaches - I Poetics often lacks organization. Aristotle jumps between ideas and frequently repeats himself. He adds extra information and interjections between longer sections of text. The lack of order indicates that the original text was likely taken from his teaching notes or from notes taken by his students on the subject. Contemporary Relevance Not only does Poetics give modern readers a sense of the important elements of poetry and drama in ancient Greece, but it also provides some of the earliest available writing on the art of drama in Western culture. Both Plato’s writings on poetry and Aristotle’s response have been used in Western art criticism since they were written. In contemporary thought, a common criticism of Poetics is that it tries simply to provide a formula or recipe for art. Part of this criticism results from the way Aristotle elevates the technical and theoretical construction of drama and poetry above its expressive aspects. However, his opinion of certain aspects of poetry is at times inconsistent in the text and is still a matter of much debate. Another aspect of Poetics that is central to the ongoing conversation about poetry and criticism is the concept that both Aristotle and Plato seemed to agree on—that poetry (and art generally) is a form of mimesis, or imitation. This claim is quite contentious. It has been at the forefront of many conversations about the relevance of art and creative works. Aristotle’s doctrine on poetry and drama has had a huge influence on Western thought about art, literature, and theater. Aristotle’s work has shaped both the development of art and the development of criticism. Italian poet Dante Alighieri, famous during the Middle Ages for The Divine Comedy (c. 1308–21), considered Aristotle a master of knowledge. British writer T.S. Eliot, a 20th century poet and critic, considered Aristotle a master writer and referenced lines from Poetics in his own essays.

Summary Aristotle’s Poetics begins with a statement of intention to discuss poetry in its various forms. Aristotle proposes to inquire into the workings of the “good” poem and outlines the various types CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aristotle: Poetics - II 133 of poetry he will discuss in his treatise. Much of his writings on the form of comedy and a few other types of poetry seem to be lost from the text, however. In his first few chapters, Aristotle introduces the types of poetry he will examine and his overarching concept that poetry and art are forms of mimesis. He focuses primarily on the forms of tragedy, comedy, and epic poetry, which also shape his focus for the majority of the treatise. Aristotle proposes that the object of this imitation in poetry is human action. He explains that while this focus is common in comedy, drama, and epic poetry, each of these types of poetry deal with different types of human action. Epic poetry and tragedy, he argues, are higher forms of art than comedy, which deals with the ludicrous. The first five chapters of Poetics are initial observations and introductory explanations. Subsequent chapters delve into more detail about the forms of tragedy and epic poetry. Tragedy, according to Aristotle, is an imitation of an action in its entirety and requires a unified and organically developed plot. There are various types of tragedy and six main elements of the tragic form. Tragedy also relies on the plot devices of situational reversal, recognition, and the tragic incident. Tragedy uses fear and pity as tools to create catharsis in the audience. The audience should go through the experience of fear or horror that turns to pity, and by the closing of the tragedy, they should feel a purging of those emotions. This experience is central to the importance of the tragic form. Epic poetry is often longer than tragedy and more far-reaching. Plot in epic poetry covers a longer time span and has a broader focus but should still be unified and have a natural sense of cause and effect. Aristotle gives the example of the Iliad as an epic poem that focuses on one part of the Trojan War.

Poetics ends with a discussion on the role of critics and criticism and a final decisive comparison of epic poetry and tragedy. Aristotle delineates his argument for why, in the end, tragedy is actually a higher form of art than the epic poem. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

134 Literary Criticism and Critical Approaches - I Summary Chapter 1 Aristotle introduces the question “What are the elements of a good poem?” He proposes to inquire into at least two of these elements: plot structure and the number and type of parts that make up a poem. He offers five general categories to be discussed: epic poetry, tragedy, dithyrambic poetry, comedy, and music. All five of these categories share the trait of imitation, and each uses different tools to mimic reality. There are three main ways that each category differs in regard to imitation: the medium of imitation, the things being imitated, and the way those things are imitated. Imitation is expressed through means of harmony, rhythm, language, and poetic meter. Dithyrambic poetry (a Greek hymn usually expressed through song and dance), tragedy, and comedy each incorporate these means of imitation. Chapter 2 The object that art aims to imitate is humans in action. There are three ways humans may be portrayed: as better than they are in reality, as worse, or as they actually are. Aristotle explains that Homer and Polygnotus both represent people as better than they really are, Hegemon and Pauson portray their characters as less good, and Dionysius and Cleophon draw their characters in the middle. He argues that this division illustrates the difference between tragedy and comedy: tragedy portrays people as better than in reality, and comedy portrays them as worse. Chapter 3 The third type of imitation is the manner in which things are imitated. For example, a poet may choose to narrate, using their own voice, or may take on a particular personality in their narration, or exist only as a neutral observer. The word drama is often associated with these types of poetry because their focus is on people in action.

Chapter 4 Poetry springs from two deep human instincts: the instinct for imitation and the instinct for harmony and rhythm (including poetic meter). Then poetry splits in two different directions. These can be described as poetry written about noble and good characters and poetry written about more flawed characters. This is how the distinction between tragedy and comedy is created. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aristotle: Poetics - II 135 According to Aristotle, Homer is the first poet to compose satirical poetry and create the basis for comedy. Aristotle describes tragedy as developing slowly and through many stages. Dialogue gains greater importance, the number of actors gradually increases, sets are introduced, meter changes from trochaic (syllabic pattern of stressed unstressed) to iambic (unstressed stressed), which is considered a more natural speaking pattern. He references Aeschylus as being responsible for incorporating a second actor and reducing the prominence of the chorus, and Sophocles he gives credit for adding yet a third actor and developing the stage scenery. Chapter 5 Comedy can be described as an imitation of something that is imperfect or ugly in a way that does not communicate or create pain. Unlike tragedy, comedy did not pass through the same extended period of development and originated in Sicily. Epic poetry and tragedy both deal with characters on a higher moral level. Epic poetry can be distinguished from tragedy by its restriction to a single kind of meter and its longer length. Analysis Aristotle introduces the main topics and concepts of his treatise by offering definitions and drawing distinctions between genres. Epic poetry and tragedy are presented as similar forms of art, whereas comedy has a distinct history and separate timeline of development. These art forms are all rooted in the human desire to imitate the surrounding world. There is a general attitude of disdain toward early comedy, and Aristotle draws a distinction between satirical works produced pre-Homer and the genre of comedy that began with Homer’s movement away from personal satire into the dramatization of the

absurd. The topic of dithyrambic poetry is introduced but then fades into the background, shifting the discussion more fully to the forms of epic poetry, tragedy, and comedy. Dithyrambic poetry is a form of ecstatic hymn in honour of the god Dionysus. Aristotle brings up two writers, Sophron and Xenarchus. Sophron was a writer of mimes, as was his son Xenarchus. Xenarchus wrote during the reign of Dionysius I. Both spoke and wrote in CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

136 Literary Criticism and Critical Approaches - I the Dorian dialect, which Aristotle also mentions in reference to the creation of the genres of tragedy and comedy. The reader should be careful not to confuse Dionysius, the 5th-century king, with the Greek god Dionysus. Aristophanes is another important name mentioned in Chapter 2. Aristophanes was a famous writer of comedy in the early 5th and late 4th centuries BCE. He was widely viewed as a merciless satirist, and Aristotle probably brings up his name here with Sophocles because he is discussing the development of both tragedy and comedy. When Aristotle says “Polygnotus depicted men as nobler than they are, Pauson as less noble, Dionysius drew them true to life,” the first two names are referring to famous Greek artistes of the 5th century BCE, but it is unclear which Dionysius he is referencing. Summary Chapter 6 Aristotle sets aside the subjects of comedy and epic poetry and introduces tragedy as the topic of the following chapter. He defines tragedy as poetry that concerns serious actions of a certain gravity, uses language that incorporates harmony, rhythm, and song, and is performed by actors. Tragedy consists of six main elements: character, plot, diction, thought, spectacle (acting), and song. Aristotle argues that plot is central to tragedy, while character development is secondary. “Thought” seems to indicate the intellectual aspects of the work, and diction the order and meaning of words. Spectacle, or the actors and acting, has the power to incite emotion, but Aristotle considers it the least important of the six elements of tragedy. Chapter 7 Chapter 7 focuses primarily on the structure of tragic plot. The plot must have a beginning, middle, and end, each part naturally causing or following the previous. Aristotle suggests that a plot gains adequate gravity through length. He argues that a small thing (or short plot) is not

notable, but something that is too large to see the shape of is also problematic. The plot of a tragedy should be long but have a clear shape and a sense of wholeness. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aristotle: Poetics - II 137 Chapter 8 The tragic plot must be built around a single main action. In regard to the protagonist of the story, only the character’s actions that are relevant to the main thread of the plot should be included. If actions or events do not make an impact by their inclusion or exclusion from the plot, then those actions are unnecessary. Chapter 9 The chapter opens with the argument that the poet’s job is to write about what may happen, as opposed to what has happened already. While comedy might invent characters as well as plot, tragedy usually uses the names of real people to give credibility and weight to the story. Aristotle emphasizes the creation of plot over the use of language, as the poet’s job is to imitate action. The poet and the historian have distinctly different jobs: the poet writes about the universal, and the historian’s focus is the specific. Aristotle also insists that plots should not be episodic, as episodes are not connected by organic cause and effect. Plots should evoke surprise and emotion in the reader, and those feelings are stronger when events have clear cause and effect instead of being the result of chance. Chapter 10 Plots can be organized into two types: simple and complex. A simple plot is defined as a plot in which “the change of fortune takes place without Reversal of the Situation and without Recognition.” A complex plot uses the situational tools of “reversal” and/or “recognition.” These situations should be natural and logical effects of the preceding situation. Chapter 11

Chapter 11 defines the previously mentioned concepts of “reversal of situation” and “recognition.” Reversal of situation is a device wherein the plot flips around to the opposite of its initial trajectory. Recognition occurs when the central characters experience a reversal in knowledge or emotion — for instance, when the protagonist experiences a shift from hate to love. Combined, reversal and recognition usually inspire pity or fear in the audience and are based on the idea of surprise. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

138 Literary Criticism and Critical Approaches - I Aristotle briefly mentions a third part of the plot, which he calls “the Scene of Suffering.” This is a scene that portrays destruction or pain, such as a scene of physical violence or death. Chapter 12 Chapter 12 introduces the tangible parts a tragedy may be divided into. Aristotle outlines these parts as prologue, episode, exode, and choric song. Chapter 13 In this chapter Aristotle lays out the aims of a tragic poet and what the poet should avoid. A tragedy should follow the complex plot structure instead of the simple and should prompt pity and fear in the audience. It should avoid overly simplistic movement such as the complete downfall of the antagonist, because this type of plot does not evoke emotion in the audience. Aristotle proposes that a true tragedy involves a character who is brought from good to bad fortune not through evil or immorality in themselves, but through human error. He outlines a few of the major tragic characters, such as Oedipus and Telephus, and explains that most of the best tragedies are written about them. Chapter 14 While pity and fear can be created through the acting and production of a tragedy, Aristotle argues that a good poet can create those feelings through the construction of the plot. He then details the types of actions or situations that cause people to experience feelings of fear or pity. These feelings are created, he claims, when a tragic accident happens to people who have a close relationship—such as a family member killing another family member. When such a situation is set up with “skillful handling,” it should incite strong feelings of horror and sympathy in the audience. To handle the tragic situation skillfully, the action may be done with conscious understanding of the relationship between the characters (a mother knowingly murdering her children). There is also the option that the action may

be committed without knowledge of the relationship, with understanding dawning after the deed is done (Oedipus unknowingly murdering his father).

CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM) Aristotle: Poetics - II 139 Chapter 15 The topic of Chapter 15 is the tragic character. Aristotle argues that speech or action that can be qualified as “good” is relative to class and propriety. In order to be more true to real life, “good” actions should be assigned to characters in which they would be believable. Characters must be both believable and consistent. However, Aristotle follows this argument by insisting that the poet, in writing the character, should mimic a portrait artist by elevating the character somehow. For instance, if the poet is writing a character with flaws, the poet should preserve the type of character while still painting the individual as more than a common person. Chapter 16 This chapter details the types of recognition, which is a plot device briefly explained in previous chapters. Aristotle poses that “recognition through signs” is the least skillful of the various forms. He explains this form as a situation in which a sign or symbol, such as a particular weapon or birthmark, reveal information about a character and cause the recognition. Aristotle argues that recognition in the form of a character revealing information because the poet needs it revealed, and not as a natural progression of the plot, is also artless. A third kind of recognition occurs when an object or experience wakes a feeling in the character. The fourth type of recognition comes about through a process of reasoning. The best type of recognition, Aristotle insists, is the realization that occurs through the natural development of events within the plot.

Chapter 17 Aristotle discusses the importance of working out the technical details of the acting and setting of any play very carefully. It is the job of the poet, he explains, to make sure that the whole setting is clear and can be seen in its entirety by the audience. The poet must also pay attention to the gestures of the characters and make sure that the emotions the actors portray are natural and realistic. The second part of the chapter describes how the poet should approach the creation of the plot. A general outline should be made first, and then the details filled in afterward. After the outline, what is filled in is called the “episodes,” or the actual detailed scenes of the play.

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140 Literary Criticism and Critical Approaches - I Chapter 18 According to Aristotle, the overall structure of a tragedy can be classified as the complication and the unravelling. The complication is everything leading up to the climax, whereas the unravelling, or denouement, is the rest. He then goes on to delineate the four types of tragedy: the complex, the pathetic, the ethical, and the simple. The complex, as discussed in previous chapters, uses both the reversal and recognition plot devices. In the pathetic the motive is passion, and in the ethical the motive is correspondingly ethical. The simple type uses only one of the two plot devices. Aristotle tells the reader that the poet should not try to make an epic poem into a tragedy. An epic poem has multiple parts, whereas a tragedy focuses on one plot thread. Aristotle gives the example of how an unsuccessful tragedy might try to tell the entire story of the entire Iliad, as opposed to just the Fall of Troy. Aristotle briefly touches on the subject of the chorus, mentioning that it should be thought of as an actor in the play, integral to the plot, and not as unrelated interludes. Chapter 19 Chapter 19 expounds on two of the six parts of tragedy: diction and thought. Thought encompasses the areas of proof and refutation, the inspiring of different emotions, and the suggestion of importance. Thought pertains mostly to speech and not the parts of the plot conveyed through action or other means. Diction is the breakdown of how speech is delivered. Aristotle gives examples such as command, prayer, statement, threat, and question to illustrate how diction is employed.

Chapter 20 This chapter is likely an aside and focuses primarily on the basic elements of language. Aristotle begins with the concept of a letter, which he defines as a single sound grouped with other sounds to form syllables and words. He explains syllables as consonants, or mutes, grouped with a vowel to form a single sound. The chapter continues to describe connecting words, verbs, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aristotle: Poetics - II 141 and nouns. Sentences and phrases are explained as groups of words that contain significant meaning. Chapter 21 Aristotle delves deeper into the significance of words. He postulates that all words can fall into the following categories: current, strange, metaphorical, ornamental, or newly coined or altered. Current words refer to terms in popular usage, whereas strange words are words used in other countries and languages. Metaphor seems to encompass the use of an “alien term” to describe something outside the term’s normal range of meaning, as well as the use of analogy and hyperbole. The description of ornamental words is missing from the chapter. Newly coined and altered words are words changed or put into use by the poet when they are not also in general usage. The chapter includes an aside at the end that details the masculine, feminine, and neuter gender of Greek nouns. Chapter 22 In Chapter 22, Aristotle describes the importance of using the correct amount of metaphorical language and strange/altered words in poetry. Use too much metaphor, and the meaning becomes an overly complex riddle. Use too many strange or altered terms, and the poem becomes indecipherable jargon. In both cases, the text will become ridiculous, and the interesting language will lose any effect. However, moderate use of these two types of language is necessary for elevating a poem above the mundane. Chapter 23 The topic shifts away from the tragic to epic poetry in this chapter. According to Aristotle, epic poetry should follow the same dramatic principles as tragedy. More specifically, it should be constructed of a beginning, middle, and end, and the plot must be

unified. Epic poetry differs from historical writing in that the focus of epic poetry is the single action, whereas historical writing deals with one time period. Aristotle illustrates the structure of an epic poem through Homer’s handling of the war of Troy. Homer writes about the war within certain parameters, and he does not try to encompass the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

142 Literary Criticism and Critical Approaches - I entire war in his epic. Rather, he chooses a single part of the war and writes about multiple episodes that take place within that part. Chapter 24 Epic poetry is similar to tragedy in its requirements of situation reversal, recognitions, and a need for general unity of plot. It does not, however, incorporate song and acting or performance. Epic poetry is also set apart from tragedy in its length and scale, which is much longer and broader. It is possible for epic poems to take on events of a much larger scale over a longer timespan because they do not have to be conveyed by actors on a stage within a certain timeframe. Epic poetry also uses heroic meter, whereas tragedy can use a variety of meters and aims for a naturalness of speaking. Additionally, Aristotle introduces the idea that epic poetry employs the irrational with good effect. Tragedies, he argues, deal with the wonderful but should leave out the irrational. Chapter 25 Aristotle presents the issue of critical objection in poetry. As discussed earlier in the text, Aristotle returns to the idea that the poet’s job is to imitate either things as they are said to be, things as they should be, or things as they were or are. As such, he argues, poetry can express two main faults: faults in the very essence of poetry and accidental faults. If the problem is in the fact that the poet imitated something that lacked substance, then the error lies in the poetry itself. If the poet makes the wrong decision, this is the time for criticism and feedback. However, even if the poet makes a mistake or describes the impossible, Aristotle seems to argue that the quality of art is more important than correctness of the subject matter.

This topic takes Aristotle back to the concepts of language and the poet’s use of metaphor to describe things in one of the three above-mentioned types of imitation. Pertinent usage of language, Aristotle seems to say, can help the writer avoid rudimentary errors in the poem. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aristotle: Poetics - II 143 Chapter 26 Aristotle opens this chapter with the question of whether the epic poem or tragedy is considered the higher art form. He compares the two forms in terms of level of refinement and the audience’s ability to discern. He posits that, if refinement makes one art form higher than the other, tragedy’s reliance on extra embellishment through acting makes it the less advanced of the two forms. Epic poetry, by contrast, uses more subtle techniques to engage an audience with a refined palate. However, Aristotle reminds the reader that tragedy should also have a strong enough plot to be conveyed through reading alone. Thus, the flaw that makes it a lower art form than epic poetry is not actually inherent in the tragic form at all. At this point in the chapter, Aristotle reverses stances on which art form is the higher. He argues that tragedy does everything that epic poetry is capable of, but within a narrow and more focused scope. In addition, because of its much wider scope, epic poetry cannot have the same unity of plot as the tragedy is capable of. Aristotle concludes Poetics with the assertion that the tragic form is, in fact, superior to the epic poem and recaps a list of some of the main topics of the treatise. 4.4 Keywords/Abbreviations  Catharsis: It refers to the purification and purgation of emotions—particularly pity and fear—through art or any extreme change in emotion that results in renewal and restoration. It is a metaphor originally used by Aristotle in the Poetics, comparing the effects of tragedy on the mind of a spectator to the effect of catharsis on the body. 