You see, I am alive, I am alive I stand in good relation to the earth I stand in good relation to the gods I stand in good relation to all that is beautiful I stand in good relation to the daughter of Tsen-tainte You see, I am alive, I am alive This poem is an experiment in metaphor: how many ways can the self be reproduced after “I am”? The simple “I am” anaphora draws attention towards the poet’s increasing need to define himself, while also setting the poet up for a series of well-crafted poetic devices. Anaphora describes a poem that repeats the same phrase at the beginning of each line. The self-shapes the core of Momaday’s poem, as emphasized by the anaphora. Still, our eye isn’t drawn to the column of I am’s, but rather to Momaday’s stunning metaphors for selfhood. 2. Conceit A conceit is, essentially, an extended metaphor. Which, when you think about it, it’s kind of stuck-up to have a fancy word for an extended metaphor, so a conceit is pretty conceited, don’t you think? In order for a metaphor to be a conceit, it must run through the entire poem and be the poem’s central device. Consider the poem “The Flea” by John Donne. The speaker uses the flea as a conceit for physical relations, arguing that two bodies have already intermingled if they’ve shared the odious bed bug. With the flea as a conceit for intimacy, Donne presents a poem both humorous and strangely erotic. A conceit must run through the entire poem as the poem’s central device. The conceit ranks among the most powerful literary devices in poetry. In your own poetry, you can employ a conceit by exploring one metaphor in depth. For example, if you were to use matchsticks as a metaphor for love, you could explore love in all its intensity: love as a stroke of luck against a matchbox strip, love as wildfire, love as different matchbox designs, love as phillumeny, etc. 3. Apostrophe Don’t confuse this with the punctuation mark for plural nouns—the literary device apostrophe is different. Apostrophe describes any instance when the speaker talks to a person or object that is absent from the poem. Poets employ apostrophe when they speak to the dead or to a long-lost lover, but they also use apostrophe when writing an Ode to a Grecian Urn or an Ode to the Women in Long Island. 201 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Apostrophe is often employed in admiration or longing, as we often talk about things far away in wistfulness or praise. Still, try using apostrophe to express other emotions: express joy, grief, fear, anger, despair, jealousy, or ecstasy, as this poetic device can prove very powerful for poetry writers. 4. Metonymy & Synecdoche Metonymy and synecdoche are very similar poetic devices, so we’ll include them as one item. A metonymy is when the writer replaces “a part for a part,” choosing one noun to describe a different noun. For example, in the phrase “the pen is mightier than the sword,” the pen is a metonymy for writing and the sword is a metonymy for fighting. Metonymy: a part for a part In this sense, metonymy is very similar to symbolism, because the pen represents the idea of writing. The difference is, a pen is directly related to writing, whereas symbols are not always related to the concepts they represent. A dove might symbolize peace, but doves, in reality, have very little to do with peace. Synecdoche is a form of metonymy, but instead of “a part for a part,” the writer substitutes “a part for a whole.” In other words, they represent an object with only a distinct part of the object. If I described your car as “a nice set of wheels,” then I’m using synecdoche to refer to your car. I’m also using synecdoche if I call your laptop an “overpriced sound system.” Synecdoche: a part for a whole Since metonymy and synecdoche are forms of symbolism, they appear regularly in poetry both contemporary and classic. Take, for example, this passage from Shakespeare’s A Midsommar Night’s Dream: And as imagination bodies forth The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen Turns them to shapes and gives to airy nothing A local habitation and a name. Shakespeare makes it seem like the poet’s pen gives shape to airy wonderings, when in fact it’s the poet’s imagination. Thus, the pen becomes metonymous for the magic of poetry— quite a lofty comparison which only a bard like Shakespeare could say. 5. Enjambment & End-Stopped Lines Poets have something at their disposal which prose writers don’t: the mighty line break. Line breaks and stanza breaks help guide the reader through the poem, and while these might not be hard-line “literary devices in poetry,” they’re important to understanding the strategies of poetry writing. 202 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Line breaks can be one of two things: enjambed or end-stopped. End-stopped lines are lines which end on a period or on a natural break in the sentence. Enjambment, by contrast, refers to a line break that interrupts the flow of a sentence: either the line usually doesn’t end with punctuation, and the thought continues on the next line. Most of the poem’s lines are enjambed, using very few end-stops, perhaps to mirror the endless weight of midsummer. Suddenly, the poem shifts to end-stops at the end, and the mood of the poem transitions: suddenly the poem is final, concrete in its horror, horrifying perhaps for its sincerity and surprising shift in tone. Line breaks and stanza breaks help guide the reader through the poem. Enjambment and end-stopping are ways of reflecting and refracting the poem’s mood. Spend time in your own poetry determining how the mood of your poems shift and transform and consider using this poetry writing strategy to reflect that. 6. Zeugma Zeugma (pronounced: zoyg-muh) is a fun little device you don’t see often in contemporary poetry—it was much more common in ancient Greek and Latin poetry, such as the poetry of Ovid. This might not be an “essential” device, but if you use it on your own poetry, you’ll stand out for your mastery of language and unique stylistic choices. A zeugma occurs when one verb is used to mean two different things for two different objects. For example, I might say “He ate some pasta, and my heart out.” To eat pasta and eat someone’s heart out are two very different definitions for ate: one consumption is physical, the other is conceptual. The key here is to only use “ate” once in the sentence, as a zeugma should surprise the reader. Now, take this excerpt from Ovid’s Heroides 7: You are then resolved to depart and abandon unhappy Dido. the same winds will bear away your promises and sails. You are resolved, Aeneas, to weigh your anchor and your vows, and go in quest of Italy, a land to which you are wholly a stranger. Can you identify the zeugmas? “Bear” and “weigh” are both used literally and figuratively, bearing weight to the speaker’s laments. Zeugmas are a largely classical device, because the constraints of ancient poetic meter were quite strict, and the economic nature of Latin encouraged the use of zeugma. Nonetheless, try using it in your own poetry—you might surprise yourself! 7. Repetition Strategic repetition of certain phrases can reinforce the core of your poem. 203 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Last but not least among the top literary devices in poetry, repetition is key. We’ve already seen repetition in some of the aforementioned poetic devices, like anaphora and conceit. Still, repetition deserves its own special mention. Strategic repetition of certain phrases can reinforce the core of your poem. In fact, some poetry forms require repetition, such as the villanelle. In a villanelle, the first line must be repeated in lines 6, 12, and 18; the third line must be repeated in lines 9, 15, and 19. See this repetition in action in Sylvia Plath’s “Mad Girl’s Love Song.” Notice how the two repeated lines reinforce the subjects of both love and madness—perhaps finding them indistinguishable? Take note of this masterful repetition and see where you can strategically repeat lines in your own poetry, too. Sound Devices in Poetry The other half of this article analyses the different sound devices in poetry. These poetic sound devices are primarily concerned with the musicality of language, and they are powerful poetic devices for altering the poem’s mood and emotion—often in subtle, surprising ways. What are sound devices in poetry, and how do you use them? Let’s explore these other literary devices in poetry, with examples. 8. Internal & End Rhyme When you think about poetry, the first thing you probably think of is “rhyme.” Yes, many poems rhyme, especially poetry in antiquity. However, contemporary poetry largely looks down upon poetry with strict rhyme schemes, and you’re far more likely to see internal rhyming than end rhyming. Internal rhyme is just what it sounds like: two rhyming words juxtaposed inside of the line, rather than at the end of the line. See internal rhyme in action Edgar Allan Poe’s famous “The Raven”: Each of the rhymes have been assigned their own highlighted colour. I’ve also highlighted examples of alliteration, which this article covers next. Despite “The Raven’s” macabre, dreary undertones, the play with language in this poem is entertaining and, quite simply, fun. Not only does it draw readers into the poem, but it also makes the poem memorable—after all, poetry used to rhyme because rhyme schemes helped people remember the poetry, long before people had access to pen and paper. Why does contemporary poetry frown at rhyme schemes? It’s not the rhyming itself that’s odious; rather, contemporary poetry is concerned with fresh, unique word choice, and rhyme schemes often limit the poet’s language, forcing them to use words which don’t quite fit. Contemporary poetry is concerned with fresh, unique word choice, and rhyme schemes often limit the poet’s language 204 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
If you can write a rhyming poem with precise, intelligent word choice, you’re an exception to the rule—and far more skilled at poetry than most. Perhaps you should have been born a bard in the 16th century, blessed with the king’s highest graces, splayed dramatically on a decadent chaise longue with maroon upholstery, dining on grapes and cheese. 9. Alliteration Alliteration is a powerful, albeit subtle, means of controlling the poem’s mood. One of the more defining sound devices in poetry, alliteration refers to the succession of words with similar sounds. For example: this sentence, so assiduously steeped in “s” sounds, was sculpted alliteratively. Alliteration is a powerful, albeit subtle, means of controlling the poem’s mood. A series of sees might make the poem sound sinister, sneaky, or sharp; by contrast, a series of b’s, d’s, and p’s will give the poem a heavy, percussive sound, like sticks against a drum. Emily Dickenson puts alliteration to play in her brief poem “Much Madness.” The poem is a cacophonous mix of s, m, and a sounds, and in this cacophony, the reader gets a glimpse into the mad array of the poet’s brain. Alliteration can be further dissected; in fact, we could spend this entire article talking about alliteration if we wanted to. What’s most important is this: playing with alliterative sounds is a crucial aspect of poetry writing, helping readers experience the mood of your poetry. 10. Consonance & Assonance Along with alliteration, consonance and assonance share the title for most important sound devices in poetry. Alliteration refers specifically to the sounds at the beginning: consonance and assonance refer to the sounds within words. Technically, alliteration is a form of consonance or assonance, and both can coexist powerfully on the same line. Consonance refers to consonant sounds, whereas assonance refers to vowel sounds. You are much more likely to read examples of consonance, as there are many more consonants in the English alphabet, and these consonants are more highly defined than vowel sounds. Though assonance is a tougher poetic sound device, it still shows up routinely in contemporary poetry. In fact, we’ve already seen examples of assonance in our section on internal rhyme! Internal rhymes often require assonance for the words to sound similar. To refer back to “The Raven,” the first line has assonance with the words “dreary,” “weak,” and “weary.” Additionally, the third line has consonance with “nodded, nearly napping.” These poetic sound devices point towards one of two sounds: euphony or cacophony. 11. Euphony & Cacophony Poems that master musicality will sound either euphonious or cacophonous. Euphony, from the Greek for “pleasant sounding,” refers to words or sentences which flow pleasantly and 205 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
sound sweetly. Look towards any of the poems we’ve mentioned or the examples we’ve given, and euphony sings to you like the muses. Cacophony is a bit harder to find in literature, though certainly not impossible. Cacophony is euphony’s antonym, “unpleasant sounding,” though the effect doesn’t have to be unpleasant to the reader. Usually, cacophony occurs when the poet uses harsh, staccato sounds repeatedly. Ks, Qu’s, Ls, and hard Gs can all generate cacophony, like they do in this line from “Rime of the Ancient Mariner” from Samuel Taylor Coleridge: With throats unslaked, with black lips baked, agape they heard me call. Reading this line might not be “pleasant” in the conventional sense, but it does prime the reader to hear the speaker’s cacophonous call. Who else might sing in cacophony than the emotive, sea-worn sailor? 12. Meter What’s something you still remember from high school English? Personally, I’ll always remember that Shakespeare wrote in iambic pentameter. I’ll also remember that iambic pentameter resembles a heartbeat: “love is a smoke made with the fumes of sighs.” ba-dum, ba-dum, ba-dum. Metrical considerations are often reserved for classic poetry. When you hear someone talking about a poem using anapestic hexameter or trochaic tetrameter, they’re probably talking about Ovid and Petrarch, not Atwood and Gluck. Still, meter can affect how the reader moves and feels your poem, and some contemporary poets write in meter. Before I offer any examples, let’s define meter. All syllables in the English language are either stressed or unstressed. We naturally emphasize certain syllables in English based on standards of pronunciation, so while we let words like “love,” “made,” and “the” dangle, we emphasize “smoke,” “fumes,” and “sighs.” Depending on the context, some words can be stressed or unstressed, like “is.” Assembling words into metrical order can be tricky, but if the words flow without hesitation, you’ve conquered one of the trickiest sound devices in poetry. Common metrical types include: Iamb: repetitions of unstressed-stressed syllables Anapest: repetitions of unstressed-unstressed-stressed syllables Trochee: repetitions of stressed-unstressed syllables Dactyl: repetitions of stressed-unstressed-unstressed syllables 206 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Finding these prosodic considerations in contemporary poetry is challenging, but not impossible. Many poets in the earliest 20th century used meter, such as Edna St. Vincent Millay. Her poem, “Renascence,” built upon iambic tetrameter. Still, the contemporary landscape of poetry doesn’t have many poets using meter. 10.3.1 Mood As a literary device, mood refers to the emotional response that the writer wishes to evoke in the reader through a story. This response can range anywhere from feelings of calm, fear, anger, or joy depending on the literary work. In general, short stories and poems feature a consistent mood due to their length. Novels can feature more than one mood, although readers will typically identify an overall emotional response to the work as a whole. Mood allows a writer to create a memorable and meaningful story with which the reader can connect. In addition, writers reveal their artistic use of language and creative skills when establishing the mood of a literary work. For example, in her novel about the relationships between mothers and daughters, Amy Tan’s The Joy Luck Club utilizes mood as a literary device to evoke emotions in the reader as a parallel for the way the mother characters attempt to emotionally connect with their daughters. It’s not that we had no heart or eyes for pain. We were all afraid. We all had our miseries. But to despair was to wish for something already lost. Or to prolong what was already unbearable…What was worse, to sit and wait for our own deaths with proper somber faces? Or to choose our own happiness? In this passage, though the subject matter centers around pain, despair, and loss, the mood of the narrative is hopeful. Tan intentionally establishes this mood to evoke hope in readers in the same way that the mothers in the novel wish to inspire and evoke hope in their daughters. As a literary device, mood represents the emotional quality of a story that is created through the writer’s use of language. Mood can be evoked through description of events in a story, its setting, reactions among characters, and even through the story’s outcome or resolution of the conflict. Examples of How Writers Establish Mood Mood is an essential literary device to bring cohesion to a story and create an emotional response in readers. This response allows readers to experience emotion and connection within a story, making the literary work more meaningful and memorable. When writers establish mood, it should be consistent with the literary work so that the mood is not disjointed from the story yet remains emotionally accessible and resonant for readers. Though it may seem difficult to achieve mood in a story without being too overt or too subtle for readers, writers can rely on four techniques to craft this literary device. Here are some examples of how writers establish mood: 207 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Setting A story’s setting refers to its “physical” location and time frame in which it takes place. Setting can have a distinct impact on the mood of a story. For example, if a story is set in an idyllic pasture on a sunny day, readers will be inclined to expect a happy mood. In turn, if a story is set in a futuristic dystopia, readers may expect a mood of tension or hopelessness. Tone Though tone and mood appear similar, they are distinct. Mood indicates the emotions evoked in the reader by the story. Tone refers to the narrator’s attitude toward the events taking place in the story, which can also evoke emotion in a reader. The tone of a narrator can contribute to a story’s mood by enhancing the reader’s emotional response. Choice of Words Word choice in a story is key to establishing its mood. This includes the way words “sound” to a reader, perhaps harsh or loving, and the use of connotative meanings of words. For example, if a writer states that a family returned to their house, the implied meaning is that the family has come back to the structure in which they live. If, instead, a writer states that a family has returned to their home, the implied meaning is that the family has come back to a place of comfort and belonging. A writer’s choice of words is significant in establishing a story’s mood by evoking emotional responses in readers. Subject Matter The subject matter of a story can also help establish its mood. For example, a story about war is likely to feature a sad mood, whereas a story about romantic love is likely to feature a happy mood. Difference Between Mood and Atmosphere Though mood and atmosphere can seem interchangeable as literary devices, they are distinguishable. Essentially, mood is a literary device that is created directly by the writer to evoke an emotion in the reader. Atmosphere is a general feeling or sensation generated by the environment of a scene in a literary work. Atmosphere is a feeling imposed on the reader rather than an emotion evoked in a reader. For example, the atmosphere of a very dramatic scene in literature may be described as restrictive. However, “restrictive” is not applicable in describing the mood and emotion of the reader in response to the scene. Instead, restrictive applies to the atmospheric feeling of the environment created in the scene, not the mood. Example 2: And Then There Were None (Agatha Christie) The oth-ers went up-stairs, a slow unwilling pro-ces-sion. If this had been an old house, with creak-ing wood, and dark shad-ows, and heav-ily panelled walls, there might have been an eerie feel-ing. But this house was the essence of moder-ni-ty. There were no dark corners – no pos-si-ble slid-ing pan-els – it was flood-ed with elec-tric light – every-thing was new and 208 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
bright and shining. There was noth-ing hid-den in this house, noth-ing con-cealed. It had no at-mo-sphere about it. Some-how, that was the most fright-en-ing thing of all. They ex-changed good-nights on the up-per land-ing. Each of them went in-to his or her own room, and each of them automatically, almost without conscious thought, locked the door…. In her well-known novel, Christie makes an interesting and clear delineation between mood and atmosphere in a narrative. The atmosphere of the house where the group is staying is modern, new, and open, and therefore emanates what should be a non-threatening feeling to the characters and readers as well. However, in describing the behavior of the characters in this “non-threatening” setting, the mood of the story becomes ominous and foreboding. Therefore, Christie utilizes mood as a literary device to evoke feelings in the reader of nervousness and fear even though the atmosphere of the setting does not appear frightening. This makes for an engaging and memorable reading experience. 10.3.2 Imagery Imagery is a literary device that refers to the use of figurative language to evoke a sensory experience or create a picture with words for a reader. By utilizing effective descriptive language and figures of speech, writers appeal to a reader’s senses of sight, taste, smell, touch, and sound, as well as internal emotion and feelings. Therefore, imagery is not limited to visual representations or mental images, but also includes physical sensations and internal emotions. For example, in his novel The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne utilizes imagery as a literary device to create a sensation for the reader as a means of understanding the love felt by the protagonist, Hester Prynne. Love, whether newly born or aroused from a deathlike slumber, must always create sunshine, filling the heart so full of radiance, that it overflows upon the outward world. By using descriptive language in an effective and unique way, Hawthorne evokes feelings and allows the reader an internal emotional response in reaction to his description of love. This image is especially poignant and effective for readers of this novel since Hester’s love, in the story, results in darkness, shame, and isolation–the opposite of sunshine and radiance. However, Hawthorne’s imagery appeals to the reader’s understanding of love and subsequent empathy for Hester’s emotions and actions, despite her transgression of societal norms, morals, and laws. Common Examples of Imagery in Everyday Speech People frequently use imagery as a means of communicating feelings, thoughts, and ideas through descriptive language. Here are some common examples of imagery in everyday speech: The autumn leaves are a blanket on the ground. Her lips tasted as sweet as sugar. 209 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
His words felt like a dagger in my heart. My head is pounding like a drum. The kitten’s fur is milky. The siren turned into a whisper as it ended. His coat felt like a velvet curtain. The houses look like frosted cakes in winter. The light under the door looked buttery. I came inside because the house smells like a chocolate brownie. Types of Poetic Imagery For poetic imagery, there are seven primary types. These types of imagery often feature figures of speech such as similes and metaphors to make comparisons. Overall, poetic imagery provides sensory details to create clear and vibrant descriptions. This appeals to a reader’s imagination and emotions as well as their senses. Here are the main types of poetic imagery: Visual: appeals to sense of sight through description of colour, light, size, pattern, etc. Auditory: appeals to sense of hearing or sound by including melodic sounds, silence, harsh noises, and even onomatopoeia. Gustatory: appeals to sense of taste through describing whether something is sweet, salty, savoury, spicy, or sour. Tactile: appeals to sense of touch by describing how something physically feels, such as its temperature, texture, or other sensation. Olfactory: appeals to sense of smell by describing something’s fragrance or odor. Kinesthetic: appeals to a reader’s sense of motion or movement through describing the sensations of moving or the movements of an object. Organic: appeals to and communicates internal sensations, feelings, and emotions, such as fatigue, thirst, fear, love, loneliness, despair, etc. Writers use imagery to create pictures in the minds of readers, often with words and phrases that are uniquely descriptive and emotionally charged to emphasize an idea. William Shakespeare’s works feature imagery as a literary device for readers and audiences as a means to enhance their experience of his plays. Shakespeare’s artistic use of language and imagery is considered to be some of the greatest in literature. Writing Imagery 210 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Writers use imagery to evoke emotion in readers. In this way, the reader’s understanding of the poetic subject, setting, plot, characters, etc., is deepened and they have a sense of how to feel about it. Ideally, as a literary device, imagery should enhance a literary work. Unfortunately, some writers try to use this literary device too often, which can lessen the impact of the description and figurative language. For imagery to be effective and significant, whether in poetry or a story, it should add depth and meaning to the literary work. Overuse of imagery can feel tedious for readers and limit their access to and understanding of the writer’s purpose. Therefore, it’s essential for writers to balance presenting information in a straightforward manner and using imagery as a literary device. Examples of Imagery in Literature Though imagery is often associated with poetry, it is an effective literary device in all forms of writing. Writers utilize imagery as a means of communicating their thoughts and perceptions on a deeper and more memorable level with readers. Imagery helps a reader formulate a visual picture and sensory impression of what the writer is describing as well as the emotions attached to the description. In addition, imagery is a means of showcasing a writer’s mastery of artistic and figurative language, which also enhances the meaning and enjoyment of a literary work for a reader. Here are some examples of imagery in literature: Example 1: Goblin Market (Christina Rossetti) Early in the morning When the first cock crow’d his warning, Neat like bees, as sweet and busy, Laura rose with Lizzie: Fetch’d in honey, milk’d the cows, Air’d and set to rights the house, Kneaded cakes of whitest wheat, Cakes for dainty mouths to eat, Next churn’d butter, whipp’d up cream, Fed their poultry, sat and sew’d. Talk’d as modest maidens should: Lizzie with an open heart, Laura in an absent dream, One content, one sick in part. 211 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
One warbling for the mere bright day’s delight, One longing for the night. In this passage of her poem, Rossetti uses all forms of poetic imagery to appeal to the reader’s physical senses as well as their experience of motion and internal emotions. The reader can visualize the actions taking place in the poem along with a sense of orderly movement paired with disordered emotion. As the sisters Lizzie and Laura go about their maidenly and pastoral tasks, the poet’s description of their divergent mindsets and feelings creates imagery of the tension between darkness and light, innocence and temptation. These contrasting images evoke unsettled and contradictory feelings for the reader, undermining the appearance of the sisters’ idyllic lives with a sense of foreboding. 10.3.3 Symbolism Symbolism is a literary device that refers to the use of symbols in a literary work. A symbol is something that stands for or suggests something else; it represents something beyond literal meaning. In literature, a symbol can be a word, object, action, character, or concept that embodies and evokes a range of additional meaning and significance. For example, in his poem “Fire and Ice,” Robert Frost utilizes symbolism to indicate to readers how the world may be destroyed: Some say the world will end in fire, Some say in ice. From what I’ve tasted of desire I hold with those who favor fire. But if it had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice Is also great And would suffice. In the poem, fire symbolizes destructive and consuming emotions such as jealousy, desire for power, anger, and impulsivity. Ice, in the poem, symbolizes destructive and withholding emotions such as hate indifference, loneliness, and isolation. Of course, the poet indicates to the reader that the literal meanings of fire and ice make them capable of destroying and ending the world. However, it’s the symbolism of fire and ice that enhances the meaning and significance of the poem. Common Examples of Symbolism in Everyday Life 212 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Everyday words, objects, and even concepts often have more than a single meaning. Across time, certain aspects of everyday life and experience evolve in meaning and associated significance, making them symbols of something besides what they actually are. Here are some common examples of symbolism in everyday life: rainbow–symbolizes hope and promise red rose–symbolizes love and romance four-leaf clover–symbolizes good luck or fortune wedding ring–symbolizes commitment and matrimony red, white, blue–symbolizes American patriotism green traffic light–symbolizes “go” or proceed tree blossoms–symbolize spring season Pilgrim hat–symbolizes Thanksgiving holiday dollar sign–symbolizes money, earnings, wealth image of shopping cart–symbolizes online purchases 10.4 ANALYSIS Poetry analysis is examining the independent elements of a poem to understand the literary work in its entirety. Analysing poems line by line allows you to break poems down in order to study their structure, form, language, metrical pattern, and theme. The purpose of literary analysis is to interpret the meaning of a poem and appreciate it on a deeper level. Poetry involves different elements like language, rhythm, and structure. Together, they tell a story and create a complexity that is unique to poetic verse. When studying poems in-depth, look at these individual elements: 1. Theme: Poetry often conveys a message through figurative language. The central idea and the subject matter can reveal the underlying theme of a poem. 2. Language: From word choice to imagery, language creates the mood and tone of a poem. The way language is arranged also impacts the rhythm of a poem. 3. Sound and rhythm: The syllabic patterns and stresses create the metrical pattern of a poem. 4. Structure: The framework of a poem’s structure affects how it is meant to be read. A poet sculpts their story around stanzas, line breaks, rhyme patterns, punctuation, and pauses. 5. Context: The who, what, where, when, and why of a poem can help explain its purpose. Look at these elements to discover the context of a poem. 213 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
6. Reading poetry is a rewarding experience in and of itself. But to really see how all of the elements of a poem work together, you’ll want to study the qualities and characteristics of each. Follow this step-by-step guide to analyse a poem: 7. Read the poem. The first time you approach a poem, read it to yourself. Go through it slowly, appreciating the nuances and details you might miss when reading it quickly. Examine the title of the poem and how it relates to the meaning of the piece. 8. Read the poem again, this time aloud. Given its rhythmic patterns, poetry is designed to be read aloud. As you read a poem aloud, listen to how the words and syllables shape the rhythm. It can also help to hear someone else read the poem. Look online and find a recording of the poem if you can. Listen to how the words flow from line to line, where the breaks are, and where the stress is placed. 9. Map out the rhyme scheme. You’ll notice right away if a poem has a rhyme scheme or is written in free verse (i.e., without a rhyme scheme or regular meter). Map out the rhyming pattern by assigning each line a letter, giving lines that rhyme the same letter. See if there is a distinct pattern and a formal rhyme scheme, like terza rima (three-line stanzas with interconnected scheme of ABA BCB, etc.) 10. Scan the poem. Scansion is how you analyse the meter of poetry based on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in each line. Mark each foot—the basic measurement of a poetic line consisting of one stressed syllable paired with at least one unstressed syllable. Next, mark the pattern of stresses throughout the line. Identify the meter based on this information. For example, a poem written in iambic pentameter will have five feet with a syllabic pattern of da DUM, da DUM, da DUM, da DUM, da DUM. 11. Break down the structure. Take a step back and look at the poem on the page. Notice the white space around the words. Poetry is meant to make a visual statement as well as an emotional one. Look at the details of this structure—like how many lines are in each stanza. Notice where the line breaks are. Does the end of every line coincide with the end of the thought? If not, the poet may be using enjambment, where one line continues into the next. 12. Determine the form of the poem. In your poem analysis, note what type of poem you’re reading based on the elements you’ve examined. For example, if a poem has three quatrains (four-line stanzas) followed by a couplet, the poem is a sonnet. Other formal types of poetry include sestina, haiku, and limerick. 13. Study the language in the poem. Poets make deliberate word choices to craft their poems. Examine each word and its significance in the line and the poem. How does it contribute to the story? If there are words you don’t know, look them up. See how the poet plays with language through the use of metaphors, similes, and figurative 214 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
language. Note any literary devices used, like alliteration and assonance, that help sculpt the poem’s language. 14. Study the content of the poem. As you wade through the language of the poem, look at the content and message of the piece to uncover the theme. Learn when it was written to learn the historical context of the poem. Find out where it was written, and what language the poet used. If you’re reading a translation, see if there are other variations that can show how different translators interpreted the original work. 15. Determine who the narrator is. Try to identify the speaker of the poem. Is it told through first-person point of view, second-person, or third-person? What tone does the narrator convey? The speaker’s identity influences the telling of the poem based on their personal perspective. 16. Paraphrase the poem line by line. Finally, go through the poem again. Beginning with the first line, paraphrase each line. In other words, interpret the meaning, writing down your summary as you go. Once you’ve gone through the entire piece, read your words to grasp the meaning of the poem. 10.5 SUMMARY The history of English poetry stretches from the middle of the 7th century to the present day. Over this period, English poets have written some of the most enduring poems in European culture, and the language and its poetry have spread around the globe. Consequently, the term English poetry is unavoidably ambiguous. It can mean poetry written in England, or poetry written in the English language. The oldest poetry written in the area currently known as England was composed in Old English, a precursor to the English language that is not something a typical modern English-speaker could be expected to be able to read. In addition, there was a tradition of English poets writing also in Latin and classical Greek. Today's multicultural English society is likely to produce some interesting poetry written in a wide range of other languages, although such poetries are proving slow to emerge. With the growth of trade and the British Empire, the English language had been widely used outside England. In the twenty-first century, only a small percentage of the world's native English speakers live in England, and there is also a vast population of non-native speakers of English who are capable of writing poetry in the language. 215 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
A number of major national poetries, including the American, Australian, New Zealand and Canadian poetry have emerged and developed. Since 1922, Irish poetry has also been increasingly viewed as a separate area of study. This article focuses on poetry written in English by poets born or spending a significant part of their lives in England. However, given the nature of the subject, this guideline has been applied with common sense, and reference is made to poetry in other languages or poets who are not primarily English where appropriate. 10.6 KEYWORDS Orthodox: Following or conforming to the traditional or generally accepted rules or beliefs of a religion. Frumpy: Dressed in an unattractive way. Docile: Ready to accept control or instruction; submissive. Absurdity: The quality or state of being ridiculous or wildly unreasonable. Complacent: Showing smug or uncritical satisfaction with oneself or one's achievements. Conspicuous: Obvious to the eye or mind, marked by a noticeable violation of good taste. Dramatized: The reconstruction of an event, novel, story, etc in a form suitable for dramatic presentation. Extremism: The holding of extreme political or religious views. Shrine: A place regarded as holy because of its associations with a divinity or a sacred person or relic, marked by a building or other construction. Miraculous: Of the nature of a miracle or having the power to work miracles. 10.7 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Describe the role of symbolism in poetry. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. Discuss about the 17th century poetry. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 216 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
10.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS 217 A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Describe the different genre used in Poetry in 18th century. 2. What is symbolism in literature? 3. Describe the significance of the structure of poetry. 4. What are the literary elements? 5. What are the common metrical types? Long Questions 1. Describe Alliteration in poetry. 2. Discuss sound devices in poetry. 3. Describe imagery in poetry. 4. Describe types of imagery in poetry. 5. Describe the significance of mood in poetry. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. What is personification? a. A word that mimics a sound b. Repetition of consonant sounds c. Using symbols to represent something d. Giving human-like traits to non-living objects 2. What is onomatopoeia? a. A word that mimics a sound b. Repetition of consonant sounds c. Using symbols to represent something d. Giving human-like traits to non-living objects 3. What is alliteration? a. A word that mimics a sound b. Repetition of consonant sounds c. Using symbols to represent something d. Giving human-like traits to non-living objects CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4. What is the correct option for the following example: \"America is a melting pot\". a. Metaphor b. Simile c. Foreshadowing d. Repetition 5. What is a figure of speech that uses exaggeration to express a strong emotion or create a statement called as? a. Hyperbole b. Metaphor c. Imagery d. Foreshadowing Answers 1-d, 2-a, 3-b, 4-a, 5-a 10.9 REFERENCES Reference Books Lee, Harper (1988), To kill a mocking bird, New York, Grand Central Publishing. Plath, Sylvia (2008), The Collected Poems, USA, Turtleback Books. Dickinson, Emily (1960), The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson, New York, Little, Brown and Company. Frost, Robert (1969), The Poetry of Robert Frost, USA, Henry Holt and Co. Textbooks Plath, Sylvia (2010), Ariel, USA, Faber & Faber. Wordsworth, William (2018), 100 Selected Poems, New Delhi, Fingerprint! Publishing. Whitman, Walt (1995), The Complete Poems of Walt Whitman, UK, Wordsworth Editions Ltd. Websites https://writers.com/literary-devices-in-poetry https://www.literacyideas.com/elements-of-poetry 218 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
https://literarydevices.net/imagery/ https://literarydevices.net/symbolism/ https://www.britannica.com/art/English-literature/Poetry 219 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT 11: GRAMMAR: PARA COMPLETION, PARA- JUMBLES STRUCTURE 11.0 Learning Objective 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Para Completion 11.3 Strategies for Para Completion 11.4 Techniques for Para Completion 11.5 Para Jumbles 11.6 Strategies for Para- Jumbles 11.7 Techniques for Para-Jumbles 11.8 Summary 11.9 Keywords 11.10 Learning Activity 11.11 Unit End Questions 11.12 References 11.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVE After studying this unit, you will be able to: Comprehend the paragraph completion. Illustrate the techniques for paragraph completion. Describe Para-Jumbles and its usage. Illustrate strategies for para-jumbles. 11.1 INTRODUCTION Verbal reasoning tests assess your ability to understand and comprehend written passages. They are designed to measure your verbal comprehension, reasoning and logic, all through your understanding of language. Some people when reading a statement jump to conclusions or misinterpret information - this is what the test will be able to find out about you. 220 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Verbal Reasoning tests are used because they are better at predicting candidates' job performance than interviews, CVs and other traditional methods of selection. Employers use your verbal reasoning score, together with other selection factors such as interview performance, to help them decide which candidate is most suitable for the role. Employers who use verbal reasoning tests are able to determine your skill level when dealing with language. This is a core skill in any working environment making verbal reasoning tests extremely popular, even for roles which are not immediately thought of as requiring strong verbal skills. Para-completion requires you to complete the paragraph in a way that it is coherent and complete. It tests your comprehension skills. All it asks of you is to complete a missing line from a paragraph, and this line is generally the last line of the paragraph. It is a pretty simple thing to do, isn't it? Well, not quite. Let's understand the concept with help of an example. Example: The audiences for crosswords and Sudoku, understandably, overlap greatly, but there are differences, too. A crossword attracts a more literary person, while Sudoku appeals to a keenly logical mind. Some crossword enthusiasts turn up their noses at Sudoku because they feel it lacks depth. A good crossword requires vocabulary, knowledge, mental flexibility and sometimes even a sense of humour to complete. It touches numerous areas of life and provides an \"Aha!\" or two along the way. (_____________) Sudoku, on the other hand, is just a logical exercise, each one similar to the last. Sudoku, incidentally, is growing faster in popularity than crosswords, even among the literati. Sudoku, on the other hand, can be attempted and enjoyed even by children. Sudoku, however, is not exciting in any sense of the term. The answer is option 1. The paragraph's central idea is the comparison between crosswords and Sudoku. It first talks about crosswords and then points out how Sudoku is different. In the last two sentences crossword is discussed, hence the next sentence would be how Sudoku is different on the same lines. Para-Jumbles Para-Jumble refers to a paragraph wherein the sentences forming it are jumbled. So, what are we supposed to do here? We are required to arrange the sentences in a proper manner such that they link and form a coherent paragraph. The name of the topic is in a way misleading because we are not jumbling paragraphs here, but we are actually straightening out jumbled sentences in a paragraph. This type of question is actually pretty common in various competitive exams and in recent years. 221 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
11.2 PARA COMPLETION Para Completion is nothing else but a test of the applicant's comprehension skills. All it asks to complete a missing line from a paragraph and this line is generally the last line of the section. It is a pretty simple thing to do. Based on the Para Completion topic the applicants need to face the questions at the time of the examination. Therefore, the contenders need to practice the provided Para Completion Verbal Ability Quiz. By practicing the online test, the students need to know the tips to score high marks in the Para Completion Quiz section. For the aspirants, there is no time limit to attempt the Para Completion Verbal Ability Questions from this post. Hence, the individuals can verify the questions and practice the Para Completion online test. In addition to this, the postulants can check the above tabular format to get an idea about the Para Completion Verbal Ability Online Test. As the name suggests, Para-completion requires you to complete the paragraph in a way that it is coherent and complete. It tests your comprehension skills. All it asks of you is to complete a missing line from a paragraph, and this line is generally the last line of the paragraph. It is a pretty simple thing to do, isn't it? Well, not quite. Let's understand the concept with help of an example. Examples: 1. Providing benefits for women on maternity leave and children is a societal responsibility which can be funded in a large country through a combination of general taxation and contributory payments from those who have the means. Health care should be treated as a right and deliveries handled without cost to women. Such a policy would harmonise the varying maternity benefit provisions found in different laws that govern labour at present. a. The income guarantees during the pregnancy period can be ensured through a universal social insurance system. b. Beneficiaries covered by the latest amendment must be protected from discrimination through clear provisions. c. Mandating creche facilities to help women workers under the changed law is a forward-looking move. d. Women’s empowerment can be achieved through universal initiatives, not by imposing conditionalities to avail benefits. e. Access to welfare support has become even more critical as workers migrate frequently due to economic changes. Correct Option: a 2. The paragraph starts while quoting that providing benefits for women and children is a societal responsibility. The sentence further states how the funds can be collected for this purpose. Out of the choices available, the sentence A clearly fits the blank 222 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
most appropriately and the usage of the phrase ‘income guarantees’ confirms the same. Fringe elements affiliated with the Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) have been in the news ever since the party came to power. Activists who pretend to be associated with the Trinamool Congress in West Bengal and the Samajwadi Party in Uttar Pradesh too have had their day in the news _________________________. a. First, the “fringe” is encouraged by the party as a strategy to appeal to more extreme elements within the party and to polarise politics. b. Second, and more specific to the right wing, some believe that these individuals’ provocative actions and remarks are indicative of the government’s tacit support for Hindutva principles. c. There are two reasons of the palpable polarization in politics. d. There are also local politicians who have misperceived favourable responses or miscalculated the impacts of their actions. e. There are two widely held explanations for such activism. e. In our view, this results from a systemic problem with our politics. f. Their two actions have served to embarrass the BJP and the Central government. Correct Option: c Out of all the sentences option C fits the blank most appropriately as it takes the discussion started in the paragraph further in the most logical manner. Moreover, usage of the adjective ‘such’ before the word ‘activism’ indicates that the sentence preceding the blank must have a reference of ‘activism’ and the presence of ‘activists’ in the very beginning of the sentence validates it. 3. Traditional pharmacies have been knocking at the doors of the government for some time now as they face intense competition from e-pharmacies. Their profit margins and market share have faced pressure in recent years from e-pharmacies that often offer medicines at cheaper prices. ____________________________. The AIOCD has repeatedly accused e-pharmacies of a wide range of malpractices, including selling fake drugs and enabling self-medication. The organisation has been citing these issues to seek a ban on the sale of drugs online. a. While this has improved the accessibility of drugs to a wider population, the concern of traditional pharmacists too is easy to understand. b. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare proposed the setting up of an e- portal to track and regulate the sale of drugs across the retail chain. c. The risks associated with e-pharmacies, especially when it comes to the dispensation of prescription drugs without the necessary checks, cannot be taken lightly. 223 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
d. However, the Ministry’s plan on regulating e-pharmacies is a rather outdated one. e. But perhaps the only thing clear from the All-India Organisation of Chemists and Druggists (AIOCD)’s demands is its intention to protect the business interests of traditional brick-and-mortar pharmacies. Correct Option: e If we read the sentences carefully, we can observe the presence of a keyword – AIOCD in the sentence following the blank. The same keyword is present in the sentence given as option E. Moreover, usage of its expanded form ‘All India Organisation of Chemists and Druggists’ for the first time in the paragraph confirms this sentence to be fitting the blank. 4. With the direction of global headwinds remaining uncertain, growth in government spending budgeted to be lower this year compared to last year, and private investment virtually absent, the lowering GDP numbers should serve as a reality check. _____________________________. While the government has vigorously underlined its reform achievements of the last three years, such as the Goods and Services Tax that rolls out in July, a mission-mode reforms reboot is urgently needed. And that can only begin if the problem is suitably acknowledged by policymakers. a. While lower inflation and growth may soften the RBI’s outlook, there is little that monetary policy alone can do at this juncture to revive animal spirits. b. Returning to the 8% growth mark is going to be a big challenge. c. In fact, the only reason the 7.1% estimate has held up is because growth for the previous quarters was revised upwards. d. Private consumption grew at the slowest pace in five quarters, even as construction and manufacturing activities dipped sharply. e. Yet, whichever way one looks at it, the note ban seems to have exacerbated the problem, particularly for India’s large informal economy that the poor depend on, as even the World Bank has now noted. Correct Option: b As it clearly seen that the sentence preceding the blank shows concern regarding the lowering GDP, the only sentence that fits the blank coherently is option B. It aligns to the idea introduced in the first sentence and connects well to the sentences that follow. 11.3 STRATEGIES FOR PARA COMPLETION Most firms consider expert individuals to be too elitist, temperamental, egocentric, and difficult to work with. Force such people to collaborate on a high- stakes project and they just might come to fisticuffs. Even the very notion of managing such a group seems 224 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
unimaginable. So, most organizations fall into the default mode, setting up project teams of people who get along nicely. The result, however, is disastrous. The result is mediocrity. The result is creation of experts who then become elitists. Naturally, they drive innovations. Identify the gist of the paragraph: This paragraph is about negative character traits of expert individuals and how they are avoided by firms. Identify the continuing thread of thought : The author leaves us at a peculiar place: how companies choose employees that get along well. These cannot be experts because it is not in their nature to get along well. So, it has to be people who are not experts. A simple inference we draw. Continue the thread of thought keep in mind the 'first thing' : We continue the inference we have drawn above. People who are not experts are not in a position to drive innovation or become experts. But we cannot say their results will be disastrous as the passage mentions how well they get along. So, we adopt a middle path and the choice that represents this balanced approach, option 2. When we are looking for the last line of the passage, we have to keep in mind that the last line can be either of the two things. The conclusion of the given passage. Logical extension of the second last line. And in order to find, if any of the given option is a conclusion or logical extension, we can use some tricks. Rule 1 for Cracking Paragraph Completion Questions “Sentiment is a chemical defect found in the losing side.” – From A Scandal in Belgravia While answering Paragraph Completion questions, the most important thing to remember is not to approach the answer option subjectively. Sherlock often puts himself in the criminal’s shoes. He is able to keep his emotions, and more importantly his own perspective, out of the equation. He picks up clues from the observed behavior of his target and foresees the next step the criminal would take – however unlikely that step may seem. Similarly, it is not about what in my opinion, or yours, should be the ending of the paragraph. It is for both of us to objectively follow the train of the writer’s thought, pick up the clues that exist in the paragraph, and reach the intended conclusion. 225 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
This conclusion must achieve the following: a)It must be a value addition to the given Paragraph b)It must preserve the unity of thought and structure c)It must be consistent in tone with the given Paragraph This does not seem very difficult. Yet, we may unconsciously depart from the criteria while looking at the answer options. If we do not lose sight of the above objectives, the rest is usually a simple process of observing the standard patterns. Rule 2 for Cracking Paragraph Completion Questions “From a drop of water, a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlantic or a Niagara without having seen or heard of one or the other.” – from A Study in Scarlet Do not wait till the clues present themselves. Read the paragraph with utmost involvement. Imagine that you are listening to the writer. Try to foresee what is coming and pick up clues that may present a hint of any of the following patterns. Cause – effect: One of the most common conclusion patterns. The paragraph presents us with causes, and the correct answer option presents us with the logical effect. Do remember that the effect cannot be in contradiction with the causes. In rare cases, effects are discussed in the paragraph, and the cause is inferred in the answer option. Course-of-action: The paragraph presents us with a situation, and the correct answer offers a probable course of action. A contrasting option: The paragraph presents us with a viewpoint, or several viewpoints, elaborating on one side of the story. The correct answer option may present us with another side of the story. This is a potentially dangerous situation, as the test taker must be wary of the answer options that contradict the contents of the Paragraph instead of contrasting them. Contrast offers us an opposing viewpoint without invalidating the other. Contradiction essentially refutes what the given Paragraph asserts. Remember, the writer of the Paragraph will not ever sabotage his/her own argument. Chronological order: The paragraph may present us with a series of events following a definite and linear timeline. The correct answer option may extend it further. Be wary of the answer options that are far removed from the timeline in the Paragraph. A problem-solution approach: The Paragraph offers us a problem or a problematic situation, and the correct answer option may be a solution to the given problem. The solution may be either of the two types: A – what can be done, and B – what could have been done. Theory-Illustration: The paragraph contains a theory or more likely a theoretical discussion, and the correct answer option offers an example to explain it. Remember, the wrong answers may contain examples that disprove the theory, instead of accomplishing the opposite. 226 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Reinforcement of an argument: Another extremely common Paragraph structure. The Paragraph contains the argument, and the correct answer option the appropriate substantiation of it. Do remember that wrong answer may inadequately support the argument. Rule 3 for Cracking Paragraph Completion Questions “How often have I said to you that when you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth?” – From The Sign of Four Elimination can often be as effective a strategy as selection. The following kind of answer options are usually the wrong ones. Irrelevant: Such answer options are the conclusions which are either entirely unrelated to or only vaguely related to the Paragraph. If they are the latter, they do not present us with any reason why they should be the concluding lines. Repetition: A theme cannot be extended by repeating either directly or indirectly what has been stated earlier. Do not forget the “completion” part. It only makes sense if the information in the last line is a value addition to the Paragraph that precedes it. Contradiction: The last line cannot disprove what the Paragraph has tried to prove. Too broad: This is the kind of answer option that magnifies the scope of the argument beyond reasonable. For example, the Paragraph may only be about who will be the next governor of Texas, and the (incorrect) answer option concludes by suddenly raising the topic of the next US president. Too narrow – Here the incorrect answer option focuses pointlessly on a very minor aspect of the Paragraph, and therefore fails to complete the grander theme of the passage. Inconsistent tone – Be wary of the options that are clearly out of sync with the tone of the passage. The most common type of this is a Paragraph that is formal in tone and the proposed conclusion that is extremely informal. New themes – Perhaps the most deceptive of all. Such new themes are always related to the ongoing discussion in the Paragraph, but they cannot be immediately introduced. The writer may talk about them in the next Paragraph, or the one after that, but not in the given Paragraph. Ask yourself: Is this option likely to end this Paragraph, or is it more likely to start the next Paragraph? If it is the latter, you are looking at a wrong answer. Rule 4 for Cracking Paragraph Completion Questions Solving Paragraph Completion questions requires a combination of observation, deduction, empathy, and most importantly instinct. A Paragraph Completion question of even moderate difficulty requires us to take a bit of risk. Do not hesitate to take your chances, for the only way to learn what to do is to first learn what not to. “Any truth is better than indefinite doubt” – from The Yellow Face. 227 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
11.4 TECHNIQUES FOR PARA COMPLETION Tone of the passage: When a passage is written it follows a certain tone. This tone will never be changed abruptly. In case there is an option in which the tone of the passage changes bluntly and suddenly, we can easily eliminate the option. Style of the author: Every author has different style of writing, for example some authors use a lot of metaphors, simile etc. While other authors use a very simple language. Key words: In every paragraph there are certain key words that can be easily identified. If you are able to identify these key words, they will help in solving the questions and reaching the appropriate conclusion. Do not get stuck on the last line. The last line is vastly different from the last thought. Para-completion in a way is thought completion. Sample Para Completion Question They are the most terrible of punctuation marks in an otherwise optimistic story. Every few months a bombing somewhere in India claims dozens of ordinary lives, killing random unfortunates going about their daily business. The attacks are usually blamed on militant groups fighting Indian rule in parts of divided Kashmir, and on elements of the Pakistani intelligence services that allegedly help them. The mighty Indian nation cannot do a thing against these irritant attacks. It is an obstacle to ending the rancorous, bloody feud that has scarred the 60 years since independence and partition. Blaming Pakistan is the standard response of India's old politicians who cannot think of anything new. Each murderous onslaught sets back the painstaking progress India and Pakistan are making. India has to be more responsible rather than blaming Pakistan for everything that goes wrong on its soil. Explanation In order to solve this question, let us first identify the key words: (The words that are in bold are the required key words). They are the most terrible of punctuation marks in an otherwise optimistic story. Every few months a bombing somewhere in India claims dozens of ordinary lives, killing random unfortunates going about their daily business. The attacks are usually blamed on militant groups fighting Indian rule in parts of divided Kashmir, and on elements of the Pakistani intelligence services that allegedly help them. 228 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
By identifying the key words, we can see that they refer to the bombings, which are like punctuation marks (those are the pauses that we take), as they kill random people. It is clearly mentioned in the passage that it is the Pakistani militants who help in the killings thereby creating the punctuation marks. Once the key words have been identified and understood, scan the options. Resolve the paradox: Scanning the options Option 1: There is no mention of any action that may or may not be taken by India, and hence can be eliminated. Option 2: The second statement is a restatement, and hence is eliminated. Option 3: and Option 5: These are clubbed together as they are very similar and both talk of India blaming Pakistan, in spite of India being at fault. This has not been mentioned and thus cannot be derived from the passage. 11.5 PARA JUMBLES Para-Jumble refers to a paragraph wherein the sentences forming it are jumbled. So, what are we supposed to do here? We are required to arrange the sentences in a proper manner such that they link and form a coherent paragraph. Example of Para-Jumble The sentences given in each question, when properly sequenced, form a coherent paragraph. Each sentence is labelled with a letter. Choose the most logical order of sentences from among the given choices to construct a coherent paragraph. A. On Monday the secretary of state is due to hold a day of meetings with high-level political, military and business figures to further a \"strategic dialogue\" aimed at further expansion of US trade in India. B. US secretary of state Hillary Clinton arrived in India on Sunday for strategic talks aimed at bolstering bilateral ties and securing firmer support for the war in Afghanistan. C. Clinton arrived by plane in Delhi before noon, according to a reporter travelling with her, ahead of expected talks with Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and President Pratibha Patel in the evening. 1. BAC 2. BCA 3. CBA 4. CAB This is a fairly easy question and hope each one of you was able to identify Option 2, BCA, as the correct answer. The key points for identifying the correct answer in this case are: 229 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Statement B forms the perfect starting sentence, providing us with the ideal introduction for hat is to follow. Statements C and A take forward the paragraph in the chronological order in which the events are scheduled, with first the explanation for the evening being provided and then for the next day. Different types of Para jumbles: 1. In the first type, in the question simply 4 or 5 sentences are given, which need to be rearranged into a paragraph. For example: A. Group Banking is the system in which two or more independently incorporated banks are brought under the control of a holding company. B. Under group banking, the individual banks may be unit banks, or banks operating branches or a combination of the two. C. That is each bank in the group has got a separate entity. D. Participating banks retain their own boards of directors which are responsible to the supervising and regulatory authority and depositors for the proper operation of the bank. E. The holding company may or may not be a banking company. 1. CDBAE 2. EADCB 3. AEBDC 4. ECBDA 2. In the second type, the opening sentence and closing sentence are already fixed. For example: 1. India is not deemed to be a respectable nation when it comes to sports. A. The prime reason for poor performances is corruption & political interference. B. Even though, huge amount is spent on training and grooming of the players we still have not been able to achieve the desired results. C. Due to this many times a good player is left out. D. As a result of that no-good players get entries into some important sports competitions and to prove their worth take escape through doping. 6. Doping is a way to enhance the performance by the means of drugs and steroids. 1. ABCD2. CBDA3. BDCA4. BACD 3. In the third type, questions are asked after the jumbled sentences. This type usually only comes in banking exams. For example: A. But this does not mean that death was the Egyptians' only preoccupation. 230 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
B. Even papyri come mainly from the pyramids. C. Most of our traditional sources of information about the Old Kingdom are monuments of the rich like pyramids and tombs. D. Houses in which ordinary Egyptians lived have not been preserved, and when most people died, they were buried in simple graves. E. We know infinitely more about the wealthy people of Egypt than we do about the ordinary people, as most monuments were made for the rich. F. Customs of any culture can be a reliable source to know about the people of that culture, but status of people can bring in differences. Which sentence will be first after the rearrangement? 1. E2. B3. F4. C 11.6 STRATEGIES FOR PARA-JUMBLE Try to locate the introductory sentence: While you go through the labelled sentences, try to look for one that makes a fresh beginning. It should not be a sentence that is extending previous ideas. Check for Conclusive Last Sentences: Test setters are smart. They would typically not let you get away so easily. There are multiple options beginning with the introductory sentence. So, you will need more than one clue. The last sentence in the paragraph is one that summarizes and has links to previous sentences. Anticipate the order of the sentences: Knowing that going through each choice is cumbersome, you must clearly work towards generating some kind of order in your mind before you look at the options. This tactic will help save the precious time. See if there are any logical sequences among sentence pairs: Very often a pair of sentences can be chronologically arranged because of clues in one of the sentences. Standard clues include reference to a person or a thing. The first time such a reference is made, a noun form is used. The second reference will be pronoun or a preposition. For example, look at these two sentences: A. Its origins lie in Konark, where a huge chariot of Lord Jagannath is made every year to be taken out in a procession. B. The juggernaut, though it seems very German in origin, is actually quite Asian. The \"Its\" in sentence A refers clearly to juggernaut. So, we can infer that sentence B precedes sentence A. Only using this information of the \"its\", we do not know if B comes immediately before A or whether one or two sentences separate A and B. But 231 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
by looking closely, you will also see a common word- \"origin\", which hunts at the fact that the relationship is of immediate precedence. Confirm the closest option: Having scribbled something like BCDA next to the question, do check if such an option exists. If you see an option like BDCA also alongside, then it would make sense to reconfirm the fact that sentence D follows sentence C. In case there is no exact match, the judgment about a close option being correct, will depend whether there is a match on the introductory and the concluding sentences. If there is, then it is worth taking a chance and ticking that option off. If there is more than one such match, then a closer examination is required. Plug in all the options: If everything else has failed, this is the last tactic. But this tactic needs to be used judiciously, especially in tests where there is negative marking. 11.7 TECHNIQUES FOR PARA-JUMBLE Identify the Opening Sentence The first thing that you need to do is to identify the opening sentence of the paragraph. If you can do that, then you will be able to fix at least one sentence in its position. The opening sentence generally introduces you to the topic. Identify the Closing Sentence The second step is to identify the sentence with which the paragraph could possibly close. This is actually a logical extension of the above point only and forms a continuation of the same. Identify Mandatory Pairs One of the most important methods to solve a para-jumble is to identify mandatory pairs. These are basically groupings which will occur in a defined order. Once you identify such pairs, all you need to do is co-relate them with the answer options, voila, your question is solved. Identifying Transition Words Transition words imply a shift from one idea to another in a paragraph. They function like logical connectors in sentences. Observing the transition words found in a sentence will lead you to the correct mandatory pair for the question. In fact, that is the role of transition words, to help you in identifying mandatory pairs. Commonly Used Transition Words are Also, again, as well as, besides, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, similarly, consequently, hence, otherwise, subsequently, therefore, thus, as a rule, generally, for instance, for example, for one thing, above all, aside from, barring, 232 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
besides, in other words, in short, instead, likewise, on one hand, on the other hand, rather, similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, first of all, to begin with, at the same time, for now, for the time being, in time, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while, earlier, simultaneously, afterward, in conclusion, with this in mind, after all, all in all, to sum up. Identify Pronoun Antecedents Following are some of the personal pronouns that are used: he, she, it, him, her, they, you, your, etc. Personal pronouns always refer to a person, place or thing etc. Therefore, the use of personal pronoun in a sentence can imply that the person or thing being referred to was mentioned in a previous statement. This can provide you with important mandatory pairs. Para Jumbles are one of the most important areas of various competitive exams. In a Para jumble question, we would have a jumbled paragraph, with some clues in the sentences to indicate the order in which they appeared in the original paragraph. In a standard question, we have 6 to 8 sentences which we are supposed to be arranged. They may be in the form of ABCDEF, or they have a number before them. The main aim is to rearrange the sentences in the original sequence. The best thing about Para Jumble is that one does not need to be very proficient in the English language to score well in this area. With a little logic and an ability to find a link in the given sentences, one can easily master this area. The best way to rearrange a sentence is by identifying or making couples. Couples in Para jumbles Couple is a kind of pair in the arrangement that has to come together and that cannot be separated. There are around six types of couples which will help you in identifying the correct answer. Noun Pronoun Clue In any given order a sentence referring to a pronoun will always come after a noun. Therefore, whenever we see a pronoun, we should immediately try and fix the noun that it refers to and then place the two statements together. Also make sure that the noun and the pronoun should agree with each other in terms of number and gender. Cause - Effect Look for cause (reason) and effect (result) relationship (if any) between the two sentences. The two sentences that are in a cause-and-effect relation generally appear consecutively. The words like \"if.then\", \"when.then\", \"whenever\", \"the reason is\", “because” \"the cause is\" etc. indicate cause and effect relation. Try rearranging these sentences. This could result in the flooding of low-lying coastal areas and cities, such as Egypt, the Netherlands, and Bangladesh 233 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Many problems could result from global warming. One of the biggest problems is rising sea level. Some countries might even disappear completely. Now \"this\" in sentence A must be referring to some noun, and that noun is used in sentence B (biggest problem). Thus, A will follow B. And C will further follow A. Hence the correct order will be BAC. Chronology In some questions the events mentioned in the paragraph can be arranged in a chronological order and logically construct a paragraph. The timeline may be in hours, years, months or simply constructed using transition words. The words like before, after, later, when, etc. indicate a timeline. Full form - Abbreviation This trick is very useful in paragraphs in which both short form or abbreviations and full name are given. In these cases, where both the full form as well as the abbreviation is present in different sentences, then the sentence containing the full form will obviously come before the sentence containing the abbreviation. General to Specific Sentence that talks about a specific detail will follow the sentence that gives a general description; in other words, the order of the sentences will move from an introductory sentence to a specific detail provider. Question - Answer If there is sentence in the arrangement which is asking a question, then try to figure out a sentence that gives its answer. A sentence asking a question will precede a sentence providing the answer. Para jumbles: Concept & Tricks Para jumbles: Types & Strategies Sentence Misfit Para jumbles Practice Exercise Couples in Para jumbles Tips for Para jumbles Complete guide to Para jumbles Examples of Para Jumbles Example 1: 234 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
A. If an athlete is willing to become an Indian citizen, by all means they should represent the country. B. If a billion-plus people cannot produce world-beaters in sports, then we must learn to live without it. C. Indeed, the nation will be proud to be represented by them. D. The honour of representing the country shouldn’t be given to someone who can’t even be bothered to hold an Indian passport. E. We have no need for borrowed heroes in this country. 1. BEDCA 2. EBDAC 3. BEACD 4. BEDAC Solution: The context says though we do not have good athletes it does not mean that we have to borrow heroes (people from other countries) or Indians residing abroad who do not have an Indian Passport. So, C can be the opening sentence talking about the subject, it is followed by B and then D-A have got keywords on similar tone followed by C. Hence E – B –D–A–C. Example 2: A. These are men who have always viewed money as a solvent. B. Their need to replace this currency with love and other such intangible gifts, is fast leading them to what is called a highly moral alternate economy – the gift economy. C. The current market economy, where every relationship involves a monetary barter, makes them uncomfortable. D. For them, it’s something that dilutes the essence of social transactions. E. Recession, however, has nothing to do with this feeling. 1. EADCB 2. CABDE 3. AEBDC 4. ABDEC Solution: Opening sentence should be E as it talks about the subject. Then, statement D follows statement A as D talks of money, mentioned in A, as something that dilutes the essence of social transactions. Statement B carries this idea forward by stating that this made these men what to replace money with love as currency. Hence E – A – D – C – B. Finally, practice various types of Para Jumble questions to gain expertise in this area. 11.8 SUMMARY Para-completion requires you to complete the paragraph in a way that it is coherent and complete. It tests your comprehension skills. 235 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
All it asks of you is to complete a missing line from a paragraph, and this line is generally the last line of the paragraph. Identify the gist of the paragraph: This paragraph is about negative character traits of expert individuals and how they are avoided by firms. Identify the continuing thread of thought : The author leaves us at a peculiar place: how companies choose employees that get along well. These cannot be experts because it is not in their nature to get along well. So, it has to be people who are not experts. A simple inference we draw. Continue the thread of thought keep in mind the 'first thing' : We continue the inference we have drawn above. People who are not experts are not in a position to drive innovation or become experts. But we cannot say their results will be disastrous as the passage mentions how well they get along. So, we adopt a middle path and the choice that represents this balanced approach, option 2. When we are looking for the last line of the passage, we have to keep in mind that the last line can be either of the two things. Para-Jumble refers to a paragraph wherein the sentences forming it are jumbled. So, what are we supposed to do here? We are required to arrange the sentences in a proper manner such that they link and form a coherent paragraph. The name of the topic is in a way misleading because we are not jumbling paragraphs here, but we are actually straightening out jumbled sentences in a paragraph. This type of question is actually pretty common in various competitive exams and in recent years. The right approach to such type of questions can fetch you good marks in such exams. 11.9 KEYWORDS Eliminate- The act, process, or an instance of eliminating or discharging such as. a : the act of discharging or excreting waste products from the body. Ruling out- to stop considering something as a possibility. Desire- A strong feeling of wanting to have something or wishing for something to happen. 236 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Subjunctive- relating to or denoting a mood of verbs expressing what is imagined or wished or possible. Sacked- tackle (a quarterback) behind the line of scrimmage before they can throw a pass. Mnemonic- a system such as a pattern of letters, ideas, or associations which assists in remembering something. Gallons- a unit of liquid or dry capacity equal to eight pints or 4.55 litres. Scowling- frown in an angry or bad-tempered way. Sullen- bad-tempered and sulky. Clause- A unit of grammatical organization next below the sentence in rank and in traditional grammar said to consist of a subject and predicate. 11.10 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What is para completion? ___________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 2. What is para-jumble? ___________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 11.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is Para Completion? 2. Give the examples of Para Completion. 3. What are the strategies of Para Completion? 4. What are the techniques of Para Completion? 5. What is Para-Jumble? Long Questions 1. What are the techniques used in Para-Jumble? 2. What are the strategies used in Para-Jumble? 3. Describe the significance of Para Completion. 237 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4. Describe the significance of Para- Jumble. 5. Describe Para Completion in detail with examples. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. When was the Women's boxing is recognized as an Olympic sport? i. The International Boxing Association has been campaigning to include it as an event in the 2008 Beijing Olympics. ii. Though boxing is a very tough sport many women are seen willing to take up professional boxing now a days. iii. Even some state governments are now willing to employ the women pugilists. a. Only i b. i and iii c. Only ii d. ii and iii 2. Why there is no difference between Male Vanity from female's, a confident man no longer shies away from stating his deep interest in beautifying his appearance. i. Western cosmetic houses have spent millions of dollars researching this: men want to look amazing too. ii. Today's urban male spends as much on beauty products as his female counterpart. iii. It is perhaps the fastest growing market segment of the feel good, look good industry. a. 1 and 2 b. 1 and 3 c. Only 2 d. All of these 3. Which one is correct option for the criteria, when you give every student a computer, at least give them a mouse each. This seems to be the reason behind Microsoft Research Lab India's development of a software solution that allows the use of multiple mice in a computer. i. According to a recent study, it was seen that at least five students worked on a single computer in government schools. ii. This will help them use the same computer simultaneously for the cost of a few extra mice. 238 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
iii. Each mouse will have a different cursor colour and all of them are displayed on the monitor. a. 1 and 2 b. Only 1 c. Only 2 d. Only 3 4. Which one is the correct option basis while even though the share of agriculture in the overall GDP has declined from around 40 per cent in 1980- 81 to below 20 per cent in 2006-07, its importance to the Indian economy can hardly be over emphasized. In the context of ensuring food security and promoting inclusive growth, strategies to revitalize agriculture has become highly relevant? i. Fiscal deficits as a proportion of the GDP have come down but are still high by global standards. ii. Infrastructure deficiencies can hold back further grown in the agriculture sector. iii. Recent Volatility in agricultural production has had its impact not only on economic but on price stability as well. a. 1 and 2 b. Only 1 c. 2 and 3 d. Only 3 5. Which one of the given options are correct? When poverty started hitting increasing numbers of women, and it is hitting them harder, The percentage of female-headed households varies from thirty to forty percent in some south and south-east Asian countries, to almost half of all households in developing as well as in industrial countries. i. This 'feminisation' of poverty is linked closely to the increase in poor female- headed households in developing as well as in industrial countries. ii. The greatest burden of the world economic recession is increasingly borne by those least able to sustain it: women and children. iii. Low-income women have sought paid work to compensate for decline in household income. a. Only 1 b. 1 and 2 c. Only 2 239 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
d. Only 3 Answers 1-a, 2-d, 3-c, 4-d, 5-a 11.12 REFERENCES Reference Books Murphy, Raymond (2009), Grammar in Use, London, Cambridge University Press. Redman, Stuart (2010), Vocabulary in Use, London, Cambridge University Press. Singh, Lalit; Anand, P.A (2016), Wiley's Verbal Ability and Reasoning for Competitive Examinations, New Jersey, Wiley Publications. Bakshi, S.P. (2014), Objective General English, New Delhi, Arhant Publications. Textbooks Aggarwal, R.S. (2018), A Modern Approach to Verbal & Non-Verbal Reasoning, New Delhi, S. Chand Publications. Sijwali, B.S; Sijwali, Indu (2014), A New Approach to REASONING Verbal & Non- Verbal, New Delhi, Arihant Publications. Rao, Prasada (2017), Wren and Martin, New Delhi, S. Chand Publishing. Websites https://www.hitbullseye.com/Verbal/Para-Sentence-Completion.php https://www.hitbullseye.com/Paradox-Questions.php https://www.hitbullseye.com/Verbal/parajumbles.php https://www.hitbullseye.com/Sentence-Correction-Practice.php https://www.hitbullseye.com/Parajumbles-Practice.php 240 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
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