CU-MA-PSY-SEM-I-Organizational Psychology - Second Draft-converted

employees according to their skill, capabilities, and expertise, which results in job specialization in the organization. Skill-Based Recruitment: The employees are recruited by matching their skills and experience with that required for the vacant job position to ensure that the right person is placed at the right job. Predictability: When there is a systematic hierarchy and defined rules and methods of performing the complicated tasks in the organization, actions in similar situations become somewhat predictable for the management. Equality: The management remains unbiased towards the employees and ensures a fair judgment at the time of any issue or problem in the organization. Structure: A systematic organizational structure can be developed through bureaucracy where the rules, regulations, methods, and procedures are pre-defined. Systematic Record Keeping: This approach focuses on systematically recording all the business transactions and operations in documents to be used by the other employees in the future. Rationality: The recording of operations brings rationality, i.e., framing the laws, rules, regulations, and procedures for the future, based on the experience. Figure 3.2 Advantages of Bureaucracy 51 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 3.3 Disadvantages of Bureaucracy Disadvantages of Bureaucracy One Way Communication: The bureaucracy theory emphasizes the passing of information, i.e., tasks, orders, rules, and regulations, from the top-level management to the bottom level; however, feedback concerning the operational issues and other suggestions are not taken from the employees. The exploitation of Power: In a bureaucracy, managers have a higher authority which can be misused by them to meet their interests or to dominate their subordinates. Wastage of Time, Efforts, and Money: It involves the recording of all the business transactions and operations to create documents that require a lot of time, money, and efforts of the personnel. Delay in Business Decision-Making: The top-level management keeps the decision-making authority with itself. Therefore, the lower-level managers have to rely upon the top-level managers, even in the case of any emergency or situations demanding immediate action. Hinders Innovation and Creativity: The supervisor controls every activity of the employees, which ultimately restricts the subordinates to apply creativity and innovation to their work. Inflexible and Rigid Methods: The bureaucracy theory does not entertain any change or 52 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

modification in the management system, which makes it quite rigid. 3.4 SUMMARY • Organizational behaviour specifically deals with how people and groups behave in organizations. • Like organization development it uses a systems approach and considers the whole group, all persons, and the whole organization. • The purpose of Organizational behaviour is to build better interactions and relationships between employees at all levels and to help organizations and those who work for them reach desired goals while fostering strong communication. • Organizational behaviour model is also used as a means to implement other organizational changes. • Weber's bureaucratic model is defined by a \"rational-legal\" approach, in which order and reason is utilized to further the goal of the organization. • This applies to a number of aspects of the business; while the most literal interpretation involves an established company policy, including codes of conduct and methods of discipline, the bureaucratic model also involves an ethic of professionalism and a dedication to serving the needs of the customer or shareholders. 3.5 KEY WORDS • Weber’s ideal bureaucracy: Weber viewed bureaucratic organization as technically superior to any other form of organization and admirably equipped to maintain effective and impartial control; its aim is to accomplish organizational objectives. 3.6 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. With the help of an example, explain the organizational structure of a mid-size company? ______________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 53 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2. What are the similarities between bureaucracy in government and in industry? ______________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 3.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is organizational behaviour? 2. Define job satisfaction. 3. Give 2 examples of individual differences. 4. What is bureaucratic model? 5. Who has given the bureaucratic model? Long Questions 1. Write a note on Organizational model. 2. Explain the three levels of Organizational Behaviour Model. 3. What are the three kinds of powers in an organization according to Webber. 4. What are the principles of bureaucratic theory? 5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of bureaucracy? B. Multiple Choice Questions 54 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1. Organizational Behaviour is a field of study backed by a body associated with growing concern for people at the workplace a. Theory b. Research c. Application d. All of these 2. Organizational behaviour is_______ a. A science b. An art c. A science as well as an art d. None of these 3. The field of organizational behaviour examines such questions as the nature of leadership, effective team development, and______ a. Interpersonal conflict resolution; motivation of individuals b. Organizational control; conflict management c. Motivation of individuals; planning d. Planning; development 4. The field of organizational behaviour is primarily concerned with _____ 55 a. The behaviour of individual and groups. b. How resources are effectively managed. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

c. Control processes and interactions between organizations, external context. d. Both a and c. 5. The study of organizational behaviour has certain basic assumptions. They are _____ a. An industrial enterprise is an organization of people. b. These people must be motivated to work effectively. c. The goals of the employee and the employer may not necessarily coincide. d. All of these Answer 1- d, 2- c, 3- a, 4- d, 5- d 3.8 REFERENCES Textbooks • Luthans, F. (1986). Organizational Behaviour. New York: McGraw Hill. • Davis, K. (1981). Human Behaviour at Work New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. • Ganguli, H.C. (1964). Structure and Processes of Organization. Bombay: Asia Publishing. Reference Books • Gibson, J.L., Ivancevich, J.M. &Bomnally, J.H. (1976). Organizations: Structure, Processes, Behaviour. Dollas: Business Pub. • Nilakant, V. &Ramnarayan, S. (2008). Managing Organizational Change. New Delhi: Sage Publications. • Ramnarayan, S., Rao, T.V. & Singh, K. (Eds.) (2009). Organizational Development. New Delhi: Sage Publications. 56 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Aquinas P.G (2007) Management Principles and Practices, Bharathiyar University. • Ahmed Abad, (1972). \"Management and Organization Development\", Rachna Prakashan, New Delhi. • Arnold and Feidman, \"Organizational Behaviour\", McGraw Hill International, New York. 57 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT – 4 MODELS OF ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR: PART – 2 Structure 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 McGregor Theory X and Theory Y 4.3 Summary 4.4 Keywords 4.5 Learning Activity 4.6 Unit End Questions 4.7 References 4.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to, • Explain the different models of Organizational Psychology • Elaborate on the Mc Gregor’s Theory X and Y of Organizational Psychology 4.1 INTRODUCTION The goal of any organization is not only to increase profitability, but also to sustain its existence by improving performance. In order to meet the needs of the highly competitive markets, organizations must continually increase performance. Population ecology theory focuses on the natural selection of organizational existence. Conversely, strategic management theory focuses on the strategy and politics of organizational leaders. When we look at the sustainability and performance of organizations from this perspective the leadership style in organizations plays major role. Leadership style and organizational performance have been researched extensively. However, the literature has a limited number of studies concerning organizational performance of small 58 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

and medium businesses, even less research on the impact on organizational performance of Theory X and Theory Y type leadership styles. McGregor (1960) famously argued that there are two types of managers: Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X managers assume that workers are lazy, will avoid responsibility, and prefer to just get by. Theory X assumptions believe that workers must be controlled and threatened with punishment. Conversely, McGregor saw Theory Y managers as those that hold assumptions that workers care about the organization, will seek responsibility, and exercise self-control. Bobic and Davis (2003) found that most of the population has the ability to be innovative and creative. This finding supports the argument that Theory Y assumptions contribute positively toward more participative decision-making, ultimately benefitting the organization (Russ, 2011). 4.2 MCGREGOR THEORY X AND THEORY Y In 1960, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y suggesting two aspects of human behaviour at work, or in other words, two different views of individuals (employees): one of which is negative, called Theory X and the other is positive, so-called as Theory Y. According to McGregor, the perception of managers on the nature of individuals is based on various assumptions. a. Assumptions of Theory X • An average employee intrinsically does not like work and tries to escape it whenever possible. • Since the employee does not want to work, he must be persuaded, compelled, or warned with punishment to achieve organizational goals. Close supervision is required on part of managers. The managers adopt a more dictatorial style. • Many employees rank job security on top, and they have little or no aspiration/ ambition. • Employees generally dislike responsibilities. • Employees resist change. • An average employee needs formal direction. b. Assumptions of Theory Y 59 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Employees can perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise their physical and mental efforts inherently in their jobs. • Employees may not require only threat, external control, and coercion to work, but they can use self-direction and self-control if they are dedicated and sincere to achieve the organizational objectives. • If the job is rewarding and satisfying, then it will result in employees' loyalty and commitment to the organization. • An average employee can learn to admit and recognize the responsibility. He can even learn to obtain responsibility. • The employees have skills and capabilities. Their logical capabilities should be fully utilized. In other words, the creativity, resourcefulness, and innovative potentiality of the employees can be utilized to solve organizational problems. Thus, we can say that Theory X presents a pessimistic view of employees' nature and behaviour at work, while Theory Y presents an optimistic view of the employees' nature and behaviour at work. If correlate it with Maslow's theory, we can say that Theory X is based on the assumption that the employees emphasize the physiological needs and the safety needs; while Theory X is based on the assumption that the social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs dominate the employees. McGregor views Theory Y to be more valid and reasonable than Theory X. Thus, he encouraged cordial team relations, responsible and stimulating jobs, and participation of all in the decision- making process. C. Theory into practice Abraham Maslow viewed McGregor as a mentor. He was a strong supporter of Theories X and Y, and he put Theory Y (that people want to work, achieve, and take responsibility) into practice in a Californian electronics factory. However, he found that an organization driven solely by Theory Y could not succeed, as some sense of direction and structure was required. Instead, Maslow advocated an improved version of Theory Y which involved an element of structured security and direction taken from Theory X. 60 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Maslow's negative experience with implementing Theory Y must be balanced against that of McGregor himself at a Procter & Gamble plant in Georgia, where he introduced Theory Y through the concept of self-directed teams. This plant was found to be a third more profitable than any other Procter and Gamble plant; it was kept a trade secret until the mid-1990s. Before he died, McGregor began to develop a further theory which addressed the criticisms made of theories X and Y - that they were mutually incompatible. Ideas he proposed as part of this theory included lifetime employment, concern for employees (both inside and outside the working environment), decision by consensus and commitment to quality. He tentatively called it Theory Z. Before it could be widely published, McGregor died, and the ideas faded. D. Implications of Theory X and Theory Y Quite a few organizations use Theory X today. Theory X encourages the use of tight control and supervision. It implies that employees are reluctant to organizational changes. Thus, it does not encourage innovation Many organizations are using Theory Y techniques. Theory Y implies that the managers should create and encourage a work environment that provides opportunities to employees to take initiative and self-direction. Employees should be given opportunities to contribute to organizational well-being. Theory Y encourages decentralization of authority, teamwork, and participative decision-making in an organization. Theory Y searches and discovers how an employee can make significant contributions to an organization. It harmonizes and matches employees' needs and aspirations with organizational needs and aspirations. 4.3 SUMMARY • The Theory X and Theory Y are the theories of motivation given by Douglas McGregor in 1960’s. • These theories are based on the premise that management has to assemble all the factors of production, including human beings, to get the work done. 61 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Theory X relies on the authoritarian style of management, where the managers are required to give instructions and keep a close check on each employee. • As it is assumed, the employees are not motivated, and they dislike working. • Theory Y relies on the participative style of management, where the managers assume that the employees are self-directed and self- motivated to accomplish the organizational objectives. • Thus, here the management attempts to get the maximum output with least efforts on their part. • Thus, theory X and theory Y are two contrasting models that depict the set of assumptions a manager holds on his employees, which may or may not coincide with their general way of behaving. Therefore, these theories are based on the attitude, not attributes. 4.4 KEY WORDS • Theory X: Theory X managers tend to take a pessimistic view of their people and assume that they are naturally unmotivated and dislike work. • Theory Y: Theory Y managers have an optimistic, positive opinion of their people, and they use a decentralized, participative management style. 4.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. How will an employee relying on theory X treat their employees? ______________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2. How will an employee relying on theory Y motivate their employees? ______________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 62 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Who gave theory X and Theory Y. 2. Define Theory X. 3. Define Theory Y. 4. What does theory X and Theory Y suggest? 5. Give one application of theory X and Theory Y. Long Questions 1. What are the assumptions of theory X? 2. What are the assumptions of Theory Y? 3. State the advantages of theory X and Theory Y. 4. State the disadvantages of theory X and Theory Y. 5. Explain the implications of theory X and Theory Y. B. Multiple Choice Questions 63 1. --------the leader is self-confident and can attract followers by his great influence a. Charismatic b. Autocratic CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

c. Laissez-faire 64 d. Bureaucratic 2. Who propounded X and Y theory. a. Maslow b. F. Herzberg c. Alderfer d. Mc Gregor 3. -------------- theory believes that employees dislike work a. X theory b. Y theory c. Z theory d. None of these 4. …………….is once a view of reality a. Attitude b. Perception c. Outlook CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

d. Personality 5. Who proposed “bureaucratic structure” is suitable for all organization a. Elton Mayo b. Henry Fayol c. F.W. Taylor d. Max Weber Answer 1-a, 2-d,3-a,4-b, 5-d 4.7 REFERENCES Textbooks • Luthans, F. (1986). Organizational Behaviour. New York: McGraw Hill. • Davis, K. (1981). Human Behaviour at Work New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. • Ganguli, H.C. (1964). Structure and Processes of Organization. Bombay: Asia Publishing. Reference Books • Gibson, J.L., Ivancevich, J.M. &Bomnally, J.H. (1976). Organizations: Structure, Processes, Behaviour. Dollas: Business Pub. • Nilakant, V. &Ramnarayan, S. (2008). Managing Organizational Change. New Delhi: Sage Publications. • Ramnarayan, S., Rao, T.V. & Singh, K. (Eds.) (2009). Organizational Development. New Delhi: Sage Publications. • Aquinas P.G (2007) Management Principles and Practices, Bharathiyar University. 65 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Ahmed Abad, (1972). \"Management and Organization Development\", Rachna Prakashan, New Delhi. • Arnold and Feidman, \"Organizational Behaviour\", McGraw Hill International, New York. • McGregor, D., (1960) The human side of enterprise. McGraw Hill, New York • Arslan, Aykut & Staub, Selva. (2012). Theory X and Theory Y Type Leadership Behaviour and its Impact on Organizational Performance: Small Business Owners in the Şishane Lighting and Chandelier District. Procedia - Social and Behavioural Sciences. 75. 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.012. 66 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT – 5 HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPEMENT Structure 5.0 Learning Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Job analysis procedure 5.3 Interview Process 5.4 Summary 5.5 Keywords 5.6 Learning Activity 5.7 Unit End Questions 5.8 References 5.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to, • Describe the different process of human resource management • Explain the scope of job analysis • Elaborate on the process of job analysis • Describe the nature and significance of interviewing in an organization • Explain the process of interview in organization 5.1 INTRODUCTION Job analysis is a process of identifying and determining in detail the particular job duties and requirements and the importance of these duties for a given job. It helps an organization determine which employee is best for a specific job. In other words, job analysis is used to determine the placement of jobs. It allows human resource managers to identify the path of job progression for employers looking to advance their careers and compensation. To be clear, job analysis targets the job, not the person. Data for job 67 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

analysis is collected from the job holders through interviews or questionnaires, but the result of the analysis is a description of the job and not a description of the job holder. 5.2 JOB ANALYSIS PROCEDURE Definition of Job analysis According to Harry L. Wylie “Job analysis deals with the anatomy of the job. This is the complete study of the job embodying every known and determinable factor, including the duties and responsibilities involved in its performance; the conditions under which performance is carried on; the nature of the task; the qualifications required in the worker; and the conditions of employment such as pay, hours, opportunities and privileges.” Michael J. Jucius: \"Job analysis refers to the process of studying the operations, duties and organizational aspects of jobs to derive specification or, as they are called by some job description\" Blum is defined as \"Job analysis is an accurate study of the various components of a job. It is concerned not only with an analysis of the duties and conditions of work but also with the individual qualifications of the worker. Purpose of Job analysis 68 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 5.1 Purpose of Job analysis Training needs assessment Job analysis is used to determine training needs such as training content, assessment tests, test equipment, and methods of training. It is also useful in identifying the areas where an employee needs training. Compensation management Compensation management/salary administration is one of the core HR functions. Job analysis can be used in determining skill levels, compensable job factors, the required level of education, etc. It is important in deciding the pay packages and job benefits of employees. The pay depends on the position, job title, duties, and responsibilities associated with a job. Job analysis guides HR managers in deciding how much an employee is worth. Recruitment and selection procedures Job analysis helps in hiring the right person for a job. It helps in identifying the job duties that should be included in vacancy announcements. It also helps in collecting information on educational qualifications, minimum requirements, and appropriate salary levels. Performance review Every organization has goals and objectives to achieve and certain performance standards to be maintained by its employees. Job analysis helps in identifying the goals and objectives, performance standards and evaluation criteria, and duties to be evaluated Process of Job analysis Organizational analysis The first step in the job analysis process is to determine its purpose. This will help determine what kind of data to collect and how to collect it. The necessary background information for this step can be collected by using organization charts, process charts, and job descriptions. 69 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Select representative positions It will be time-consuming and costly to analyse all jobs in an organization. So, it is essential to select a representative sample of jobs for detailed job analysis. Figure 5.2 Process of Job analyses Collect data The next step is to collect job-related data such as educational qualification, duties, responsibilities, working conditions, employee behaviour, skills, and abilities. Data is collected by using methods such as observation, interviews, and questionnaires. Review collected data A job analysis report is prepared by using the gathered data. The information is then verified with the worker performing the job and their supervisor. Developing job description The information collected is used to develop a written statement known as the job description. A job description is a document that describes the responsibilities, working conditions, locations, risks, and tasks required for effective job performance. 70 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developing job specification The final step in the process is to develop job specifications. Job specification and job descriptions are two tangible products of the job analysis process. Job specification is a statement of personal traits, educational qualifications, experience, background, and skills needed to perform a job. Approaches to job analysis Job analysis is done by using two approaches: Task-oriented approach The task-oriented approach to job analysis focuses on the actual activities involved in a job. It mainly considers the duties and responsibilities of a job. HR managers develop task statements that state the functions of a job in great detail. The tasks are then rated based on importance, frequency, difficulty, etc. This helps in having a greater understanding of the requirements of a job. Worker oriented approach Examining the human attributes of a job is another approach to job analysis. These attributes are classified as knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics, collectively known as KSAO. Knowledge refers to the information required by an employee to perform the job. Skills are the proficiencies needed for good performance. Abilities refer to the attributes of employees that are stable over time. Other attributes such as personality factors are other characteristics. Common method of job analysis Different methods such as observation, interviews, checklists, task inventories, and questionnaires can be used individually or in combination. Choosing the method or combination of methods of job analysis depends upon the needs and requirements of the organization. Here are the three most common job analysis methods used by organizations: 71 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 5.3 Common method of Job analysis Observation method The job analyst observes and records the tasks, responsibilities, and duties of an employee. This also includes the methods and skills used by them to perform the job. This is the most difficult method of job analysis. This is because every person has their way of observation and interpretation, which can involve personal biases. This error can be minimized by choosing a properly trained job analyst. Interview method The job analyst interviews employees to know about their working style, problems faced, skills and techniques used, and insecurities about their careers. This method helps the analyst to know what an employee thinks of his job and the responsibilities it entails. The success of this method depends upon the genuineness of data and feedback collected from employees. Questionnaire method In this method, the job analyst gives an employee a simple questionnaire to identify the duties, responsibilities, work environment, and problems related to a job. This method can also be biased if the questions are not framed properly. 72 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Significance of Job analysis 1. Facilitates Manpower Planning: Job analysis is the qualitative aspect of manpower requirements. It determines the demands of the job in terms of responsibilities and duties and then translates these demands into skills, qualities, and other human attributes. It determines the quantum of work that an average person can perform on the job in a day. It facilitates the division of work into different jobs. Thus, it is an essential element of manpower planning as it matches jobs with men. 2. Helps Recruitment, Selection, and Placement: To hire the right person for a job, it is essential to know the requirements of the job and the qualities of the individual who will perform it. The information regarding these is procured from the job description and job specifications respectively. These help the management in matching the job requirements as closely as possible with workers' aptitudes, abilities, interests, etc. It facilitates the execution of an employment program. 3. Determines Training and Development Needs: Job analysis determines the levels of standards of job performance. It helps in administering the training development programs. Job descriptions and job specifications are written documents. If the contents of these two documents are known to the employees, they will try to acquire the skills and knowledge required to perform the task assigned to them efficiently. They may also prepare themselves for the higher post in the light of the job description and the job specifications. The same information may be used by those who administer the training and development programs for determining the contents and subject matter needed in such programs. 4. Determines Job Evaluation: 73 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Job evaluation aims at determining the relative worth of the job which helps in determining the compensation of the job. These jobs are evaluated in terms of money. An accurate and comprehensive set of job descriptions and job specifications forms the factual basis for evaluating the worth of the job. 5. Provides Data for Performance Appraisal: Job analysis data provide a clear-cut standard of performance for every job. The performance of the employee can be appraised objectively with the standard of job performance so established. A supervisor may very easily compare the contribution of each man with the set standards. 6. Helps Job Designing: Industrial engineers may use the job analysis information in designing the job by making a comprehensive study of the job elements. It helps in time and motion study, work specifications, methods, and workplace improvement and work measurement. Human engineering activities such as physical, mental, and psychological actions are studied with the help of job analysis information. 7. Ensures Safety and Health: The job analysis process uncovers the hazardous and unhealthy environmental factors such as heat, noise, fumes, dust, etc. related to the jobs. The management may take corrective measures to minimize the chances of risks to ensure safety to workers and avoid unhealthy conditions. 8. Maintains Discipline: Job analysis provides the information regarding characteristics of various jobs and the jobholders. It studies the failure of the workman to meet the required standard of performance. Corrective measures may be taken in time to avoid untoward situations. In this way, it helps in maintaining discipline in the industry. 74 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5.3 INTERVIEW PROCESS In one form or another, an interview plays a role in virtually every selection or promotion decision. This has been true for many decades; one of the first texts dealing with employment interviewing was written by Bingham and Moore in 1931. Over the years, there have been many fine texts (e.g., Webster, 1982) and reviews of the research on the interview (e.g., Guion, 2011; Landy, 1989; Posthuma, Morgeson, & Campion, 2002). Interview Content Interview content is often dictated by the amount of structure in the interview. A structured interview consists of very specific questions asked of each candidate, often anchored in asking the interviewee to describe in specific and behavioural detail how he or she would respond to a hypothetical situation. This has been labelled the situational interview, a subcategory of the structured interview. In addition, structured interviews typically have tightly crafted scoring schemes with detailed outlines for the interviewer with respect to assigning ratings or scores based on interview performance. The situational interview can be contrasted with another form of structured interview known as the behaviour description interview. The basic difference between them is a time orientation. The situational interview asks the applicant what he or she would do, whereas the behaviour description interview asks the applicant what he or she did do in the past. An unstructured interview includes much broader questions that may vary by candidate and allows the candidate to answer in any form he or she prefers. In addition, unstructured interviews usually have less detailed scoring formats, allowing the interviewer greater discretion in scoring. For the most part, interviews cover one or more of the following content areas: job knowledge, abilities, skills, personality, and person–organization fit. There are serious concerns about the accuracy of judgments made from hiring interviews, because unlike screening tests or application forms, which ask for specific, quantifiable information, hiring interviews are typically more freewheeling affairs (Lievens & DePaepe, 2004). Interviewers may ask completely different questions of different applicants, which makes 75 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

it very difficult to compare responses. Although hiring interviews are supposed to be opportunities for gathering information about the applicant, at times the interviewer may do the majority of the talking. These interviews certainly yield very little information about the applicant and probably no valid assessment of the person’s qualifications. The reliability of interviewer judgments is also problematic. Different interviewers may arrive at completely different evaluations of the same applicant, even when evaluating the same interview (Arvey & Campion, 1982; Riggio & Throckmorton, 1988). Also, because of nervousness, fatigue, or some other reason, the same applicant might not perform as well in one interview as in another, which further contributes to low reliability. Perhaps the greatest source of problems affecting hiring interview validity is interviewer biases. Interviewers may allow factors such as an applicant’s gender, race, physical disability, physical attractiveness, appearance, or assertiveness to influence their judgments (Forsythe, Drake, & Cox, 1985; Gallois, Callan, & Palmer, 1992; Heilman & Saruwatari, 1979; Van Vianen & Van Schie, 1995; Wright & Multon, 1995). There may also be a tendency for an interviewer to make a snap judgment, arriving at an overall evaluation of the applicant in the first few moments of the interview. The interviewer may then spend the remainder of the time trying to confirm that first impression, selectively attending to only the information that is consistent with the initial evaluation. Another potential source of bias is the contrast effect, which can occur after the interview of a particularly good or bad applicant. All subsequent applicants may then be evaluated either very negatively or very positively in contrast to this person. 5.4 SUMMARY • Job analysis is the process of gathering and analysing information about the content and the human requirements of jobs, as well as the context in which jobs are performed. This process is used to determine the placement of jobs. • The purpose of job analysis is to establish what a job entails, including the required knowledge, skills, and abilities or KSA as well as job duties and responsibilities and the conditions of the job. 76 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Job analysis in human resource management (HRM) refers to the process of identifying and determining the duties, responsibilities, and specifications of a given job. It encompasses the collection of data required to put together a job description that will attract the right person to fill in the role. • There are mainly two approaches related to Job analysis i.e., Task-oriented and the other one is the worker-oriented approach. • A common method of job analysis includes the observation method, interview method, and questionnaire method. • Significance of job analysis include facilitate manpower planning, helps in recruitment, selection, etc. 5.5 KEY WORDS • Competencies - Sets of behaviours, usually learned by experience, that are instrumental in the accomplishment of desired organizational results or outcomes. • Human Resources Management (HRM): Practices such as recruitment, selection, retention, training, and development of people (human resources) in order to achieve individual and organizational goals. • Human Relations Movement: The results of the Hawthorne studies ushered in this movement, which focused on work attitudes and the newly discovered emotional world of the worker. • Individual assessment - Situation in which only one candidate (or a very few) is assessed on many different attributes. • Job analysis - Process that determines the important tasks of a job and the human attributes necessary to successfully perform those tasks. • Job evaluation - Method for making internal pay decisions by comparing job titles to one another and determining their relative merit by way of these comparisons. • Structured interview - Assessment procedure that consists of very specific questions asked of each candidate; includes tightly crafted scoring schemes with detailed outlines for the interviewer with respect to assigning ratings or scores based on interview performance. 77 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Situational interview - An assessment procedure in which the interviewee is asked to describe in specific and behavioural detail how he or she would respond to a hypothetical situation. • Unstructured interview - An interview format that includes questions that may vary by candidate and that allows the candidate to answer in any form he or she prefers. 5.6 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What are the different aspects you will focus on while selecting employees for your organization? ______________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2. Explain how the human resource department can influence the organization? ______________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 5.7 UNIT END QUESTION A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is Job analysis? 2. Explain the process of job analysis. 3. Discuss various approaches to job analysis. 4. What is industrial revolution? 5. Name any two famous people in the field of industrial / organizational psychology. 78 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Long Questions 1. Elaborate on Common methods of Job analysis. 2. Explain the significances of Job analysis. 3. Define organizational behaviour. 4. What is industrial revolution? 5. Name any two famous people in the field of industrial / organizational psychology. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Job Analysis is the process of studying and collecting information relating to the ___ of a specific job. a. Operations b. Responsibility c. Both (a) and (b) d. None of these 2. Following is (are) importance of Job Analysis 79 a. Organization and Manpower Planning b. Recruitment and Selection c. Wages and Salary Administration CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

d. All of these 3. The correct sequence of Steps in Job Analysis is a. Collection of Background Information – Collection of Job Analysis Data Selection of Representative Position to be Analysed – Developing a Job Description – Developing a Job Specification b. Collection of Background Information – Selection of Representative Position to be Analysed – Collection of Job Analysis Data – Developing a Job Description – Developing a Job Specification c. Selection of Representative Position to be Analysed – Collection of Background Information – Collection of Job Analysis Data – Developing a Job Description – Developing a Job Specification d. Collection of Background Information – Selection of Representative Position to be Analysed – Collection of Job Analysis Data – Developing a Job Specification – Developing a Job Description 4. __ tells what kind of person to recruit and for what qualities that person should be tested. a. Job Description b. Job specification c. Job Design d. All of these 80 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5. The immediate products of job analysis are. a. Job description b. Job specifications c. Both (a) and (b) d. None of these Answer 1- c, 2- d, 3- b, 4- b, 5- c. 5.8 REFERENCES Textbooks • Luthans, F. (1986). Organizational Behaviour. New York: McGraw Hill. • Davis, K. (1981). Human Behaviour at Work New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. • Ganguli, H.C. (1964). Structure and Processes of Organization. Bombay: Asia Publishing. Reference Books • Gibson, J.L., Ivancevich, J.M. &Bomnally, J.H. (1976). Organizations: Structure, Processes, Behaviour. Dollas: Business Pub. • Nilakant, V. &Ramnarayan, S. (2008). Managing Organizational Change. New Delhi: Sage Publications. • Ramnarayan, S., Rao, T.V. & Singh, K. (Eds.) (2009). Organizational Development. New Delhi: Sage Publications. • Aquinas P.G (2007) Management Principles and Practices, Bharathiyar University. • Ahmed Abad, (1972). \"Management and Organization Development\", Rachna Prakashan, New Delhi. 81 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Arnold and Feidman, \"Organizational Behaviour\", McGraw Hill International, New York. • Bingham, W. V., & Moore, B. V. (1931). How to interview. New York: Harper Brothers. 82 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT – 6 PERSONALITY: PART – I Structure 6.0 Learning Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Definition of Personality 6.3 Factors influencing Personality 6.4 Types of Personality 6.5 Summary 6.6 Keywords 6.7 Learning Activity 6.8 Unit End Questions 6.9 References 6.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to, • Explain the concept of personality • Explain the different characteristics of personality • Elaborate on the different types of personality 6.1 INTRODUCTION When we talk of personality, we don't mean a person has charm, a positive attitude toward life, a smiling face, or has won the \"miss world\" context. When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person's whole psychological system. The word personality has an interesting derivation. It can be traced to the Latin words \"per sonar\" which translates as \"to speak through\". The Latin term was used to denote the masks worn by actors in ancient Greece and Rome. This Latin meaning is particularly relevant to the contemporary analysis of personality. Personality traditionally refers to how 83 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

people influence others through their external appearances and actions. But for the psychologist's personality includes - i. Eternal appearances and behaviour ii. The inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force, and iii. The particular organization of measurable traits, both inner and outer. Personality is an individual difference that lends consistency to a person's behaviour. Personality is defined as a relatively stable set of characteristics that influence an individual's behaviour. For our purposes, you should think of personality as the total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others. This is most often described in terms of measurable personality traits that a person exhibit. 6.2 DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY Though psychologists and social scientists unanimously agree on the importance of personality, they are unable to come out with a unanimous definition. Many authorities on the subject have defined personality in different ways. Some of the definitions are reproduced below: Probably the most meaningful approach would be to include both the person and the role as Floyd L Ruch does in his definition. He states that: \"The human personality includes: i. External appearance and behaviour or social stimulus value ii. Inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force iii. The particular pattern or organization of measurable traits, both \"inner and \"outer\".\" Gordon Allport gave the most frequently used definition of personality nearly 70 years ago. He said Personality is \"the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment\". 84 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

J.B Kolasa defines personality as - \"Personality is a broad, amorphous designation relating to fundamental approaches of persons to others and themselves. To most psychologists and students of behaviour, this term refers to the study of the characteristic traits of an individual, relationships between these traits and how a person adjusts to other people and situations\". According to Gluck - \"Personality is a pattern of stable states and characteristics of a person that influences his or her behaviour toward goal achievement. Each person has unique ways of protecting these states\". James D Thompson and Donald Van Houten define personality as - \"a very diverse and complex psychological concept. The word \"personality\" may mean something like outgoing, invigorating interpersonal abilities … but we must also recognize and explain the fact that development results in man acquiring a distinctiveness or uniqueness which gives him identity which enables him and us to recognize him as apart from others. These distinguishing characteristics are summarized by the term personality\". From the above definitions, we can say that personality is a very diverse and complex psychological concept. It is concerned with external appearance and behaviour, self, measurable traits, and situational interactions. The words of Clyde Kleeckholn and H. A Murray can be used, to sum up, the meaning of this complex term personality whey they said: \"that to some extent, a person's personality is like all other people's, like some other people's, like no other people's \". Characteristics of Personality The term personality is used in various senses. Generally, it is used to indicate the external outlook of an individual. In philosophy, it means internal quality. But in social psychology, the term personality indicates-neither the external or outward pattern nor does it indicate the internal quality. It means an integrated whole. In the modem world and psychology, it has come to indicate the sum total of an individual’s characteristics and qualities. Various thinkers, social psychologists, and others have defined personality in various ways. It is a sum of physical, mental and social qualities in an integrated manner. Thus, personality is the sum of the ideas, attitudes, and values of a person which determine his role in society and form an integral part of his character. Personality is acquired by the individual as a result of his 85 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

participation in group life. It refers to something much more essential and enduring about a person. Beyond this basic point of agreement, personality has other characteristics or features in common. 1. Personality is something which is unique in each individual: Personality refers to internal as well as external qualities, some of which are quite general. But it is unique to each individual. It is not possible for any other individual to reproduce or imitate the qualities of the personality of the individual. 2. Personality refers particularly to persistent qualities of an individual: Every individual has certain feeling as well as other permanent traits and qualities. Personality is mainly composed of the persistent or permanent qualities that exhibit themselves in form of social behaviour and attempt to make adjustment with the environment. 3. Personality represents a dynamic orientation of organism to environment: Personality represents the process of learning. It takes place in reference to the environment. We do not acquire all the traits of personality all at once. 4. Personality is greatly influenced by social interactions: Personality is not an individual quality. It is a result of social- interaction. In other words, it means that when we come in contact with other members of the society, we acquire certain qualities while we exhibit certain others. All these come to form personality. 5. Personality represents a unique organization of persistent dynamic and social predisposition: In personality various qualities are not put together. They are, in fact, integrated into one. This integration is nothing but a result of organization which may be different from man to man. The behaviour of a person directed to one particular individual may differ from the behaviour of another person. That is why; we put the condition of suitable environment. This suitability is concerned with individual specificity. 86 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY Really speaking, a human being's personality is a product of higher genetic endowment and cultural environment. As Cole and Bruce described, \"from the moment of conception it grows. 'whole', having within itself possibilities of developing into a dynamic, active, walking, talking, thinking, feeling human being, provided that the environment furnishes the raw materials and the appropriate conditions of stimulation.\" Differences in individual personalities are caused because (i) the possibilities within itself are different, and (ii) the provision of raw materials and appropriate conditions of stimulation by the environment vary widely. Guilford, for example charted the magnitude of similarity of pairs of children with respects of intelligence (IQ). Similarity in heredity varied from the same child (tested twice), to identical twins to only chance similarity in a pair of unrelated children. There are several factors that influence the shaping of our personality. By observing the behaviour of a person, we can understand which behaviour has what influence on the personality characteristics of an individual. In this chapter, we will categorize, the factors influencing personality in three categories. The table below will briefly classify the different factors influencing personality development. Figure 6.1.: Factors influencing Personality 87 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Biological Factors Heredity includes all those factors that we inherit from our parents. Such factors are innate, that is, they are present in the individual before the time of birth or at the time of birth and determine the path of development of our personality. Hereditary factors that contribute to personality development do so as a result of interactions with the specific social environments in which people live. In other words, personality is the sum total of what a person is. That is, it consists of behaviours, thoughts and feelings that endure throughout life. Heredity is just like the blueprint of our personality which defines the broad limits of personality within which our personality will take shape. Genetics Genetics, or the science of heredity is a discipline contributing specific details of the impact of heredity on living beings. Ballcr and Charles have compiled some general statements about the inheritance of character that are relevant to behaviour of personality. Basically, we inherit \"a tendency toward a certain structure\" and \"a tendency to function in certain ways\". Especially these include the following. Tendency towards a certain structure includes the following behaviours. • A tendency to achieve a certain body weight. • A tendency towards a general body-type (i.e., skeletal structure, proportion of fat and muscle-tissue, and the length of limbs). • Appearance, i.e., skin, hair texture and colour, eye shape and colour, nose shape, ear shape, head shape. • Internal structure, for example the size of the heart and lungs in proportion to the body, determining the capacity for prolonged physical effort. Tendency to function in certain ways includes the following behaviours: • Natural response i.e., functioning of the nervous system, intelligence, predisposition to react slow or quickly. 88 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Sensory efficiency i.e., keenness of vision, range of hearing, sensitivity of touch and smell, Operation of the \"vegetative system\" i.e., heart and circulatory system, digestive system, refractory system, etc. • Functioning of the endocrine system, is., glandular secretions, e.g., the thyroids control the metabolic rate, the pituitary controlling growth, gonads controlling the sex-drive and sex characteristics and the adrenals controlling emotional \"stir-ups\". • Rate of physical growth • Predisposition to certain characteristics. By physical structure we mean height, colour, constitution, composition of body etc. Generally, a person with good physical structure and constitution enjoys good health. Traits of physical structure are largely received in inheritance. For example, you would have observed that children of parents having good height are often taller while children of parents with shorter height are often less tall. Similar is the case with colour, children of fair colour parents are often fair and children of parents with dark complexion are often dark. However, this rule is not followed in every case. Very often we see children having physical characteristics or traits that do not appear similar to that of their parents but with their ancestors. This means that heredity goes beyond our immediate parents. A child in fact is likely to receive biological characteristics of ancestors in the previous seven generations. Mendel (an Austrian Saint) through his experiments on pine nuts proved that children inherit the average of the physical traits of their parents. For example, if the father is tall and mother is of short height, the children in all probability gain average height of both parents. Very often we notice that individuals with good physical structure and beauty are centre of attraction of others. Their parents, neighbours, teachers and peers develop favourable attitude toward them. As a result, such children develop traits of self-confidence, responsibility, sociability, and punctuality and sometimes feeling of superiority as well, while children not gifted with good physical structure and physical beauty are looked down upon by others. Consequently, they develop feelings of inferiority, emotional instability. They become shy and introvert. The effects are more pronounced when the individual is actually afflicted with physical deformity. When scores on emotional stability test of a group of crippled girls were compared 89 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

with that of normal girls, it was found that the crippled girls had significantly low mean scores on emotional stability. That means they were less emotionally stable. You must have observed in your in surroundings that such individuals often have tendency to seek other’s approval. Have you ever thought why do they behave like this? They try to endear us by seeking our approval only to compensate their physical lack. Endocrine System Our glandular system affects our personality and behaviour a great deal. It is well known that the many glands in our system regulate varied types of activities that are going on within our bodily system. However, the question arises as to how are these glands which regulate our system affect our personality. You know at times we are very active but there are also times when we are depressed without any apparent reason. Actually, the reason for this lies in constant chemical changes taking place in our body. These changes are a result of functioning of glands. Glands are of two types — endocrine glands and exocrine glands. Of these, the more important one is the endocrine glands. While secretions of exocrine glands go out of our body, the endocrinal secretions are released directly to our blood stream. Following are some of main endocrine glands: (i) Pituitary gland (ii) Adrenal gland (iii) Thyroid gland (iv) Pancreas and (v) Sex gland. Nervous System Why is it that some people are more intelligent, have more impressive personality? Does it have anything to do with the nervous system? Does nervous system play any role in the formation of personality? Often when we meet some intelligent persons, we say he has more gray matter. But what do psychologists say in this regard? Psychologists usually believe that a person with more complex and developed nervous system has greater level of intellectual capabilities and is considered more able to adjust with different situations. Such individuals are viewed favourably by others and are praised for their personality traits. Development of nervous system determines a person’s actual accomplishment in the society and his social status in the society. For example, any maldevelopment in hippocampus leads to deficits in short term memory in that the person is unable to process information from short term to long term memory. 90 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Now we come back to gray matter, actually all our higher mental process is controlled and regulated by cortex encased in the bony skull and if the bony skull is removed it appears gray coloured. Now the established fact is that greater the number of convulsions in cortex the more developed it is and the weightier it would be. Therefore, people with developed nervous system are more intelligent. Such individuals are fast in developing traits like responsibility, punctuality, emotional stability, self-confidence and ego-strength. On the other hand, individuals with less developed nervous system have less ability to adjust. Because of their limited intellectual capabilities, they often fall prey to many character disorders and their personality development is adversely affected. Social Factors Human beings are social animals. We are born and brought up in society. Therefore, social conditions, social institutions – family, school, marriage, religion, peer groups and neighbourhood as well as various other social groups will all affect the development of personality. Some of the more important social factors are: Parents and Home environment Parents are the first persons who enter into interaction with the child. Different parents treat their child differently. Some are very permissive and indulgent in that they just ignore the mistakes and try to do everything for the child not letting him fend for himself. Children of such parents become callous, demanding and exploitative in interpersonal relations besides they lack in self- confidence. Whereas parents who are strictly disciplinarian make their children submissive, shy and emotionally unstable. Family is the cradle of all social virtues. The first environment, the child moves in, is his home. Here the child comes in contact with his parents and other family member his likes, dislikes, stereotypes about people, expectancies of security and emotional responses all are shaped in early childhood. The type of training and early childhood experiences received from the family play an important role in the development of personality. Besides this, economic factors i.e., economic condition of the family and the type of relations between the parents also influence the personality of the child. 91 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Family and social groups have the most significant impact on personality development. Parents and other family members have a strong influence on the personality development of the child. Parents have more effect on personality development as compared to other members of the family. Besides a person’s home environment and family members, there are other influences arising from social factors like- friends, neighbour, relatives, etc. These groups have their impact through socialization and identification process. The kind of environment in a family exists affects our personality a great deal. Families which enjoy strong emotional tie among siblings and parents are supportive and encouraging to their children. Children from such families are self-confident, proactive and emotionally stable. Birth order Adler was the first psychologist to propagate that ordinal position of a child among his siblings i.e., birth order also affects the way personality is shaped. Adler on the basis of his study told that first born children are often secluded and introvert while the youngest or last born have feelings of inferiority, lack of confidence and self-reliance. Single or only child have the trait of dependency and self-centeredness. They are exploitative and demanding also. Middle order children have self-confidence, ego-strength and need for achievement Child rearing practices Different cultures have different child rearing practices. In cultures where physical punishment is heavily relied upon for bringing up children, traits of hostility, aggressiveness and introversion develop more frequently. But in cultures where parents make less use of physical punishment and interact with children more frequently traits of curiosity, extroversion and creativity find more expression among children. The impact on behaviour and personality of cultural differences in child-rearing practices is also substantial. In the individualistic culture of the United States, parents tend to be noncoercive, democratic, and permissive in their child-rearing techniques. In collectivist cultures, such as Asian and Arab societies, parental practices tend to be more authoritarian, restrictive, and controlling. 92 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Interactions between the infant and mother for satisfaction of biological needs play a significant role in personality development. Care and affection develop a sense of security. Over-indulgence or under-indulgence of the mother in breast-feeding would determine the \"oral\" personality and severity in toilet-training is the \"anal\" personality. Studies of adolescents in several Arab countries showed that they felt a greater connection with their parents than did American adolescents. The researchers noted that Arab adolescents “follow their parents’ directions in all areas of life, such as social behaviour, interpersonal relationships, marriage, occupational preference, and political attitudes…. they do not feel that they suffer from their [parents’] authoritarian style and are even satisfied with this way of life” Social acceptance Social acceptance means receiving approval and praise from significant others. You know all of us crave for social acceptance from our parents, teachers and friends. Therefore, in order to gain acceptance from them deliberately mould our behaviour and attitude. People who receive greater social acceptance have qualities of leadership, self-confidence and feelings of superiority while those who receive less social acceptance often are introvert, low self-esteem and lack of social adjustment. Socialization Socialization is a process by which an infant acquires from the enormously wide range of behavioural potentialities that are open to him at birth, those behaviour patterns that are customary and acceptable to the family and social groups. Initially socialization starts with the contact of the infant with the mother when he grows up. Contacts with the other members of the family and social groups influence his socialization process. These social groups include school mates, friends, then friends or colleagues at workplace, groups to which an individual belongs. Because “A man is known by the company he keeps,” all these social groups influence the behaviour of the individuals. A lot of evidence has been accumulated which suggests that socialization may be one of the best explanations of why employees behave the way they do in today’s organizations. There are some norms and laws of every society in which the individual exists. Much of the behaviour arises out 93 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

of the respect for these norms and laws. Thus, we can say that social life has a considerable impact on the individual’s behaviour. Neighbourhood The neighbourhood provides the first exposure of the larger cultural environment to the child. Since birds of the same feather flock together, neighbourhood families are not different in their social class, etc., and provide a smooth transition from home to culture. They share almost similar values and rearing patterns but expose the child to different family styles, and the child learns how to deal with the variety. The characteristics of neighbourhoods are that they are more objective than the parents, Treat the child as a person and therefore they are both less approving and less critical, and with different emphasis in child-behaviour. You may recall your own childhood experiences of home and neighbourhood and describe the differences as well as how some neighbours contributed to the development of your personality. The kind of neighbourhood one lives in has a decided impact upon one’s personality. Since birds of the same feather flock together, neighbourhood families are not different in their social class, etc., and provide a smooth transition from home to culture. They share almost similar values and rearing patterns but expose the child to different family styles, and the child learns how to deal with the variety. The characteristics of neighbourhoods are that they are more objective than the parents, treat the child as a person and therefore they are both less approving and less critical, and with different emphasis in child-behaviour. You might have noticed that often criminals come from social milieu where moral standards and values receive back seat and living conditions are abysmally low. Children from such environments lack in discipline, responsibility, sensibility, and self-respect. Peer group From the neighbourhood emerge the peer-groups. The first group of individuals of the same/similar age may be unrelated biologically but are related socially. Interacting with this group the child learns that he/she should give up a little of individuality to be accepted socially in the peer group. With The peer group, the child learns to take turns, to suppress higher wish in favour of the decision of the group, to dovetail higher activities with the activities of the group. 94 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

And with the desire to be accepted, he/she moulds his/her behaviour to the standards set by the group which suggests to him continually what would please the group members. Psychological Factors These include our motives, acquired interests, our attitudes, our will and character, our intellectual capacities such as intelligence i.e., the abilities to perceive, to observe, to imagine, to think and to reason These factors determine our reactions in various situations and thus affect our personality, growth and direction. An individual with a considerable amount of power will be able to make decisions more quickly than others. Self-Concept Self-concept is generally thought of as our individual perceptions of our behaviour, abilities, and unique characteristics—a mental picture of who you are as a person. ... The individual self consists of attributes and personality traits that differentiate us from other individuals. Self-concept tends to be more malleable when people are younger and still going through the process of self-discovery and identity formation. As people age, self-perceptions become much more detailed and organized as people form a better idea of who they are and what is important to them. Self-concept influences our personality development in two ways-(1) If other people hold high positive “ergative enhances our self and (2) If others hold may us, it creates feelings of worthlessness and to self-defence or withdrawal from social situation. Identification is an important mechanism by which we try to imitate the physical, social and mental characteristics of our model. It is a very important relationship with others. Inter-personal Relations Inter-personal relations among the members of a society are important means which help in the development of certain social personality characteristics like attraction towards others, concept of friendship, love, sympathy, hostility and also isolation which is a negative orientation. Interpersonal relations, except of being dependent on the personality characteristics, interpersonal relations significantly influence the process of personality formation and on the development of its important features. The way of interpersonal relations influence on the 95 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

personality can be seen in the best way by scrutinizing the relation between the atmosphere in the family and the personality characteristics of the young members of the family. Many tests have shown that in the families where a high level of personal freedom of children was allowed, they often develop the independence and initiative. Rapid intellectual development was observed with these children, they are emotionally secure and less irritable. In the families where the parents take a stance of “active refusal” and where there are repressive relations of parents towards children, these children develop dependence and submissiveness. The intellectual development of these is more slowly, they are emotionally instable, aggressive and quarrelsome. 6.4 TYPESOF PERSONALITY Carl Jung’s Personality Types Extroversion and Introversion Jung also proposed two attitudes or approaches toward life: extroversion and introversion (Jung, 1923) (Table 2). These ideas are considered Jung’s most important contributions to the field of personality psychology, as almost all models of personality now include these concepts. If you are an extrovert, then you are a person who is energized by being outgoing and socially oriented: You derive your energy from being around others. If you are an introvert, then you are a person who may be quiet and reserved, or you may be social, but your energy is derived from your inner psychic activity. Jung believed a balance between extroversion and introversion best served the goal of self-realization. Introvert Extrovert Energized by being alone Energized by being with others Avoids attention Seeks attention Speaks slowly and softly Speaks quickly and loudly Thinks before speaking Thinks out loud Stays on one topic Jumps from topic to topic Prefers written communication Prefers verbal communication Pays attention easily Distractible Cautious Acts first, thinks later 96 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Table 6.1 Introverts and Extroverts Theory of the Unconscious Most of Jung's assumptions of his analytical psychology reflect his theoretical differences with Freud. For example, while Jung agreed with Freud that a person’s past and childhood experiences determined future behaviour, he also believed that we are shaped by our future (aspirations) too. Jung acknowledged that part of the contents of the unconscious are related to the experiences of the individual; he called this portion the personal unconscious. However, according to him there was a part of the unconscious which reflects universal, not individual, themes and ideas. He called this collective unconscious. Another concept proposed by Jung was the persona, which he referred to as a mask that we adopt. According to Jung, we consciously create this persona; however, it is derived from both our conscious experiences and our collective unconscious. What is the purpose of the persona? Jung believed that it is a compromise between who we really are (our true self) and what society expects us to be. We hide those parts of ourselves that are not aligned with society’s expectations. According to Jung, the human mind has innated characteristics “imprinted” on it because of evolution. These universal predispositions stem from our ancestral past. Fear of the dark, or of snakes and spiders might be examples, and it is interesting that this idea has recently been revived in the theory of prepared conditioning. However, more important than isolated tendencies are those aspects of the collective unconscious that have developed into separate sub- systems of the personality. Jung called these ancestral memories and images archetypes. Archetypes Archetypes are images and thoughts which have universal meanings across cultures which may show up I dreams, literature, art or religion. Jung believes symbols from diverse cultures are often very similar because they have emerged from archetypes shared by the whole human race. For Jung, our primitive past becomes the basis of the human psyche, directing and influencing present behaviour. Jung claimed to identify many archetypes but paid special attention to four. 97 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The “persona” (or mask) is the outward face we present to the world. It conceals our real self and Jung describes it as the “conformity” archetype. This is the public face or role a person presents to others as someone different to who we really are (like an actor). Another archetype is the anima/animus. The “anima/animus” is the mirror image of our biological sex, that is, the unconscious feminine side in males and the masculine tendencies in women. Each sex manifests attitudes and behaviour of the other by centuries of living together. The psyche of a woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype), and the psyche of a man contains feminine aspects (the anima archetype). Next is the shadow. This is the animal side of our personality (like the id in Freud). It is the source of both our creative and destructive energies. In line with evolutionary theory, it may be that Jung’s archetypes reflect predispositions that once had survival value. Finally, there is the self which provides a sense of unity in experience. For Jung, the aim of every individual is to achieve a state of selfhood (like self-actualization), and in this respect, Jung (like Erikson) is moving in the direction of a more humanist orientation. A & B TYPE OF PERSONALITY THEORY Two American cardiologists named Friedman and Rosenman in the early 1950s, found that some of their patients sat on the edge of the sofas and clutched at the armrests as if they were wanting to finish up the job and flee from the place. The unusual “sitting behaviour” of their patients led Friedman and Rosenman to find out the link between the restless personality type and heart problems. Friedman and Rosenman observed that certain behaviours of the above given ones were more likely to exist in people with heart disease than in others. They called the combination of these behaviours the Type A behaviour pattern and the absence of these characteristics as Type B personality. Both these personalities are important in that they both have excellent characteristics which help to achieve goals but their approach to life and reaching goals vary a great deal. The Type A and Type B personality theory was developed out of observations of patients, who came for treatment either for stress related disorders or hypertension and who suffered from migraine or 98 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

other forms of disorders including extreme anxiety etc. As the in depth understanding of these persons took place it came to light that these are persons who are anxiety prone and possess certain characteristics that describe a pattern of behaviours that could be characterised as Type A, indicative of the person’s vulnerability to stress, anxiety etc., and are prone to develop psychosomatic disorders. Such persons were found to be more prone to develop coronary heart disease. Although, the theory has been widely criticized for lacking scientific rigour, it is still being used by many. Type A Personality An important aspect of Type A personality is that it is defined as one in which ‘A’ type behaviour pattern characterised by tenseness, impatience and aggressiveness, often result in stress related symptoms such as psychosomatic disorders, insomnia, ulcer, indigestion etc. and possibly increasing the risk of heart disease. There are persons who are extremely active, get things done on time and are extremely target oriented. For them achieving, completing and accomplishing tasks are very important. They are generally tense if they find that they cannot get their work done. They are extremely punctual, and time bound in all their activities and actions. The Type A personality generally lives at a higher stress level. Some of the factors related to their working at this level are given below: • They enjoy achievement of goals. • They enjoy achieving goals that are more difficult. • They constantly keep working hard to achieve their goals. • Once they start to work, they cannot stop, even when they have achieved goals. • They feel the pressure of time, as they have to reach their goals within the stipulated time period. • They work so hard that there is no rest that they take and thus are totally exhausted. • They are highly competitive and generally creates competition if there is none as it gives them great enjoyment and pleasure to compete and win. • They hate failures and work hard to avoid it. • They are well educated persons and successful too and physically they appear fine even though they are highly stressed out. 99 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The Type A persons keep struggling to overcome the real and imagined obstacles imposed by events, other people, and, especially, time. Their main struggle is actually against time as they try to finish their tasks on time. They are time bound and target oriented. They feel guilty if they do not complete the task within the given time. The struggle against time is so pervasive in them that they get heavily tensed up if they do not complete the task on time. Type A persons are frequently impatient, competitive, easily irritated, quick to anger, suspicious, and hostile. They are often highly successful in their professions but are dissatisfied with whatever they achieve. They try to do more than one thing at a time, like for instance talking on the phone while working on the computer, or eat while driving. They are constantly preoccupied with deadlines. They tend to speak rapidly and loudly, are impatient and often interrupt or finish others’ sentences. Type B Personality Contrast to Type A personality is the B type personality persons who are calm, collected, not over concerned with achieving things on time, less time bound and generally affable by nature and tend to take things easy and work also in groups with greater efficiency. Type B individuals, in contrast, are described as patient, relaxed, and easy-going, generally lacking an overriding sense of urgency. Because of these characteristics, Type B individuals are often described by Type A individuals as apathetic and disengaged. There is also a Type AB mixed profile for people who cannot be clearly categorized. In fact, in every individual there are aspects of Type A and Type B characteristic traits, but one of these is more dominant than others. Type B people, as mentioned earlier are less driven and less competitive, more easy-going and usually as successful as or more successful than their Type A counterparts. In fact, type B people represent behaviour characteristics just obverse of type A people. Friedman and Rosenman are of the view that that Type A behaviour represents an effort to diminish an underlying sense of insecurity or self-doubt. The Type B personality generally lives at a lower stress level. 100 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)