BACHLEOR OF COMMERCE evm

Obstruction is a common issue with the tracks and can cause train derailment. Foreign objects left inadvertently at the site where the train will pass can be deadly. Conductors should be aware of their surroundings at all times to manage a potentially dangerous situation quickly and safely. However, in some cases, a conductor fails to see these obstacles at all or in time to stop a collision. 7. Derailments A derailment is when a train runs off its rail, either because of a collision with another object, a conductor error, mechanical track failure, broken rails, or defective wheels. A derailment doesn’t necessarily mean the train leaves the tracks – some may be minor. However, a serious derailment can be catastrophic if it occurs while the train is moving at a high rate of speed. 8. Unprotected railroad crossings More than 80 percent of crossings lack adequate warning devices such as lights and gates, and more than half of all railroad accidents occur at unprotected crossings. Tennessee residents know well that there are many unprotected railroad crossings across the state. Accidents at unprotected railroad crossings are most often caused by:  Poor visibility  Driver distraction  Driver inebriation/intoxication  Driver trying to race the train  Malfunctioning signals  Obstacles that block a driver’s view  Conductor failing to sound an alarm 9. Stalled cars on the track Cars rarely get stuck on railroad grade crossings. More common is when drivers stall out when slowing down to cross bumpy grades due to a poorly tuned engine. If this happens to you, first you try to start it again immediately. If it won’t start, put your vehicle in neutral and ask for help to push your vehicle off the tracks. But if a train is rapidly approaching and there’s no time to save your car, remember that your life and safety are first priority. Get as far from your vehicle as possible. 10. Suicides 151 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sadly, some people choose to take their own lives by standing on the tracks or jumping in front of a train. Federal statistics show that 266 people killed themselves by stepping in front of trains in 2017. Unfortunately, this tragic and desperate act also endangers other lives such as train crews, emergency responders, passengers and bystanders. Prevention: To achieve safety for railroads and railways, companies are obliged to perform everything they always assume a track is in use.  Never stop on a railroad track.  Never enter a train tunnel or cross a trestle where you can get trapped without escape if a train enters.  Never drive around lowered gates. (If it appears the gate is stuck, find another route or call the 1-800 number that’s located at the crossing.)  Never walk down or play on a train track.  Never try to race or beat a train.  Always look both ways before crossing a track.  Understand that trains are wider than the track they’re on.  (For truck drivers) Lift your trailer jacks in the up position so that your truck doesn’t get stuck on track.  Realize it can take a train traveling 55 mph up to a mile to come to a complete stop. 5.6.5 Sea Accidents:  Over the last 15 years, a number of maritime disasters involving huge spills of mineral oil have occurred. Events like this have subsequently provoked changes in maritime regulations due to the severe nature of the associated environmental impact and the obvious links with poor vessel operation and maintenance.  Areas of concern and contributory factors to shipping accidents are highlighted along with the implications these incidents have on the marine environment. It focuses in particular on the issues surrounding the role of flag states and the extent of their responsibilities with respect to vessel safety and the implementation of international rules and regulations. 152 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Environmental risk is directly linked to the type and number of hazardous substances, including oil, being transported and the sensitivity of the marine area where any accident could occur. A clear link can be made between environmental protection and shipping safety, with shipping accidents, often the subject of dramatic media coverage, provoking a strong response from civil society and politicians.  Badly maintained and operated vessels have a higher probability of causing loss of human life, loss of vessels and of impacting the marine and coastal environment. Types of Maritime Accidents 1. Offshore Oil Rig Mishaps The recently occurred oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico is an offshore oil rig accident. Offshore oil rigs constitute great danger in terms of their heavy machinery and the complexities of the processes involved. Even a minor error by way of negligence of a simple process or overlooking in the working of a machinery part can lead to immense damaging consequences across the world. Fig 5.13Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill – Credits: US Coast Guard/wikimedia.org 2. Cruise Vessel Mishaps Cruise vessels form a very important part in the vacation itinerary of people. However, a major type of maritime accident occurs in cruise vessels. Cruise vessels could capsize or face tough weather conditions causing the ship to develop major problems. Another important case of accidents in cruise ships is because of the negligence on the part of workers. As per statistical data nearly 75% of fires are caused because of a mere mistake by people working on the cruise ship. 153 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 5.14Credits: Soerfm/wikipedia.org 3. Commercial Fishing Mishaps Even fishing for commercial purposes can lead to fatal incidents being caused. Inexperienced fishermen – sometimes even experienced ones – can fall overboard. Harsh weather conditions can also could severely damages to a commercial fishing expedition. 4. Accidents on Tugboats Tugboats are those which help move huge ships to enter docks. They are small in nature but are powerful to ensure that the large vessels are handled safely. But sometimes because of the blockage of the visibility of tugboats by the larger vessels, maritime accidents occur. Also, human error on the part of the pilot of the tugboat can also lead to unwanted and unexpected tugboat mishaps. 5. Accidents on Crude Oil Tankers and Cargo Ships The major cause of accidents on cargo tankers is explosions. Since the very nature of the materials these tankers transport is dangerous and highly flammable, even the most minor of explosions can cause enormous losses. According to statistics, one of the main reasons for oil tanker accidents occurring is because of workers’ negligence – nearly 84-88%. 6. Grounding of Ships Ship grounding occurs when the bottom of the ship’s hull scrapes through the ocean-bed. This type of maritime accident has a lot of impact on the ship’s hull and more on the overall oceanic area where the grounding has started to occur and has finally culminated. The danger to workers aboard the ship is another important consequence because of the mishap. 154 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 5.15Grounding of Ships 7. Maritime Accident because of Drugs and alcohol Drug or substance abuse is a major problem across the world. Even in the marine world, substance abuse can cause irreparable damage. If the workers of a particular ship engage in substance abuse or alcohol, the addiction-induced frenzy could cause the worker to behave erratically and thereby lead to an unwanted maritime accident on board ships. 8. Crane Mishaps Just like crane operations on the land, marine crane operations on ports and on ship are also risky. The risk is further stressed because of the oceanic operations where the cranes are required. Because of faulty wires or winches, crane workers can lose their life or in a worst- case scenario, be alive but with irreparable physical handicap. Alternatively, accidents because of crane operations are also caused because of negligence and inexperience on the part of the worker. 9. Accidents in Shipyards The ship yard is the place where the ship is assembled and constructed in its entirety. Fitting and welding accidents are common in the shipyard which could spare the worker his life but hamper the worker’s overall working abilities. Similarly, constant inhaling of poisonous fumes also becomes another shipyard accident cause. 10. Maritime Accidents on Diving Support Vessels: People who want to explore the mysteries of the deep sea use a diving support craft to take a plunge into the water. However, if the diving support craft is unfit and if the crew also happens to be really unfit to oversee and manoeuvre the whole operation effectively, a major accident can be caused. 155 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

11. Accidents on Barges: Barge mishaps occur mainly because of the overall build of the barges themselves, which allows them limited movement on the water and because of the problems of the barge-towing equipment. These problems could be caused due to inexperience on the part of the person at the helm of the towing boats or due to usage of faulty towing cables. 12. Cargo Hauling Accidents: Cargo hauling maritime accidents are those accidents caused to workers who work as cargo haulers. However, according to several maritime accident investigations, it has been reported that cargo hauling workers overstate their cargo-hauling injuries. The maritime accident investigation, consequentially reports that because of this, this profession has one of the most severe rates of work-place absenteeism. Causes: Ship collision is a kind of marine accident that results from a ship crashing into a still or floating object. Ship collision cases can be a ship to ship, ship to floating object, ship to submarine or ship to still structure collisions. We all have heard about the historic accident of the Collison of the ship Titanic to an Iceberg. It was a ship to floating object type of collision. Collision can also be defined as the change in structural properties of a ship as a result of an impact with a solid structure. Ship collision is considered to be the worst of marine accidents as it leads to extreme adverse effects on human and marine life. The sea route traffic has increased by leaps and bounds and there has also been a sharp increase in the speed levels. This has led to an increase in the probability of ships confronting collision. Also, higher the velocity, greater the damage caused to the ship. If the ship has high tonnage and is heavily loaded, the effects of Collison can be more drastic in nature. Maritime Ship collisions have been the reason for many major sea accidents in the past, apart from other accidents such as ship grounding. Collision is a result of sheer human error. Amateur maneuvering and loose presence of mind of the master, pilot or navigational officer during the time of maneuvering, is the root cause of any collision. Apart from that, slack or fault in the propulsion system, rudder or any other machinery can lead to a collision. Error or negligence by a shore personnel assisting in maneuvering activity can also be a reason for such mishap. Effects of Ship Collision: The after effects of a ship collision on marine and human life are immeasurable. The ship involved in a collision suffers from heavy structural and stability damage. Apart from the damage to the ship, collision results in the following effects: 156 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Collision leads to detrimental environmental effects. If the ship involved in a collision is a tanker or a chemical vessel then there are high chances of the chemical or oil leaking to the sea. Oil spills, both a major and a minor, can lead to untoward conditions for the marine life and also to the nearby coastal areas. The huge threat of the harmful cargo leaking to the sea and causing adverse long-term consequences to the local communities, is intimidating.  Financial loss to both, the ship owner and the nearby local communities is huge.  Ship collision renders substantial threat to human life. There have been accidents in past when the ship has shanked within minutes, giving no chance to the people on board to escape.  Collision with an offshore structure or a port leads to infrastructure damage and thus cause a heavy blow to human efforts. There have been collisions with bridges and port structures in the past, resulting in heavy financial and efforts loss. Fig 5.16 ship accidents 5.7 STRUCTURAL FAILURE: Defective construction that causes failure may be due to numerous reasons that may not be easy to predict before or during the construction. The major causes of structural failure are defective designs that have not determined the actual loading conditions on the structural elements. Inferior construction materials may also be the cause since the loads are calculated for materials of specific characteristics. 157 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Structure may fail even if the design is satisfactory, but the materials are not able to withstand the loads. Employment of unskilled labour on construction work is another reason for structural failures. Therefore, it is important that the owners, designers, and builders are fully conscious of the reasons of failure, and undertake all preventive measures. 5.7.1 Causes and Effects: Design Deliberations Construction imperfection in design and manufacturing can be extremely expensive to settle. Architectural design and construction defects cause a structure to be improper for its proposed intent. Correct structural design is significant for all buildings, but exceptionally essential for tall buildings. Even a slight probability of failure is not acceptable since the results can be disastrous for human life and property. Civil engineers are required to be exceptionally careful and methodical in ensuring an appropriate building design that can sustain the applied loads. All failure modes need to be examined by using modern software on the subject. A designer and a builder cannot be wholly confident about the design, and therefore an appropriate factor of safety is incorporated on the design calculations. Defects due to inferior workmanship Defects due to inferior workmanship can lead to structural damage and failure. Poor workmanship is often the origin of construction defects. Even superior quality materials, if used imperfectly, may not successfully serve the planned function, or be as durable as designed. Poor workmanship is the actual cause of most construction defects. General defects due to poor workmanship are leaking roofs, cracked floor tiles, shedding paint, and other numerous problems. Proper procedures have been created for almost every construction operation, and only implementation is required. A superior quality paint that is applied to an unclean surface is likely to fail, not because the material was substandard, but because it was used with a poor quality of work. Foundation failure Many building foundations are not properly designed and constructed for the existing site soil conditions. Since suitable land is often not available, buildings are constructed on soil that has inadequate bearing capacity to support the weight of the structure. 158 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The near surface soils may consist of expansive clays that shrink or enlarge as the moisture content is changed. Movement of foundation may occur if the clay moistening and drying is not uniform. Vegetation, inadequate drainage, plumbing leakage, and evaporation, may cause soil variation. The top soil layers provide the bearing capacity to hold the structure, and ensure stability of the foundation. If the bearing soil is inadequately compacted preceding construction, the foundation may be affected by settlement. 5.7.2 Consequences The consequences of failure vary significantly from structure to structure, and may depend on a wide range of factors, including:  Nature of the hazard  Properties of the structure  Use/occupancy  Location  Meteorological conditions  Time frame over which the consequences are assessed  The scope of consequences considered (in a socio-economic context) 5.7.3 Example: Kolkata Road Flyover Collapse (March 2016). The fact that the 2.2km bridge was still incomplete 10yrs after the scheduled deadline is self- evident that all was not right from the onset of the Kolkata, India’s Vivekananda Road flyover. According to evidence on file, the increasing costs caused the contractor to unreasonably keep extending its completion deadline over and over until the Chief Minister of West Bengal (Mamata Banerjee), had enough of the excuses and gave the contractor (IVRCL) a final 18- month deadline and $23 million to just have it done. But, to the surprise of many only 60% of the work was finished by the new deadline (feb2016) and the IVRCL was already drowning in debts, which resulted in inevitable take over the banks and the company banned from doing business in many Indian states. On a fateful day March 30, 2016, concrete was laid on parts of the bridge. The following day, a section of the steel bridge collapsed, taking the lives of 50 pedestrians beneath it and injuring at least the same number again. There were over ninety survivors rescued from the rubble, but nearly a hundred more unaccounted for. A day later, 5 top IVRCL executives were arrested and charged with murder. 159 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 5.17 Kolkata Road Flyover Collapse (March 2016). 5.8 WAR AND TERRORISM 5.8.1 Terrorism Causes of terrorism can be divided into four levels: individual, rational, systemic, and ideological  Independence or separatist movements.  Irredentist movements.  Adoption of a particular political philosophy, such as socialism (left-wing terrorism), anarchism, or fascism (possibly through a coup or as an ideology of an independence or separatist movement)  Perceptions of deprivation and inequality, especially amongst culturally defined groups. ...  A lack of political legitimacy and continuity, as well as a lack of integration for the political fringes, encourages ideological terrorism. 160 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 5.18 causes of terrorism  Perceptions of deprivation and inequality, especially amongst culturally defined groups. This can lead to civil violence, of which terrorism may be a part. Terrorism represents social control from below, as attacks are directed upon targets symbolizing central government or a superior community.  A lack of political legitimacy and continuity, as well as a lack of integration for the political fringes, encourages ideological terrorism. The potential is exacerbated by ethnic diversity.  Terrorism in one country can spill over into neighbouring areas. Mass media can influence the patterns of terrorism by enhancing agenda setting, increasing lethality and expanding the transnational character.  A skewed gender balance and high proportion of unmarried males increases the association with intra-societal violence and instability. Political and criminally motivated violence is largely the work of young unmarried men.  Windows of opportunity when terrorist violence can serve to influence opinion and resource. In the case of peace agreements, radical members of coalition groups resume and escalate hostilities to undermine confidence and prevent compromise, thus regaining the initiative and avoiding marginalization. 161 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Hegemony in the international system by one or two actors will cause a high level of transnational anti-systematic terrorism as a war by proxy develops. Therefore, terrorism can represent a backlash against globalization and modernization. Discussions about the causes of terrorism are controversial, with many people viewing the focus on underlying causes, motivation and grievance as implicit with justifying violence. A dispassionate outlook is required to understand the driving forces and devise effective long- term counter measures. However, no comprehensive review of why some countries experience terrorism more than others, exist. Explanations are varied and disagreements occur. For example, psycho- pathological explanations for terrorism tend to divest terrorism of socio-economic and political motivations. While researchers agree that one of the characteristics of a terrorist is normality, psycho-pathological factors amongst group leadership can play a significant role. Other theories over the causes of terrorism include:  Perceptions of deprivation and inequality, especially amongst culturally defined groups. This can lead to civil violence, of which terrorism may be a part. Terrorism represents social control from below, as attacks are directed upon targets symbolizing central government or a superior community.  A lack of political legitimacy and continuity, as well as a lack of integration for the political fringes, encourages ideological terrorism. The potential is exacerbated by ethnic diversity.  Terrorism in one country can spill over into neighbouring areas. Mass media can influence the patterns of terrorism by enhancing agenda setting, increasing lethality and expanding the transnational character.  A skewed gender balance and high proportion of unmarried males increases the association with intra-societal violence and instability. Political and criminally motivated violence is largely the work of young unmarried men.  Windows of opportunity when terrorist violence can serve to influence opinion and resource. In the case of peace agreements, radical members of coalition groups resume and escalate hostilities to undermine confidence and prevent compromise, thus regaining the initiative and avoiding marginalization.  Hegemony in the international system by one or two actors will cause a high level of transnational anti-systematic terrorism as a war by proxy develops. Therefore, terrorism can represent a backlash against globalization and modernization. 162 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Terrorism can occur in a variety of manners and instances. Terrorists may be deprived, uneducated, affluent and from both sexes. It can occur in developed and undeveloped countries, in a variety of regimes. It encompasses ideology and religion. Though what gives rise to terrorism may be different from what perpetuates terrorism over time. Societies that are more exposed tend to be:  Poor societies with weak state structures. These are more exposed to civil wars than wealthier countries, and therefore the risk of terrorism increases.  States engaged in democratic transition rather than democratic or authoritarian regimes. Levels of transnational terrorism are highest in semi-authoritarian states.  Undergoing societal changes brought through modernization. Thus, creating the conditions for terrorism through mobility, communication, widespread targets and audiences.  Weak and collapsed states that contribute to international terrorism. Ongoing or past wars can have terrorism motivations rooted within. Armed conflicts also have facilitating influences on transnational terrorism. 5.8.2 Violence Violence is an extreme form of aggression, such as assault, rape or murder. Violence has many causes, including frustration, exposure to violent media, violence in the home or neighborhood and a tendency to see other people's actions as hostile even when they're not. Other factors which can be causes of violence include:  The influence of one's peers.  Having a lack of attention or respect.  Having low self-worth.  Experiencing abuse or neglect.  Witnessing violence in the home, community, or Medias.  Access to weapons. The WRVH divides violence into three categories according to who has committed the violence: self-directed, interpersonal or collective; and into four further categories according to the nature of violence: physical, sexual, psychological or involving deprivation or neglect 163 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Violence is among the leading causes of death for people aged 15–44 years worldwide, accounting for 14% of deaths among males and 7% of deaths among females. For every person who dies as a result of violence, many more are injured and suffer from a range of physical, sexual, reproductive and mental health problems Fig 5.19 violence Researchers have examined multiple factors within a person that may contribute to violence, including genetic predisposition, neurochemical abnormalities (e.g., high testosterone levels), personality characteristics (e.g., lack of empathy for others), and information-processing deficits.  Physical Violence. Physical violence occurs when someone uses a part oftheir body or an object to control a person's actions.  Sexual Violence.  Emotional Violence.  Psychological Violence.  Spiritual Violence.  Cultural Violence.  Verbal Abuse.  Financial Abuse. 164 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Violence affects its direct victims, those who witness violence, family members, co-workers, service providers and all members of society. All forms of violence have damaging short- and long-term effects on mental, physical and spiritual well-being. 5.8.3 War A war is typically fought by a country or group of countries against an opposing country or group with the aim of achieving an objective through the use of force. Wars can also be fought within a country in the form of a civil or revolutionary war. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, \"war\" is defined as 1. A state of armed conflict between different countries or different groups within a country. 2. A state of competition or hostility between different people or groups. 3. A sustained campaign against an undesirable situation or activity. Wars have been a part of human history for thousands of years, and have become increasingly destructive as industrialization and technology have advanced. Causes of War 1. Economic Gain 2. Territorial Gain 3. Religion 4. Nationalism 5. Revenge 6. Civil War 7. Revolutionary War 8. Defensive War 1. Economic Gain Often wars are caused by one country's wish to take control of another country's wealth. Whatever the other reasons for a war may be, there is almost always an economic motive underlying most conflicts, even if the stated aim of the war is presented to the public as something more noble. 165 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In pre-industrial times, the gains desired by a warring country might be precious materials such as gold and silver, or livestock such as cattle and horses. In modern times, the resources that are hoped to be gained from war take the form of things like oil, minerals, or materials used in manufacturing. Some scientists believe that as the world’s population increases and basic resources become scarce, wars will be fought more often over fundamental essentials, such as water and food. Historical Example:  Anglo-Indian Wars (1766-1849) – The Anglo-Indian wars were a series of wars fought between the British East India Company and different Indian states. These wars led to the establishment of British colonial rule in India, which gave Britain unrestricted access to exotic and valuable resources native to the Indian continent. Fig 5.20 A strategic map of central Europe from 1917. (National Museum of the U.S. Airforce) 2. Territorial Gain A country might decide that it needs more land, either for living space, agricultural use, or other purposes. Territory can also be used as “buffer zones” between two hostile enemies. 166 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Related to buffer zones are proxy wars. These are conflicts that are fought indirectly between opposing powers in a third country. Each power supports the side which best suits their logistical, military, and economic interests. Proxy wars were particularly common during the Cold War. Historical Example:  Mexican-American War (1846-1848) – This war was fought following the annexation of Texas, with Mexico still claiming the land as their own. The U.S. outfought the Mexicans, retaining Texas and incorporating it as a state. 3. Religion Religious conflicts often have very deep roots. They can lie dormant for decades, only to re- emerge in a flash at a later date. Religious wars can often be tied to other reasons for conflict, such as nationalism or revenge for a perceived historical slight in the past. While different religions fighting against each other can be a cause of war, different sects within a religion (for example, Protestant and Catholic, or Sunni and Shiite) battling against one another can also instigate war. Historical Example:  The Crusades (1095-1291) – The Crusades were a series wars sanctioned by the Latin Church during the medieval age. The aim of crusaders was to expel Islam and spread Christianity. 4. Nationalism Nationalism in this context essentially means attempting to prove that your country is superior to another by violent subjugation. This often takes the form of an invasion. Dr. Richard Ned Lebow, Professor of International Political Theory at the Department of War Studies, Kings College London, contends that while other causes of war may be present, nationalism, or spirit, is nearly always a factor. In his essay \"Most wars are not fought for reasons of security or material interests, but instead reflect a nation's spirit.\" Related to nationalism is imperialism, which is built on the idea that conquering other countries is glorious and brings honor and esteem to the conqueror. 167 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Racism can also be linked to nationalism, as can be seen in Hitler’s Germany. Adolf Hitler went to war with Russia partly because the Russians (and eastern Europeans in general) were seen as Slavs, or a group of people who the Nazis believed to be an inferior race. Historical Examples of Wars Fought for Nationalism World War I (1914-1918) – Extreme loyalty and patriotism caused many countries to become involved in the first world war. Many pre-war Europeans believed in the cultural, economic and military supremacy of their nation. Fig 5.21 African American soldiers fighting in the American Civil War. The American Civil War saw the first signs of mechanized warfare, which would become more apparent with the onset of World War I later in Europe. 5. Revenge Seeking to punish, redress a grievance, or simply strike back for a perceived slight can often be a factor in the waging of war. Revenge also relates to nationalism, as the people of a country which has been wronged are motivated to fight back by pride and spirit. Unfortunately, this can lead to an endless chain of retaliatory wars being set in motion which is very difficult to stop. Historically, revenge has been a factor in many European wars, Historical Example World War II (1939-1945) – The rise of the Nazi Socialist Party and Germany's eventual domination of the European continent were direct results of the Treaty of Versailles, which imposed strict punishments on Germany. 168 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6. Civil War These generally take place when there is sharp internal disagreement within a country. The disagreement can be about who rules, how the country should be run or the people's rights. These internal rifts often turn into chasms that result in violent conflict between two or more opposing groups. Civil wars can also be sparked by separatist groups who want to form their own, independent country, or, as in the case of the American Civil War, states wanting to secede from a larger union. Historical Example American Civil War (1861-1865) - The American Civil War was fought by the Union army and the Confederate army as a result of the long-standing controversy over slavery. 7. Revolutionary War These occur when a large section of the population of a country revolts against the individual or group that rules the country because they are dissatisfied with their leadership. Revolutions can begin for a variety of reasons, including economic hardship amongst certain sections of the population or perceived injustices committed by the ruling group. Other factors can contribute too, such as unpopular wars with other countries. Revolutionary wars can easily descend into civil wars. Historical Example Portuguese Restoration War (1640-1668) – The Portuguese revolution ended the 60-year rule of Portugal by Spain. 8. Defensive War In the modern world, where military aggression is more widely questioned, countries will often argue that they are fighting in a purely defensive capacity against an aggressor, or potential aggressor, and that their war is therefore a “just” war. These defensive wars can be especially controversial when they are launched preemptively, the argument essentially being that: “We are attacking them before they inevitably attack us.” Historical Example Iraqi Conflict (2003-Present) – An international coalition, led by the US, invaded Iraq on the grounds that the country's leader, Saddam Hussein, was developing weapons of mass destruction, and therefore presented a threat to surrounding countries and rest of the world. The 169 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

war was controversial as the allegations made about the weapons of mass destruction made by the US and UK were shown to lack substance. 5.9 SUMMARY  A manmade disaster is a disaster resulting from human intent, negligence, or error involving a failure of a man-made system. Manmade disasters can be both intentional and unintentional.  Wildfires occur when vegetated areas are set alight and are particularly common during hot and dry periods. They can occur in forests, grasslands, brush and deserts, and with sufficient wind can rapidly spread.  House fire occurs mainly due to ignorance and carelessness of the person involving in that work. They can occur in kitchens, electrical failures and heating systems.  Any form of pollution that can trace its immediate source to industrial practices is known as industrial pollution. Most of the pollution on the planet can be traced back to industries of some kind.  A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic agency as an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility.  A biological attack means the release of germs or other biological substances. Such substances can enter the body through inhalation, cuts in the skin and food and make one sick.  Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of individuals within a population, community, or region at the same time.  Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a continent, or even worldwide of existing, emerging or re-emerging diseases and pestilences.  Bio-terrorism can be defined as the use of biological agents to cause death, disability or damage mainly to human beings.  An accident is an unplanned event that sometimes has inconvenient or undesirable consequences, other times being inconsequential. The occurrence of such an event may or may not have unrecognized or unaddressed risks contributing to its cause.  Rapid urbanization, motorization, lack of appropriate road engineering, poor awareness levels, non-existent injury prevention programmes, and poor enforcement of traffic laws has exacerbated the situation. 170 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The main reasons for train accidents include Negligence, Human error, Reckless pedestrians and drivers, Mechanical failure, Speedy trains, Defective tracks, Derailments, Unprotected railroad crossings, Stalled cars on the track, Suicides  Environmental risk is directly linked to the type and number of hazardous substances, including oil, being transported and the sensitivity of the marine area where any accident could occur.  Badly maintained and operated vessels have a higher probability of causing loss of human life, loss of vessels and of impacting the marine and coastal environment  Defective construction that causes failure may be due to numerous reasons that may not be easy to predict before or during the construction.  Construction imperfection in design and manufacturing can be extremely expensive to settle  Causes of terrorism can be divided into four levels: individual, rational, systemic, and ideological  A war is typically fought by a country or group of countries against an opposing country or group with the aim of achieving an objective through the use of force. Wars can also be fought within a country in the form of a civil or revolutionary war 5.10KEYWORDS  Anthropogenic Hazards or Man-Made Disasters are hazards caused by human action or inaction.  An Accident is an unpleasant event that happens unexpectedly and causes damage, injury or death.  A Road Traffic Accident (RTA) is any injury due to crashes originating from, terminating with or involving a vehicle partially or fully on a public road.  An Explosion is defined as a sudden and extremely violent release of energy or bursting  A Wildfire, bushfire, wildland fire or rural fire is an unplanned, unwanted, uncontrolled fire in an area of combustible vegetation starting in rural areas and urban areas  Violence is an extreme form of aggression, such as assault, rape or murder  Terrorism is the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims.  War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias.  Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a continent, or even worldwide of existing, emerging or re-emerging diseases and pestilences. 171 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5.11 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.Find out the recent man-made disaster and Compare it with the previous ones. Discuss the causes and effects in various aspects. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 5.12UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Describe man-made disasters. 2. What are the types of fire? 3. Write the facts describing industrial pollution. 4. How does the nuclear disaster occur? 5. How does the Biological disaster become pandemic? 6. Differentiate road and Train Accidents. 7. List the effects of terrorism. 8. How does terrorism is different from war? 9. What are the causes of structural failure? 10. Describe civil war. Long Questions: 1. Explain the sources of manmade disaster. 2. Explain the causes and effects of fire in both indoor and outdoor. 3. Enumerate the industrial pollution. 4. Illustrate with example about the nuclear disaster. 5. Interpret bio war in detail. 6. Explain the causes and effects of structural failure. 7. Enumerate the causes of Road Accidents. 8. Explain with case study about Air Accidents. 9. Explain the types of war with Example. 10. Interpret structural failures in detail. 172 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

B. Multiple choice questions 1. Which country is known as the most forest fire prone country in the world? a. Uganda b. Canada c. Australia d. India 2. A disease that becomes unusually widespread and even global in its reach is referred to as a. Epidemic b. Pandemic c. Spanish flu d. Hyperendemic 3. Bhopal Gas Disaster is a kind of a. Natural disaster b. Manmade disaster c. Both A and B d. None of these 4. Which of the following is not a man-made hazard? a. Leakage of Toxic waste b. Wars and Civil Strife c. Drought d. Environmental pollution 5. An example of Civil war is 173 a. Kargil war b. World war I c. Syrian war CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

d. None of these Answer 5.13 REFERENCES Textbooks:  V. Sankarasubramanium - “Air Pollution Management” ARS Publications, Chennai  Er. Arun Kumar “Disaster Management”, S.K. Kataria& Sons, New Delhi. Web Links  https://www.ndma.gov.in  https://media.ifrc.org  https://www.climate.gov  https://www.nationalgeographic.org 174 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT-6: DISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE PREPAREDNESS Structure 6.0 Learning Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Disaster Preparedness: Concept and Nature 6.3 Disaster Preparedness Plan 6.4 Disaster Prediction 6.5 Early Warning Systems 6.6 Safety Measures of Disaster 6.7 Role of Information, Communication, Education and Training 6.8 Summary 6.9 Abbreviations 6.10 Learning Activity 6.11Unit end Questions 6.12 References 6.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit students will be able to  Have a basic understanding of various concepts and nature of disaster preparedness, prediction and safety measures.  Highlight the nature and significance of Information, Education, Communication (IEC) training and awareness on disaster management. 6.1 INTRODUCTION Disaster preparedness are the protective process and measures which enable governments, communities and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them effectively. Preparedness includes the formulation of viable emergency plans, the development of warning systems, the maintenance of inventories and the training of personnel. It may also embrace search and rescue measures as well as evacuation plans for areas that may be at risk from a recurring disaster. 175 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6.2 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS: CONCEPT AND NATURE Preparedness encompasses those measures taken before a disaster event which are aimed at minimizing loss of life, disruption of critical services, and damage when the disaster occurs. Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and measures which can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or recover from its losses. The three key stages of activities that are taken up within disaster risk management are: Before a Disaster (Pre-Disaster) Activities taken to reduce human and property losses caused by a potential hazard. Such risk reduction measures taken under this stage are termed as mitigation and preparedness activities. For example, carrying out awareness campaigns, strengthening the existing weak structures, preparation of the disaster management plans at household and community level etc. During a Disaster (Disaster Occurrence) Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met and suffering is minimized. Activities taken under this stage are called emergency response activities. After a Disaster (Post-Disaster) Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of affected communities, immediately after a disaster strike. These are called as response and recovery activities. 176 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6.3 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS PLAN Figure 6.1 Disaster Management Plan 177 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6.4 DISASTER PREDICTION Though it is not possible to completely avoid the natural disasters, but the sufferings can be minimized by creating proper awareness of the likely disasters and its impact by developing a suitable warning system, disaster preparedness and management of disasters through application of information technology tools. The changing trends have opened up a large number of scientific and technological resources and skills to reduce the disaster risk. Some of the tools that we can use to manage disasters are:  Geographical Information System (GIS)  Remote Sensing  Internet  Artificial Intelligence (AI) Geographical Information System (GIS)  GIS provides a tool for effective and efficient storage and manipulation of remotely sensed data and other spatial and non-spatial data types for both scientific management and policy-oriented information.  This can be used to facilitate measurement, mapping, monitoring and modeling of variety of data types related to natural phenomenon.  The specific GIS application in the field of risk management includes hazard mapping to show earthquakes, landslides, floods and fire hazards.  These maps could be created for cities, districts or even the entire country.  Tropical cyclone maps are used by the meteorological departments to improve the quality of tropical storm warning services and quickly communicate the risk to the people likely to get affected by the cyclone. Remote Sensing  Remote sensing makes observation of any object from a distance and without coming into actual contact.  Remote sensing can gather data much faster than ground-based observation, can cover a large area at one time to give a synaptic view.  Remote sensing comprises of 1. Aerial Remote Sensing which is the process of recording information, such as photographs and images from sensor on aircrafts and 2. Satellite Remote Sensing which consists of several remote sensing satellites system that can be used to integrate natural hazard assessments into development planning studies. Examples are Landsat, IRS (Indian Remote Sensing Satellite), SPOT (Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre) etc. 178 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Applications of GIS and Remote Sensing in Disaster Management Drought  GIS and Remote Sensing can be used in drought relief management such as early warnings of drought conditions and will help to plan out the strategies to organize relief works.  Satellite data can be used to target potential groundwater sites for taking up well- digging programmes.  Satellite data provides valuable tools for evaluating areas subjected to desertification.  Film transparencies, photographs, images and digital data can be used for the purpose of locating, assessing and monitoring deterioration of natural conditions in a given area Earthquake  GIS and Remote Sensing can be used for preparing seismic hazard maps in order to assess the exact nature of risks. Floods  Satellite data can be effectively used for mapping and monitoring the flood inundated areas, flood damage assessment, flood hazard zoning and post-flood survey of river configurations and protection works. Landslides  Landslide zonation comprises of maps demarcating the stretches of area of varying degree of anticipated slope stability and instability.  The map has a built-in element for forecasting landslides and is hence of probabilistic nature.  Depending upon the methodology adopted and the comprehensiveness of the input data, a landslide zonation map will be able to provide help the concerning location extent of the slope area likely to be affected, and the rate of mass movement of the slope. Search and Rescue (SAR)  GIS can be used in carrying out search and rescue operations in a more effective way by identifying areas that are disaster prone and zoning them accordingly to risk management. Internet 179 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 In the present era of electronic communication, the internet provides a useful platform for disaster mitigation and communication.  It provides a new and potentially revolutionary option for the rapid, automatic and global dissemination of information.  A number of individuals and groups including several meteorological services are experimenting with the internet for real-time dissemination of weather observation, forecasts, satellites and other data.  In the most critical phase of natural disasters, electronic communication has provided the most effective and, in some instances, perhaps the only means of communication with the outside world. Artificial Intelligence (AI) Artificial intelligence has been helping us in various applications such as customer service, trading and healthcare. And now, researchers have found that AI can be used to predict natural disasters. With enormous amounts of good quality datasets, AI can predict the occurrence of numerous natural disasters, which can be the difference between life and death for thousands of people. Some of the natural disasters that can be predicted by AI are:  AI systems can be trained with the help of seismic data to analyze the magnitude and patterns of earthquakes and predict the location of earthquakes and aftershocks.  Various researchers and tech experts are developing AI based applications with the help of rainfall records and flood simulations to predict and monitor floods.  AI powered systems can accurately predict volcanic eruptions with the help of seismic data and geological information.  AI can use satellite data and images to predict and monitor the path and intensity of cyclones, hurricanes and tornadoes. 6.5 EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS  An advance system of forecasting, monitoring and issuing early warnings plays the most significant role in determining whether a natural disaster will assume disastrous proportions or not.  An early warning system can be implemented as a chain of information communication systems and comprises of sensors, event detection and decision subsystems.  They work together to forecast and signal disturbances that adversely affect the stability of the physical world, providing time for the response system to prepare for the adverse event and to minimize its impact. 180 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 To be effective, early warning systems need to actively involve the communities at risk, facilitate public education and awareness of risks, effectively disseminate alerts, and warnings and ensure there is constant state of preparedness.  A complete and effective early warning system supports four main functions: risk analysis, monitoring and warning; dissemination and communication; and a response capability.  An early warning system is more than a warning system, which is simply a means by which an alert can be disseminated to the public.  Risk analysis involves systematically collecting data and undertaking risk assessments of predefined hazards and vulnerabilities.  Monitoring and warning involve a study of the factors that indicate a disaster is imminent, as well as the methods used to detect these factors.  Dissemination and communication concerns communicating the risk information and warnings to reach those in danger in a way that is clear and understandable.  Finally, an adequate response capability requires the building of national and community response plan, testing of the plan, and the promotion of readiness to ensure that people know how to respond to warnings.  The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is an apex body of Government of India with a mandate for laying down the policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management and to ensure very timely and effective response to disaster.  Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) provides cyclone warnings from Area Cyclone Warning Centers (ACWCs).  Long term drought proofing programmes on natural resources of districts have been greatly helped by the use of satellite data obtained by National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA)  Seismological observations in the country are made through a national network of 36 seismic stations operated by the IMD.  The National Agricultural Draught Assessment and Management System (NADAMS) developed by the Department of Space for the Department of Agriculture Cooperation is primarily based on monitoring of vegetation status through National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and Advanced Very High Resolution (AVHR) data.  Flood forecasts and warnings are issued by the Central Water Commission (CWC), Ministry of Water Resources. 6.6 SAFETY MEASURES OF DISASTER Natural disasters are catastrophic events that often occur without warning and disrupt the ecosystem, causing damage to personal lives, property, transportation, and livelihood. While it 181 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

is never possible to prevent a disaster, the damage can be minimized through timely preparation. As such, every natural disaster has its own set of precautions to be taken, which must be followed to save precious lives. Here are a few safety measures one must take to save their lives and that of others during natural disasters. Earthquakes The shifting of tectonic plates causes earthquakes under the earth’s crust, and it is responsible for mass destruction. When faced with an earthquake, these safety measures can be of use: Before Earthquake  Check that your insurance covers earthquake damage.  If you building your home, seek expert advice on the depth and type of foundations and construction to suit your soil conditions.  Check and repair cracks in walls or gaps in mortar between bricks in existing buildings.  Have an emergency kit which includes: a portable radio and torch with fresh batteries; containers of fresh water, canned food supplies; and a first aid kit and instruction manual.  Have an evacuation plan for you and your family.  Know the safest areas during earthquakes.  List emergency phone numbers for police, fire, ambulance and gas, etc.  Check for broken water, sewerage or electrical mains.  Expect aftershocks. Evacuate if the building is damaged. If you are indoors,  Don't leave the house and keep clear of windows, chimneys and overhead fittings. If leaving the home, do not use elevators/lifts.  Turn off electricity, gas, and water. Do not light matches and check for gas or fuel leaks and damaged wiring.  Take cover under a sturdy table or other pieces of furniture, and hold on until the shaking stops.  Stay away from glass, windows, outside doors and walls, and anything that could fall, such as lighting fixtures or furniture.  Stay inside until the shaking stops, and it is safe to go outside. Most injuries occur to people trying to move a different location inside the building or try to leave.  Do not use the elevators. If you are outdoors,  Listen to your battery radio or car radio for warnings before moving.  Stay away from landslides, buildings, overhead structures, walls, bridges, streetlights, power lines, utility wires and trees. 182 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Stand in open ground until the shaking stops. It’s dangerous to stay directly outside buildings, at exits, and alongside exterior walls. Ground movement during an earthquake is seldom the direct cause of death or injury. Most earthquake-related casualties result from collapsing walls, flying glass, and falling objects.  Do not go sightseeing or enter damaged buildings. Don't panic and help others if possible. Tsunamis Tsunamis are a series of enormous ocean waves caused by earthquakes, underwater landslides, or volcanic eruptions. Tsunami waves range from tens to hundreds of feet tall and can travel twenty to thirty miles per hour. When faced with this phenomenon, these tips are to be followed:  Turn on your radio/TV to learn and follow the precautionary instructions during a tsunami warning, primarily when you reside near a coastal area.  Move inland to higher ground immediately and stay there.  Check for a noticeable recession in water away from the shoreline as this is nature’s tsunami warning and should be heeded. It would help if you moved away immediately.  Stay away from flooded and damaged areas until officials say it is safe to return.  Keep yourself away from debris in the water; it may pose a safety hazard to boats and people. Cyclones Cyclones are tropical storms, caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low-pressure area. Cyclones are accompanied by strong winds, moving at a speed of sixty-two kmph or more. When faced with a hurricane, keep these tips in mind:  Be alert to changing weather conditions.  Listen to radio/TV for the latest information.  Look for approaching storms and warning signs.  Check that the walls, roof and eaves of your home are secure.  Trim treetops and branches well clear of your home.  Fit shutters, or at least metal screens, to all glass areas.  Clear your property of loose material that could blow about and possibly cause injury or damage during extreme winds.  In case of a storm warning or other flooding, know your nearest safe high ground and the safest access route to it.  Prepare an emergency kit to take with you and keep a list of emergency numbers on display.  When a cyclone watch is issued, fill your car's fuel tank. 183 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Ensure that your family members know the strongest part of your house.  When the cyclone strikes, disconnect all the electrical appliances.  Listen to your battery radio for updates.  Stay indoors (unless you are asked to evacuate) in the strongest part of the building, i.e., cellar, internal hallway or bathroom.  Keep evacuation and emergency kits with you.  Protect yourself with mattresses, rugs or blankets under a strong table or bench if the building starts to break up.  Drive carefully as roads may be filled with debris.  If you see approaching storms or any of the danger signs, be prepared to take shelter immediately.  If you are under a tornado warning, seek shelter immediately in places where you have designated cyclone shelters, take refuge there. Floods Floods are among the earth’s most common and dangerous natural hazards, formed due to a flow of water on areas of land that are usually dry. Excessive rain, damage to nearby dams, and tsunamis are some of its causes. When faced with flooding, these tips are to be followed: If you need to evacuate:  Notify a neighbour, friend or the local authorities of your new address.  Turn off power, water and gas and take your mobile phone.  Pack warm clothing, essential medication, certificates, valuables and sentimental items in waterproof bags, to be taken with your emergency kit.  Move furniture, clothing and valuables onto beds, tables (electrical items highest).  Lock your home and take recommended evacuation routes for your area.  Don't walk or drive through flooded ground. If you stay in during the flood  Stay tuned to local radio/TV for updated advice.  Don't allow children to play in, or near, flood waters.  Avoid entering floodwaters.  Stay away from drains, culverts and water over knee-deep.  Don't use gas or electrical appliances which have been in flood water until checked for safety.  Don't eat food which has been in flood waters and boil tap water or drinking water until supplies have been declared safe. 184 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6.7 ROLE OF INFORMATION, EDUCATION, COMMUNICATION AND TRAINING Information, Education and Communication (IEC) are of vital significance for disaster preparedness, prevention and mitigation. It promotes an alert community which is essential for any successful activity. IEC are the essential constituents of any programme especially in a disaster. related scenario. IEC requires the administrative machinery, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Community-based Organizations (CBOs), other agencies and the community to be prompt, active and well informed to carry out the activities confidently. Hence IEC should be given top priority in any disaster management programmes. Information, Education, Communication and Training: Nature and Significance  The goal of any disaster management initiative is to build a disaster resistant/resilient community equipped with safer living and sustainable livelihoods to serve its own development purposes.  The community is also the first respondent in any disaster situation, thereby emphasizing the need for community level initiatives in managing disasters.  To encourage such initiatives, the following are required: 1. Creating awareness through disaster education and training and information dissemination are necessary steps for empowering the community to cope with disasters. 2. Community based approach, adapted by most NGOs and Community-based Organizations (CBOs) should be incorporated in the disaster management system as an effective vehicle of community participation. 3. Within the vulnerable community, there are groups, which are more vulnerable e.g., women and children, the aged and infirm and the physically challenged, who need special care and attention especially during disaster situations. 4. Efforts are required for identifying such vulnerable groups and providing them special assistance in terms of evacuation, relief, aid and medical attention to them in disaster situations.  Management of disasters should therefore be an interface between a community effort to mitigate and prevent disasters as also an effort from the government machinery to buttress and support popular initiatives. Information, Education, Communication and Training: Components and Strategies  The goal of any IEC strategy is to reach the community at the remote level and make them alert and aware.  It attempts to enable the community organize itself to tackle a crisis, minimize the losses, and control panic to facilitate smooth rescue and relief operations. 185 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Information Education and Communication can reach the community through a variety of means. It can be through: 1. Educational programmes. 2. Media. 3. Preparation and distribution of material such as brochures, pamphlets and posters that contain information about the disasters, do s and don'ts. 4. Orienting through training, lecture demonstrations, practice alerts, and mock drills. 5. Group discussions and talks. 6. Street plays, folk' songs. Community Awareness The prime objective of community awareness is to raise the awareness levels, knowledge base of the community to make them alert, self-reliant and cope with the consequences. This awareness is required to enable the community understand the impact of disaster, efforts they need to put to reduce its impact and save their lives and property. The awareness should make the community conversant about:  Operationalizing of preparedness or response or emergency plan prevalent at the local or community level.  Adhering to special instructions about warning and evacuation given during disaster.  Getting conversant with evacuation procedures, routes for evacuation and necessary things to be taken.  Providing help to vulnerable sections such as women, children, old, physically challenged etc. Mobilizing other community members in tackling the crisis.  Distributing relief Disaster Education  Disaster education can go a long way in developing knowledgeable and aware communities.  It needs to emphasize upon the various types of disasters, hazard assessment, risk analysis, contingency planning, warning system, mapping disaster zones, disaster coping mechanisms etc.  Educational institutions can contribute towards generation of knowledge in the area of disasters, develop expertise in specific types of disaster and impart training in different fields.  Disaster awareness education in educational institutions has the following advantages: 1. It provides contemporary and relevant information about local environment. 2. It prepares for participation in both pre- and post-disaster activities of the affected vulnerable community on a wider scale. 186 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. It contributes past experience with recent developments in technology to combat disaster. 4. It helps to develop effective domain abilities for collective work as successful disaster management efforts involve an effective teamwork and spirit. 5. It promotes informed decision-making in the event of a disaster. 6.8 SUMMARY  Natural disasters are catastrophic events that often occur without warning and disrupt the ecosystem, causing damage to personal lives, property, transportation, and livelihood.  The shifting of tectonic plates causes earthquakes under the earth’s crust, and it is responsible for mass destruction.  Tsunamis are a series of enormous ocean waves caused by earthquakes, underwater landslides, or volcanic eruptions.  Cyclones are tropical storms, caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low- pressure area.  Floods are formed due to a flow of water on areas of land that are usually dry. Excessive rain, damage to nearby dams, and tsunamis are some of its causes.  Disaster preparedness are the protective process and measures which enable governments, communities and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them effectively.  Preparedness encompasses those measures taken before a disaster event which are aimed at minimizing loss of life, disruption of critical services, and damage when the disaster occurs.  Activities taken in the pre-disaster stage to reduce human and property losses caused by a potential hazard are known as risk reduction measures.  Emergency responses are initiatives taken during the occurrence of disaster to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met and suffering is minimized.  Response and recovery are initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of affected communities, immediately after a disaster strike  GIS can be used to facilitate measurement, mapping, monitoring and modeling of variety of data types related to natural phenomenon.  Remote sensing can gather data much faster than ground-based observation, can cover a large area at one time to give a synaptic view.  GIS and Remote Sensing can be used for preparing seismic hazard maps in order to assess the exact nature of risks. 187 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Landslide zonation comprises of maps demarcating the stretches of area of varying degree of anticipated slope stability and instability.  Internet provides a new and potentially revolutionary option for the rapid, automatic and global dissemination of information.  AI systems can be trained with the help of seismic data to analyze the magnitude and patterns of earthquakes and predict the location of earthquakes and aftershocks.  AI can use satellite data and images to predict and monitor the path and intensity of cyclones, hurricanes and tornadoes.  An early warning system can be implemented as a chain of informationcommunication systems and comprises of sensors, event detection and decision subsystems.  The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is an apex body of Government of India with a mandate for laying down the policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management and to ensure very timely and effective response to disaster.  Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) provides cyclone warnings from Area Cyclone Warning Centers (ACWCs).  Seismological observations in the country are made through a national network of 36 seismic stations operated by the IMD.  Flood forecasts and warnings are issued by the Central Water Commission (CWC), Ministry of Water Resources.  Information, Education and Communication (IEC) and Training are of vital significance for disaster preparedness, prevention and mitigation.  IEC requires the administrative machinery, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Community-based Organizations (CBOs), other agencies and the community to be prompt, active and well informed to carry out the activities confidently.  The community is the first respondent in any disaster situation, thereby emphasizing the need for community level initiatives in managing disasters.  The prime objective of community awareness is to raise the awareness levels, knowledge base of the community to make them alert, self-reliant and cope with the consequences.  Disaster awareness education needs to emphasize upon the various types of disasters, hazard assessment, risk analysis, contingency planning, warning system, mapping disaster zones, disaster coping mechanisms etc.  Educational institutions can contribute towards generation of knowledge in the area of disasters, develop expertise in specific types of disaster and impart training in different fields. 188 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6.9 ABBREVIATIONS  GIS : Geographical Information System  IRS : Indian Remote Sensing Satellite  SPOT : Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre  SAR : Search And Rescue  NDMA : National Disaster Management Authority  IMD : Indian Meteorological Départements  ACWC : Area Cyclone Warning Centres  NRSA : National Remote Sensing Agency  NADAMS : National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Management System  NOAA : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration  CWC : Central Water Commission  AVHR : Advanced Very High Résolution Data  IEC : Information, Education and Communication  NGO : Non-Governmental Organizations  CBO : Community Based Organizations 6.10 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Attempt to organize a lecture or talk or group discussion in your area at any public place on disseminating information about a disaster. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 2. Approach any school in your neighborhood and provide information on Do’s and Don'ts about any disaster. ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 6.11UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Illustrate the concept and nature of disaster preparedness with a neat plan. 2. Enumerate the application of GIS and AI in disaster prediction. 189 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. Write short notes on early warning systems. 4. Describe the safety measures to be taken for any two disasters of your choice. 5. Discuss in detail the role of information, education, communication and training in disaster management. Long Questions 1. Define disaster preparedness. 2. What are early warning systems? 3. Compare risk reduction and response/relief. 4. State the role of internet in disaster mitigation and communication? 5. List out a few advantages of disaster awareness education. B.Multiple Choice Questions 1. Activities taken to reduce human and property losses caused by a potential hazard is known as a. Risk Reduction b. Response c. Rehabilitation d. Recovery 2. _______ makes observation of any object from a distance and without coming into actual contact. a. Internet b. Artificial Intelligence c. Geographical Information System d. Remote Sensing 3. The shifting of tectonic plates causes _______ under the earth’s crust. a. Cyclones b. Earthquakes c. Landslides d. Floods 4. Expand IMD a. Indian Metallurgical Department b. Indian Meteorological Department c. Indian Maritime Department d. Indian Mining Department 5. The _______ is an apex body of Government of India with a mandate for laying down the policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management. 190 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

a. National Disaster Response Force b. National Remote Sensing Agency c. National Disaster Management Authority d. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Answer 1-a, 2-d, 3-b, 4-b, 5-c 6.12 REFERENCES Textbooks:  Jack Pinkowski, “Disaster Management Handbook” CRC Press, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, New Delhi, 2008.  Mrinalini Pandey, “Disaster Management”, Wiley & Sons, New Delhi, 2014.  Lille’sand,T.M., Kiefer, R.W. and Chipman, J. W., “Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation”, John Willey and Sons Asia Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 7th Edition, 2015.  Anji Reddy, M., “Textbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System”, BS Publications, Hyderabad, 4th Edition, 2019. Websites  https://www.ndma.gov.in  https://media.ifrc.org  https://www.climate.gov  https://www.nationalgeographic.org  https://www.forbes.com 191 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT-7: ROLE OF DIFFERENT AGENCIES IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT Structure 7.0 Learning Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Role of Government 7.3 Role of International Bodies 7.4 Role of Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) Bodies 7.4.1 Types of NGOs, their Objectives and Importance with Regard to Disaster 7.4.2 Fundamental Mechanism 7.5 Role of IT in Disaster Preparedness 7.5.1 Components of Information Technology used in Disaster Management 7.5.2 GIS and Remote Sensing in Disaster Management 7.6 Role of Engineers on Disaster Management 7.7 Summary 7.8 Abbreviations 7.9 Learning Activity 7.10 Unit end Questions 7.11 References 7.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit students will be able to  Highlight the framework for coordination of disaster management process at different government levels.  Discuss the role of NGOs and other important agencies involved in disaster management. 7.1 INTRODUCTION Disaster management needs a strong political commitment for erecting an effective planning and coordination process at the governmental and societal levels. A structure with a clearly defined authority as well as an appropriate budget to maintain an effective disaster plan is needed, Preparedness plans should be comprehensive in scale and operation as disaster management planning is a sequential and continuous process. Effective planning requires systematic diagnosis, resource evaluation, and continuous feedback towards fulfillment of the 192 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

goals of disaster reduction. Since the scope of disaster management is quite wide and the actors involved in the process are numerous, it is essential that a framework for coordination is accepted and provided for. Management is needed at all stages of a disaster: the disaster preparedness and mitigation phase, the disaster event phase, the response phase, and the recovery phase comprising rehabilitation and reconstruction processes. This is achieved through various actors- governmental, non-governmental and private, engaged in the area of disaster management. This Unit deals with the role of the different agencies in disaster management and developmental activities, it will try to explain the importance of the role of each of these sectors, and also their vital interlinkages, so essential for a coordinated and comprehensive disaster management system. 7.2 ROLE OF GOVERNMENT There is a systematic structural framework for coordination of disaster management tasks at the central, state and district levels. It is essential that there is some level of understanding between these levels in order to avoid delays and overlapping of time and efforts. Let us discuss this structural framework now: Central Level  At the central level, a National Crisis Management Committee, headed by the Cabinet Secretary has been constituted with the nodal ministries in charge of various types of disasters and supporting ministries as members.  The Central Relief Commissioner functions as the coordinator at the national level, under whom a Crisis Management Group (CMG) has been constituted.  The CMG meets as often as required in the wake of natural disasters to coordinate at the central level and also liaise with the state governments as and when required.  There is a National Contingency Action Plan (CAP) that facilitates the launching of relief and rescue operations without delay.  The CAY identifies initiatives to be taken by various central ministries and public departments in the wake of natural disasters.  It sets down procedures and determines focal points in the administrative machinery. StateLevel  In tune with the federal structure of the country, disaster management falls under the state list.  Therefore, the responsibility to cope with natural disasters is essentially that of the state government.  The central government supplements the physical and financial resources of the state 193 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

government.  Most of the states have Relief Commissioners who are in charge of the relief and rehabilitation measures of the state.  The Chief Secretary is the overall in charge of the relief operations in the state.  The State governments usually have Relief Manuals and the districts have their Contingency Plans.  The State government also invites the NGOs and relief organization to join the efforts to reach out to victims. 7.3 ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL BODIES The increasing population and infrastructural growth worldwide have resulted in worsening the effects of disastrous events (natural and manmade), The fast development of communications and the visual impact of television images has upgraded the awareness and sensitivity worldwide irrespective of the location where the disaster occurred. The world witnessed a few terrible disasters which took unprecedented toll of life and property and their effects are still being felt decades after their occurrence. The Bangladesh Cyclone (1970), the Bhopal Gas Leak (1984) and the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Disaster (1986) made the United Nations, (UN) to take cognizance of the situation leading to the 1989 Resolution of the UN General Assembly that set forth an international framework of action at national and international levels and also provided an international structure with scientific, technical and financial support. The most important follow up was the launching of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (1990-2000) which is better known by its initials IDNDR. A mid-way review of IDNDR was taken by the UN Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction at Yokohorna (Japan) in 1994 when the Yokohoma Strategy was adopted. In line with the thinking within the UN, major international funding agencies increasingly recognize the benefits of funding disaster related projects. However, a critical fact to be recognized here is that it must be the prerogative of a stricken or potential recipient country to decide whether or not it needs international disaster assistance. International agencies provide assistance at various stages as follows: 1) Pre-Disaster Assistance Pre-disaster assistance from international sources takes on a variety of forms.  Assistance inprevention/mitigation a. Assistance in building a system of dams, aimed to prevent flooding. b. Development of monitoring and warning systems.  Assistance inPreparedness 194 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

a. Provision of assistance in the formulation of plans at national and regional levels; b. Provision of assistance in establishing and developing disaster management structures or key points; for instance, the establishment of a national disaster management centre, office or section. c. Provision of systems and facilities in the form of warning systems, communication systems, emergency operation centres; emergency broadcasting systems; d. Stockpiling of emergency items, such as generators, chain saws, shovels, water purification plank, cooking equipment, shelter materials, medical equipment. 2) Assistance in Response Operations International Agencies As with pre-disaster circumstances, assistance in response operations can also take various forms, like; a. Monitoring and warning of potential disaster impact. b. Post impact survey for instance, aerial photographic or visual reconnaissance. c. Provision of emergency assistance teams; for instance, medical teams, other specialist teams. d. Provision of emergency· equipment and supplies; for instance, communications, power generator, clothing, shelter materials, food transport and medical supplies. e. Provision of specialist personnel; for instance, to install and operate water purification plant. f. Temporary provision of major response capabilities for instance, helicopter capability for various emergency roles (including survey and assessment and food distribution, shipping capability for movement of heavy/bulky supplies, off road vehicle capability. 3) Assistance in Recovery Programmes The post-disaster recovery process usually consists of a series of distinct but inter-related programmes, for instance, covering infrastructure, medical and health system, education facilities, and so on international assistance may therefore be directed towards a specific recovery programme, or comprise some form of contribution to overall recovery. Therefore, they may take the form of:  Financial grants or credits  Building Materials  Technical Equipment  Agriculture rehabilitation  Extended feeding programmes 195 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Specialists or specialist teams  Food for work 4) Assistance in Future Development In many cases, international assistance in post-disaster recovery may develop or merge into long-term development programmes, for instance, development of transport systems, building of dams and embankments. Pre-disaster assistance and assistance in future development tend to be of a routine nature and can be processed in a routine manner. Assistance in response operations and recovery programmes usually has a high degree of urgency, which necessitates quick processing. In some circumstances, problems can, arise locally. For example, the affected community may become totally or over-dependent on aid. In such a case, original and traditional customs of combating disaster have been eroded. In these circumstances self-coping mechanisms of rehabilitation have to be strengthened. 7.4 ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATION (NGO) BODIES Disaster Management is a multi-disciplinary and multi-dimensional effort requiring massive, large-scale and often long-term intervention at short notice. In a vast and populous country like India, it is not feasible for only the governmental machinery to undertake disaster management programmes satisfactorily. Active and willing participation of the people is essential. Nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) including the community-based organisations (CBOs) play an important effective role as a bridge between the government and the people. The non-governmental sector, due to its linkages with the community base and its flexibility in procedural matters, has an advantage over governmental agencies in invoking the involvement of the people at community level. 7.4.1 Types ofNGOs, Their Objectives and Importance with Regard to Disaster NGOs can be of different sizes, with different areas of operation and different fields of expertise. The Non-Governmental Sector covers a whole range of activities, through its various types of organizations. Some major types of NGOs are as given under: NGOs with dedicated field operations and resource backup. These are large organizations, such as the International Red Cross Society, that have specific areas in which they carry out field operations. They have access to large resource bases, and have the capability to extend material, financial, as well as technical support. In times of disaster, their roles are very laudable as they garner support and resources from all over the world and come to the rescue of the affected persons almost immediately. 196 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Development Technology related NGOs. These are NGOs involved in developing and propagating development technologies, such as Sulabh International, which has renowned activities in the field of low sanitation. These NGOs are active in times of peace, carrying out their developmental projects, and can be called in at times of emergency due to natural disaster for providing the affected community with immediate physical infrastructure that may be required. Even in non-disaster times their services are useful for retrofitting in areas of building technology, so as to minimize death and destruction in future disasters. Interest Groups. These are also NGOs, formed with the objective of sharing interests and community service, such as the Rotary Club. However, such interest groups are very active, and have come forward to help disaster victims in times of need. Most of these groups have good financial resources. They can play a major role in resource mobilization for relief aid land rehabilitation purposes. \\ Associations of local occupation groups. Such associations are formed on the basis of common occupational backgrounds, and could include groups such as doctors' associations, traders' associations, Army wives’ associations etc. Such groups, as with interest groups, can play a major role in resource mobilization, and also in providing specialized services to the disaster victims. Local Residents' Associations. These associations are formed by the local residents to look into the interests of those living a shared community life in the area which may be rural or urban or in big towns. As such, these associations are highly concerned about the welfare of the local community, and need no external motivation to take active part in disaster reduction. Thus, they can be a very useful tool for getting across the message of community participation at the ground level and to muster community's willing participation. They are very useful 111 coordinating disaster management efforts such as distribution of essential supplies or providing local volunteers. Religious and Charitable Bodies. Religious bodies are one of the most important NGOs groups that come to the immediate rescue and relief of the disaster victims. These bodies have a large and dedicated following in the community. They also have control of the local places of worship, which are usually strong structures built on high and safe ground, and can serve as idea shelters during disasters. Besides, they often have infrastructure to feed mass gatherings, which becomes very useful in times of disaster. Educational Institutions. Educational institutions such as schools and colleges are also NGOs that play a crucial role in disaster management. Their prime responsibility in this regard is to 197 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

spread awareness on natural disasters and preventive action needed to minimize damage due to them, as well as on immediate relief and rescue methods. Besides, these institutions have large buildings which can be used as shelters for the victims in times of disaster. 7.4.2 Fundamental Mechanism The essential function of the NGOs is to be the vital link between Government and the Community. With their reach to the remote areas through CBOs, NGOs also perform the very important function of \"gap fillers\" at places where the reach of governmental organizations is somewhat tenuous. These functions are made possible in different mechanisms as the situation requires. For example, if the government requires to distribute relief material to the community, NGOs may be requisitioned for distribution and more importantly in identifying the persons actually needing the relief. The various other functions that the NGOs may be expected to perform are briefly enumerated below: - 7.5 ROLE OF IT IN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS Disaster management is standing on three major phases like preparedness, prevention and mitigation. Disaster preparedness highlights on warnings and forecasts of impending disasters and often entails processes which are quite dynamic and results in a \"rapid onset\" disaster. Disaster prevention is a long-term activity where satellite monitoring of relevant 198 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

factors such as changing of land use, population growth is the main criteria. Communication of information about a disaster to a population at risk and appropriate actions to mitigate that hazard is an important part of information technology. The hazard or disaster sometimes cannot be avoided but the negative impacts on the people’s property can be mitigated through public warning which is primary goal of the information technology and to ensure to the greatest extend so that hazard may not be a disaster. The success of information technology in case of disaster management is hidden in the seed of communication technology such as evacuation of the people from the hazardous site, to reduce damage to the property and thus minimizing human suffering. 7.5.1 Components of Information Technology Used in Disaster Management 1. Awareness program: To combat disaster, awareness of the risk population about the possible disaster and its combat –strategies are utmost important. It can be done in various ways. If target population are mostly common illiterate people, audio visual aid like Video conferencing, tale- communication even with the experts who are not available at field level can play a great role in educating people to mitigate disaster like situation. 2. Radio & television – The most traditional electronic media used for disaster warning and a widespread effect to the people. The effectiveness of this media in the developing countries and rural environments where the tele density is relatively low and there it can be used to spread the warning quickly to a broad population. A study on this media revealed that the effectiveness of radio and television with an easy understandable language of warning can reduce the potential death toll of catastrophic, cyclonic and tidal bore. But only drawback of this system is that at night this media is generally switched off. 3. Telephone/Mobile- The landlines and Mobile phones has an important role in warning the communities at stake for an incoming danger of a disaster. A phone call with warning saved many lives in South Asian Countries in 2004 Tsunami mainly at coastal region. However, there are two drawbacks to warn the people through telephone are –  Installation of telephone in the rural areas in all India still is not satisfactory even if there is an exponential use of mobile phone in recent past has mainly bounded in urban areas – particularly in rural and coastal areas the communities are mainly fisherman communities still think that mobile phone is a luxury.  The other drawback is congestion of phone lines before and during the disaster resulting incomplete phone calls at vital period. 4. Short Message Service. (SMS) – the SMS is allowable in most of the mobile phone and permits sending of short messages amount the mobile phone an even land line. In case of failure of network, the SMS can work on a different band and can be sent or received even when phone 199 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

lines are congested. During 2005 Hurricane Katrina disaster in USA, many residences of affected coastal areas were unable to contact relatives and friends through telephone but they could be able to communicate to each other through SMS. Other communication technologies are used like Cell broadcasting, satellite radio, internet or e-mail, amateur and community radio, etc. to warn the people at stake in case of an impending disaster. 5. Auto- ALERT through Siren /Emergency bell: People in villages who ate not exposed to mobile phones etc. can be brought under the auto alert systems of sirens or emergency bells which starts on its own whenever any alert message is detected. They can be installed at offices of local administrations or police stations in the locality. 7.5.2 GIS And Remote Sensing in Disaster Management GIS (Geographical Information System) can be defined as a system of hardware and software used for storage, retrieval, mapping and analysis of geographic data. GIS can be used for scientific investigation, resource management and development planning. Remote Sensing is a measurement of acquisition of information about a phenomenon by a recording device and gathered information about the environment without physical or intimate contact with the object or phenomena. As disaster management work usually involves different agencies working in different areas. The need for detailed geographical information in order to make critical decision is hike. By utilizing GIS agencies involved in response can share information through data bases on computer generation maps in one location. For disaster management, workers have to access a number of department managers with their unique data and unique maps which in case of a disasters do not allow time to gather these resources. GIS provides the mechanism to centralize and visual display critical information during an emergency. GIS based spaced technology solutions have become an integral part of disaster management in developed as well as developing countries. However, in case of failure of GIS system in affected area by thunderstorm or flood like natural disaster, Disaster Management group has to take on physically though data of GIS in pre-failure state can be used to a great extent by the group depending on their expertise and post-failure scenario of GIS. The use of GIS in different phases can be illustrated as follows- 1. Planning 2. Mitigation 3. Preparedness 4. Response 1. Planning- Emergency management in case of a disaster begins with locating and identifying potential emergency problems. The use of GIS can become the backbone of emergency management as it provides a mechanism to centralize and visually display critical information during an emergency. Using a GIS officials can be triggered the bull’s eye of the hazards and 200 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)