MBA604_Financial Reporting and Analysis

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet I 95 B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Which of the following is an essential characteristic of an asset? (a) The claim to an asset’s benefits are legally enforceable (b) An asset is tangible (c) An asset is obtained at a cost (d) An asset provides future benefits. 2. On 31st December, 2017, Brooks Co. decided to end operations and dispose of its assets within three months. At 31st December, 2017, the net realisable value of the equipment was below historical cost. What is the appropriate measurement basis for equipment included in Books’ 31st December, 2017 balance sheet? (a) Historical cost (b) Current reproduction cost (c) Net realisable value (d) Current replacement cost 3. During 2017, King Company made the following expenditures relating to its plant building: ` Continuing and frequent repairs 40,000 Repainted the plant building 10,000 Major improvements to the electrical wiring system 32,000 Partial replacement of roof tiles 14,000 How much should be charged to repair and maintenance expense in 2017? (a) ` 96,000 (b) ` 82,000 (c) ` 64,000 (d) ` 54,000 4. A building suffered uninsured fire damage. The damaged portion of the building was refurbished with higher quality materials. The cost and related accumulated depreciation of the damaged portion are identifiable. To account for these events, the owner should (a) Reduce accumulated depreciation equal to the cost of refurbishing (b) Record a loss in the current period equal to the sum of the cost of refurbishing and the carrying amount of the damaged portion of the building CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

96 Financial Reporting and Analysis (c) Capitalise the cost of refurbishing and record a loss in the current period equal to the carrying amount of the damaged portion of the building (d) Capitalise the cost of refurbishing by adding the cost to the carrying amount of the building 5. Which of the following statements concerning patents is correct? (a) Legal costs incurred to successfully defend an internally developed patent should be capitalised and amortised over the patent’s remaining economic life (b) Legal fees and other direct costs incurred in registering a patent should be capitalised and amortised on a straight-line basis over a five-year period (c) Research and development contract services purchased from others and used to develop a patented manufacturing process should be capitalised and amortised over the patent’ economic life (d) Research and development costs incurred to develop a patented item should be capitalised and amortised on a straight-line basis over seventeen years 6. Chain Hotel Corporation recently purchased Elgin Hotel and the land on which it is located with the plan to tear down the Elgin Hotel and build a new luxury hotel on the site. The cost of the Elgin Hotel should be— (a) Depreciated over the period from acquisition to the date the Hotel is scheduled to be torn down (b) Written off as an extraordinary loss in the year the Hotel is torn down (c) Capitalised as part of the cost of the land (d) Capitalised as part of the cost of the new Hotel. 7. As generally used in accounting, what is depreciation? (a) It is a process of asset valuation for balance sheet purposes (b) It applies only to long-lived intangible assets (c) It is used to indicate a decline in market value of a long-lived asset (d) It is an accounting process which allocates long-lived asset cost to accounting periods 8. Which of the following statements is the assumption on which straight-line depreciation is based? (a) The operating efficiency of the asset decrease in later years (b) Service value declines as a function of time rather than use CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet I 97 (c) Service value declines as a function of obsolescence rather than time (d) Physical wear and tear are more important than economic obsolescence 9. A principal objection to the straight-line method of depreciation is that it (a) Provides for the declining productivity of an aging asset (b) Ignores variations in the rate of asset use (c) Trends to result in a constant rate of return on a diminishing investment base (d) Gives smaller periodic write offs than decreasing charge methods 10. The straight-line method of depreciation is not appropriate for (a) A company that is neither expanding nor contracting its investments in equipment because it is replacing equipment as the equipment depreciates (b) Equipment on which maintenance and repairs increase substantially with age (c) Equipment with useful lives that are not affected by the amount of use (d) Equipment used consistently every period 11. In accordance with generally accounting principles, which of the following methods of amortisation is normally recommended for intangible assets? (a) Sum-of-the-years-digits (b) Straight-line (c) Units of production (d) Double-declining balance 12. ABC Co. uses the sum-of-the-years digits method to depreciate equipment purchased in January 2015 for ` 20,000. The estimated salvage value of the equipment is ` 2,000 and the estimated useful life is four years. What should ABC report as the asset’s carrying amount as of 31st December, 2017? (a) ` 1,800 (b) ` 2,000 (c) ` 3,800 (d) ` 4,500 13. When a company changes from the straight-line method of depreciation for previously recorded assets to the double-declining balance method, which of the following should be reported? Cumulative effects of Proforma effects of change in accounting principle retroactive application (a) No No (b) No Yes CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

98 Financial Reporting and Analysis (c) `Yes Yes (d) Yes No 14. On 1st January, 2015, Flax Co. purchased a machine for ` 5,28,000 and depreciated it by the straight-line method using an estimated useful life of eight years with no salvage value. On 1st January, 2018, Flax determined that the machine had a useful life of six years from the date of acquisition and will have a salvage value of ` 48,000. An accounting change was made in 2018 to reflect these additional data. The accumulated depreciation for this machine should have a balance at 31st December, 2018 of (a) ` 2,92,000 (b) ` 3,08,000 (c) ` 3,20,000 (d) ` 3,52,000 15. Jindal Company takes a fully year’s depreciation expense in the year of an asset’s acquisition, and no depreciation expense in the year of disposition. Data relating to one of Jindal’s depreciable assets at 31st December, 2016 are as follows: Acquisition year 2014 Cost ` 1,10,000 Residual value Accumulated depreciation 20,000 Estimated useful life 72,000 5 years Using the same depreciation method as used in 2014, 2015, and 2016, how much depreciation expense should Jindal record in 2018 for this asset? (a) ` 12,000 (b) ` 18,000 (c) ` 22,000 (d) ` 24,000 16. On 2nd January, 2015, Union Co. purchased a machine for ` 2,64,000 and depreciated it by the straight-line method using an estimated useful life of eight years with no salvage value. On 2nd January, 2018, Union determined that the machine had a useful life of six years from the date of acquisition and will have a salvage value of ` 24,000. An  accounting change was made in 2018 to reflect the additional data. The accumulated depreciation for this machine should have a balance at 31st December, 2018, of (a) ` 1,76,000 (b) ` 1,60,000 (c) ` 1,54,000 (d) ` 1,16,000 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet I 99 17. On 18th June, 2017, Dell Printing Co. incurred the following costs for one of its printing presses: Purchase of collating and stapling attachment ` Installation of attachment 84,000 Replacement parts for overhaul of press 36,000 Labour and overhead in connection with overhaul 26,000 14,000 The overhaul resulted in a significant increase in production. Neither the attachment nor the overhaul increased the estimated useful life of the press. What amount of the above costs should be capitalised? (a) ` 0 (b) ` 84,000 (c) ` 1,20,000 (d) ` 1,60,000 6. Derby Co. incurred costs to modify its building and to rearrange its production line. As a result, an overall reduction in production costs is expected. However, the modifications did not increase the building’s market value, and the rearrangement did not extend the production line’s life. Should the building modification costs and the production line rearrangement costs be capitalised? Building modification costs Production line rearrangement costs (a) Yes No (b) Yes Yes (c) No No (d) No Yes 7. Which method of recording uncollectible accounts expense is consistent with accrual accounting? Allowances costs Direct write-off (a) Yes No (b) Yes Yes (c) No No (d) No Yes 20. You are the Chief Accountant of a sugar factory, whose cost of production per tonne of sugar is given below: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

100 Financial Reporting and Analysis Sugarcane cost 30-6-2015 30-6-2016 Sugarcane transport and supervision (`) (`) Other process chemicals Fuel 1,700 1,900 Salaries, wages and bonus 50 55 Repairs, renewals and maintenance 45 50 Packing materials and expenses 15 16 Interest 60 75 Selling overheads 125 135 Administration overheads 75 85 Depreciation 250 150 Total Cost 20 20 Free market sale price 85 95 Controlled market sale price 300 300 Export price 2,725 2,881 2,800 4,800 2,600 2,600 1,650 5,400 Salaries, wage and bonus include administration salaries ` 20. You have been valuing the closing stock of sugar consistently at cost or market price whichever is lower. For the purpose of arriving at cost, you have been taking the total cost as given above. The auditor objects to the method of arriving at cost adopted in view of Accounting Standard No. 2 on valuation of inventory and he wants to exclude the depreciation, interest, administration and selling overheads. Keeping the stipulations of the Accounting Standard - 2 in view, give your opinion on: (a) What shall be the cost for the purpose of valuation of stock in both the above years? (b) In view of the accumulation of heavy stock, the directors want to be consistent with the method of valuation of stocks as in the past in order to present a reasonable financial position. Will you be able to convince the auditors that the method of arriving at total cost is the correct method and, if yes, how? (c) If the author’s opinion is adopted, what shall be the nature of disclosure in the published accounts, if any? (d) What shall be the basis for valuing stock in each of the above years? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet I 101 Note: Local sales price include excise duty of ` 500 per tonne. [Ans. (a) Total cost: Year 2015 – ` 2,350; Year 2016 – ` 2,596 (b) Depreciation of factory assets is a part of factory overhead and must be included in product costs. Auditor’s opinion to exclude it is not reasonable. (c) Auditor’s opinion amounts to change in accounting policy and as per AS-2, it should be disclosed. (d) Lower of cost and minimum of realisable values: Year 2015 – ` 1,650; Year 2016 – ` 2,100] Answers 1. (d), 2. (c), 3. (c), 4. (c), 5. (a), 6. (c), 7. (d), 8. (b), 9. (b), 10. (b), 11. (b), 12. (c), 13. (c), 14. (c), 15. (a), 16. (b), 17. (d), 18. (b), 19. (b) 3.17 References 1. Accounting Principles Board, Statement No. 14, Basic Concepts and Accounting Principles Underlying Financial Statements of Business Enterprises, New York: AICPA, 1970, pp. 49-50. 2. The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, Guidance Note on Terms Used in Financial Statements, New Delhi: ICAI, September 1983, p. 8. 3. Eldon S. Hendriksen, Accounting Theory, Homewood: Richard D. Irwin, 1984, p. 256. 4. Yuji Ijiri, ibid., p. 88. 5. The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, AS-6, Depreciation Accounting, New Delhi: The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, November 1982, para 3.1. 6. International Accounting Standards Committee, IAS 4, Depreciation Accounting, March 1976. 7. Eldon S. Hendriksen, Accounting Theory, ibid., pp. 268-269 8. Eldon S. Hendriksen, ibid., p. 282. 9. Yuji Ijiri, Theory of Accounting Measurement, ibid., p.96 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

102 Financial Reporting and Analysis UNIT 4 FINANCIALSTATEMENTS: THE BALANCE SHEET II Structure: 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Nature of Liabilities 4.2 Measurement of Liabilities 4.3 Classification of Liabilities 4.4 Meaning of Inventory 4.5 Need for Inventories 4.6 Objectives of Inventory Measurement 4.7 Inventory Systems 4.8 Inventory Costing Methods 4.9 Lower of Cost or Market (LCM) 4.10 Summary 4.11 Key Words/Abbreviations 4.12 LearningActivity 4.13 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 4.14 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 103 4.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Apply the accounting equation to create balance sheet  Explain the meaning of inventory, liabilities  Describe acceptable inventory valuation methods  Calculate inventory value  Classify different types of liabilities 4.1 Nature of Liabilities Liabilities may be defined as currently existing obligations which a business enterprise intends to meet at some time in future. Such obligations arise from legal or managerial considerations and impose restriction on the use of assets by the enterprise for its own purposes. Liabilities are obligations resulting from past transactions that require the firm to pay money, provide goods, or perform services in the future. The existence of a past transaction is an important element in the definition of liabilities. For example, if a buyer gives a purchase commitment to a seller, this is only an agreement between a buyer and seller to enter into a future transaction. The performance of the seller that will create the obligation on the part of the buyer is, at this point, a future transaction. Therefore, such a purchase commitment is not a liability. Accounting Principles Board of USA defines liabilities as “economic obligations of an enterprise that are recognised and measured in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. Liabilities also include certain deferred credits that are not obligations but that are recognised and measured in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles”. Financial Accounting Standards Board defines liabilities as follows: “Liabilities are probable future sacrifices of economic benefits arising from present obligations of a particular entity to transfer assets or provide services to other entities in the future as a result of past transactions or services.” According to Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, liability is “the financial obligation of an enterprise other than owners’ funds”. Liabilities possess the following characteristics: 1. Occurrence of a past transaction or event: The obligations must arise out of some past transaction or event. A liability is not a liability of an enterprise until something happens to make it a liability of that enterprise. The kinds of transactions and other events and circumstances that result in liabilities are the following: Acquisition of goods and services, impositions by law or governmental units, and acts by an enterprise that obligate it to pay or otherwise sacrifice assets to settle its CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

104 Financial Reporting and Analysis voluntary nonreciprocal transfers to owners and others. In contrast, the act of budgeting the purchase of a machine and budgeting the payments required to obtain it results neither in acquiring an asset nor in incurring a liability. No transaction or event has occurred that gives the enterprise access to or control of future economic benefit or obligates it to transfer assets or provide service to another entity. Many agreements specify or imply how a resulting obligation is incurred. For example, borrowing agreement specify interest rates, periods involved and timing of payments, rental agreements specify rental and periods to which they apply. The occurrence of the specified event or events results in a liability. Transactions or events that result in liabilities imposed by law or governmental units also are often specified or inherent in the nature of the statute or regulation involved. For example, taxes are commonly assessed for calendar or fiscal years, fines and penalties stem from infraction of the law or failure to comply with provisions of law or regulations, damages result from selling defective products: 2. Required future sacrifice of assets: The essence of a liability is a duty or requirement to sacrifice assets in the future. A liability requires an enterprise to transfer assets, provide services or otherwise expend assets to satisfy a responsibility it has incurred or that has been imposed on it. Most liabilities presently included in financial statements qualify as liabilities because they require an enterprise to sacrifice assets in future. Thus, accounts and bills payable, wages and salary payable, long-term debt, interest and dividends payable, and similar requirements to pay cash apparently qualify as liabilities. 3. Obligations of a particular enterprise: Liabilities are in relation to specific enterprises and a required future sacrifice of assets is a liability of the particular enterprise that must make the sacrifice. Most obligations that underline liabilities stem from contracts and other agreements that are enforceable by courts or from governmental actions that they have the force of law, and the fact of an enterprise’s obligation is so evident that it is often taken for granted. 4. Liabilities and proceeds: An enterprise commonly receives cash, goods or services by incurring liabilities and that which is received is often called proceeds, especially if cash is received. Receipt of proceeds may be evidence that an enterprise has incurred one or more liabilities, but it is not conclusive evidence. Proceeds may be received from cash sales or by issuing ownership shares— that is, from revenues or other sales of assets or from investment by owners—and enterprises may incur liabilities without receiving proceeds, for example, by imposition of taxes. The essence of a liability is a legal, equitable or constructive obligations to sacrifice economic benefits in the future rather than whether proceeds were received by incurring it. Proceeds themselves are not liabilities. 5. Discontinuance of liability: A liability once incurred by an enterprise remains a liability until it is satisfied in another transaction or other event or circumstances affecting the enterprise. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 105 Most liabilities are satisfied by cash payments. Others are satisfied by the enterprise’s transferring assets or providing services to other entities, and some of those—for example, liabilities to provide magazines under a prepaid subscription agreement—involve performance to earn revenues. Liabilities are also sometimes eliminated for forgiveness, compromise or changed circumstances. 6. Capital and dividend: Capital invested by the owner or shareholders in an enterprise is not regarded as an external liability in financial accounting. But shareholders have a right at law to the payment of a dividend once it has been declared. As a result, unpaid or unclaimed dividends, are shown as current liabilities. It is the practice to show proposed dividends as current liabilities also, since such proposed dividends are usually final dividends for the year which must be approved at the annual general meeting before which the accounts for the year must be laid. 4.2 Measurement of Liabilities Liabilities are measured in conformity with the cost principle. When an obligation is created initially, the amount of liability is equivalent to the current market value of the resources received when the transaction occurs. In most cases, liabilities are measured, recorded and reported at their principal amounts. In other words, liabilities should be measured and shown in the balance sheet at the money amount, necessary to satisfy an obligation Interest included in the face amount of accounts payable is deducted from the face amount when reporting the liability in the balance sheet. If liabilities are not valued at cost, they can be valued at the fair market value of goods or services to be delivered. For example, an automobile dealer who sells a car with a one year warranty must provide parts and services during the year. The obligation is definite because the sale of the car has occurred, but the amount must be estimated. In historical accounting, liabilities appear on the balance sheet as the present value of payments to be made in future. It is significant to observe that liabilities appear at the amount payable because the difference between the amount ultimately payable and its present value is immaterial. It is only as the maturity date of liabilities is longer that there can be difference between historical or cost value (value as per the contract creating the obligation) and present value of future payment. Liabilities may be valued: (i) at their historic value in accordance with accounting conventions, i.e., at the value attached to the contractual basis by which they were created or (ii) at their discounted net values in accordance with the manner of valuing assets, generally recognised in economics. While accounting conventions dictate that the valuation of liabilities should be based on the sum which is payable, it is accounting practice to make a distinction between current and long-term liabilities. As regards current liabilities, there is little difference between the discounted net value and the contractual value of liabilities. In this connection, current liabilities are defined as those which will mature during the course of the accounting period. The gap between the two methods of valuation is significant as regards long-term liabilities. Long-term liabilities are valued on the basis of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

106 Financial Reporting and Analysis their historical value, that is, by reference to the contract from which they originated, and hence during periods of inflation or where the interest payable is less than the current market rate of interest, the accounting valuation will certainly be overstated by comparison with the discounted net value. Valuation and recognition of liabilities is necessary for income determination and capital maintenance and ascertainment of a business enterprise’s financial position. Failure to record a liability in an accounting period means that expenses have not been fully recorded. Thus, it leads to an understatement of expenses and an overstatement of income. Liabilities should be recorded, as stated earlier, when an obligation occurs. When there is a transaction that creates obligation for the company to make future payments, a liability arises and is recognised as when goods are bought on credit. However, current liabilities often are not represented by a direct transaction. This is the reason that some unrecorded liabilities are recorded at the end of accounting period through adjusting entries such as salaries, wages and interest payable. Other liabilities that can only be estimated, should also be recognised by adjusting entries such as taxes payable. In fact, the requirement for an accurate measure of the financial position and financial structure should determine the basis for liability valuation. Their valuation should be consistent with the valuation of assets and expenses. The need for consistency arises from the objectives of liability valuation, which are similar to those of asset valuation. Probably, the most important of these objectives is the desire to record expenses and financial losses in the process of measuring income. However, the valuation of liabilities should also help investors and creditors in understanding the financial position. The valuation of liabilities is part of the process of measuring both capital and income, and is important to such problems as capital maintenance and the ascertainment of a firm’s financial position. According to Barton, “the requirements for an accurate measure of the financial position and financial structure should determine the basis for liability valuation. Their valuation should be consistent with the valuation of assets and expenses.” The need for consistency arises from the objectives of liability valuation, which are similar to those of asset valuation. Probably the most important of these objectives is the desire to record expenses and financial losses in the process of measuring income. However, the valuation of liabilities should also assist investors and creditors in understanding the financial position. 4.3 Classification of Liabilities Liabilities are generally classified as follows: 1. Current Liabilities 2. Long-term Liabilities CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 107 CURRENT LIABILITIES Concept: Current liabilities are those that will be paid from among the assets listed as current assets. Current liabilities are debtor obligations payable within one year of the balance sheet date. However, if a firm’s operating cycle exceeds a year, current liabilities are those payable within the next cycle. The Committee on Accounting Procedure of the AICPA defined current liabilities as follows: “The term current liability are used principally to designate obligations whose liquidation is reasonably expected to require the use of existing resources properly classifiable as current assets, or the creation of other current liabilities.” Current liabilities tend to be fairly permanent in the aggregate, but they differ from long-term liabilities in several ways. The main distinctive features are: (i) they require frequent attention regarding the refinancing of specific liabilities; (ii) they provide frequent opportunities to shift from one source of funds to another; and (iii) they permit management to vary continually the total funds from short- term sources. One of the major differences between the definition of current assets and the definition of current liabilities is that the current portion of long-term debt is reclassified each year as a current liability, and the current portion of fixed assets is not. The reason for this difference is found in the conventional emphasis on liquidity and the effect on cash and cash flows; the current portion of long-term debt will require current cash or cash becoming available, but the current depreciations is only indirectly related to any obligations or cash flows during the current period. Classification of Current Liabilities Current liabilities can be divided into two main groups based on the means by which their values are determined. These groups include: (A) Liabilities with specific values usually determined from contracts and (B) Liabilities whose values must be estimated. Some liabilities falling under these two categories are being discussed here. 1. Accounts Payable: Trade accounts payable are debts owed to trade creditors. They normally arise from the purchase of goods or services. Particular care must be exercised at the end of the accounting year to ensure that all trade payables arising from the purchase of goods and services are recorded. Accounts payable to trade creditors may be recorded either at the gross invoice price or at the net invoice price (i.e., less cash discounts). Showing the invoice at gross is the more common practice, primarily because it is more expedient. If this method is followed and cash discounts are material in amount, the discounts available on unpaid accounts should be recognised at the end of the period and subtracted from the liability account. The balancing entry reduces inventories or purchases. On the other hand, if the accounts payable to trade creditors are recorded at the net amount, any discounts not to be taken must be added back to the amount payable on the balance sheet date. The balancing entry should be made to a loss accounting, because such lapsed discounts involve very high interest rates and indicate poor financial management. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

108 Financial Reporting and Analysis 2. Bills (Notes) Payable: Although bills payable may arise from the same sources as trade accounts payable, they are evidenced by negotiable instruments and therefore should be reported separately. The maturity date of these bills may extend from a few days to year and they may be either interest bearing or non-interest bearing. It is normally customary to record trade bills at their face value and to accrue interest on the interest bearing notes, using a separate Interest Payable Account. Interest is sometimes subtracted from the face value of a bill when funds are borrowed from a bank or financial institution. This is called discontinuing the note, and the discount is the difference between the face value of the bills payable and proceeds from the loan. 3. Interest Payable: Interest payable is typically the result of an accrual and is recorded at the end of each accounting period Interest payable on different types of items is usually reported as a single item. In the absence of significant legal differences in the nature or status of the interest, the amounts can be combined. Interest in default on bonds is an example of an item sufficiently important to warrant separate reporting. Interest payable on noncurrent liabilities such as long-term debt should be listed as current liability, because the interest is payable within the next operating cycle. 4. Wages and Salary Payable: A liability for unpaid wages and salaries is credited when employees are paid at fixed intervals that do not coincide with the balance sheet date. Unclaimed wages that have not been paid to employees because of failure to claim their earnings should be included in salaries and wages payable. 5. Current Portion of Long-term Debt: Current liabilities usually include that portion of long-term debt which becomes payable within the next year. 6. Advance from Customers: Money received in advance from customers create a liability for the future delivery of goods or services. The advances are initially recorded as liabilities and are then transferred from liability account to revenue account when the goods or services are delivered. Advance receipts from customers for the performance of services or for future delivery of goods are current liabilities only if the performance or delivery is to be completed within the time period included in the definition of current liabilities. Advance collections on ticket sales would be considered current liabilities, whereas deposits received in two years would be a noncurrent liability. In some cases, customer deposits may not be listed as current liabilities because their return is not normally contemplated within the time period used to define current liabilities. Current and Non-current Distinctions The classification of items as current and noncurrent in practice is largely based on convention rather than on any one concept. The conventional definitions of current assets and current liabilities are assumed to provide some information to financial statements users, but they are far from adequate in meeting the desired objectives. These inadequacies can be summarised as follows: 1. One of the main objectives of the classification is to present information useful to creditors. However, it is far from adequate in serving this purpose. Creditors are primarily interested in the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 109 ability of the firm to meet its debts as they mature. This ability depends primarily on the outcome of projected operations; the pairing of current liabilities with current assets assumes that the latter will be available for payment of the former. 2. Creditors are also interested in the solvency of the firm—the probability of obtaining repayment in case the firm is liquidated. It is contended that special statements should be prepared for this purpose. Such a statement should show the expected sources of cash in liquidation and the special restrictions regarding the use of particular assets or resources of cash. In the conventional balance sheet, the pairing of current assets with current liabilities leads to the false assumption that, in liquidation, the short-term creditors have necessarily some priority over the current assets and that only the excess is available to long-term creditors. 3. As a device for describing the operations of the firm, the classification is also defective. Such assets as interest receivable do not arise from the same type of operations as accounts receivable and inventories, but they are all grouped together as current assets. Among the current liabilities, dividends payable does not arise from the same type of operations as accounts payable, and from an operational point of view, the current portion of term debt is not dissimilar to the remainder of the long-term debt. 4. The current asset and current liability classifications do not help in description of the accounting process or in the description of valuation procedures. International Accounting Standards Committee has listed the following limitations of current and non-current distinction: 1. The current and non-current distinction is generally believed to provide an identification of a relatively liquid portion of an enterprise’s total capital that constitutes a margin or buffer for meeting obligations within the ordinary operating cycle of an enterprise. However, as long as a business is going concern, it must, for example, continuously replace the inventory that it realises with new inventory in order to carry on its operations. Also, current assets may include inventories that are not expected to be realised in the near future. On the other hand, many enterprises finance their operations with bank loans that are stated to be payable on demand and are hence classified as current liabilities. Yet, the demand feature may be primarily a form of protection for the lender and the expectation of both borrower and lender in the loan will remain outstanding for some considerable period of time. 2. Many regard an excess of current assets over current liabilities as providing some indication of the financial well-being of an enterprise, while an excess of current liabilities over current assets is regarded an indication of financial problems. It is not appropriate to draw such conclusions without considering the nature of the operations of the enterprise and the individual components of its current assets and current liabilities. 3. The segregation of assets and liabilities between current and noncurrent is usually not considered appropriate in the financial statements of enterprises with indeterminate or very long operating cycles. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

110 Financial Reporting and Analysis 4. Thus, while many believe that the identification of current assets and liabilities is a useful tool in financial analysis, others believe that the limitations of the distinction make it of little use or even misleading in many circumstances. Imposition of a general requirement to identify current assets and liabilities in financial statements might impede further consideration of these questions. Accordingly, this statement is intended only to harmonise practices followed by enterprises that choose to identify current assets and liabilities in their financial statements. LONG-TERM LIABILITIES Long-term liabilities are those liabilities that are not due during the next year or during the normal operating cycle. That is, long-term liabilities become due after one year and are the liabilities which are not classified as current liabilities. Long-term liabilities are often incurred when assets are purchased, large amounts are borrowed for replacement, expansion purposes, etc. Examples of long-term liabilities are debentures and bonds, mortgages, long-term notes payable, other long-term obligations. A borrowing company while borrowing or incurring a long-term liability mortgages its assets to the lender (e.g., bondholders and debentureholder) as a security for the liability. A long- term liability supported by a mortgage is a secured debt. An unsecured debt is one for which the creditor relies primarily on the integrity and general power of the borrower. CONTINGENT LIABILITIES A contingent liability is not a legal or effective liability; rather it is a potential future liability. The amount of a contingent liability may be known or estimated. Contingent liabilities are those which will arise in the future only on the occurrence of a specified event. Although they are based on past contractual obligations, they are conditional rather than certain liabilities. Thus, guarantee given by the firm are contingent liabilities rather than current liabilities If a holding company has guaranteed the overdraft of one of its subsidiary companies, the guarantee is payable only in the event of the subsidiary company being unable to repay the overdraft. Contingent liabilities are not formally recorded in the accounts system, but appear as footnotes to me balance sheet. OWNER’S EQUITY Equity is a residual claim—a claim to the assets remaining after the debts to creditors have been discharged. Equity is the residual interest in the assets of an entity that remains after deducting its liabilities. In other words, ownership equity is the excess of total assets over total liabilities. It represents the book value of the owners’ interest in the business enterprise. The terms owners’ equity, proprietorship, capital and net worth are used interchangeably. However, the term net worth is not considered good terminology because it gives an impression of value or current worth whereas most assets are not recorded in the balance sheets at current value or worth but at original cost. Differences exist in accounting for the owners’ equity among a sole proprietorship, partnership and company form of organisation. In a sole proprietorship, a single capital account is needed as the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 111 owner is one, to record additional capital given by the proprietor, net profit, net losses, withdrawals by the proprietor. Similarly, in partnership, capital and drawings accounts are maintained for each partner separately. In company form of organisation, accounting for the owners’ (shareholders) equity is somewhat more complex than for other types of business organisations. Accounting for a company equity focuses on the distinction between capital contributed by shareholders and retained earnings. Characteristics of Equity Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)-5 has listed the following characteristics of equity: 1. Equity in a business enterprise stems from ownership rights. It involves a relation between an enterprise and its owners as owners rather than as employees, suppliers, customers, lenders or in some other non-owner role. Since it ranks after liabilities as a claim to or interest in the assets of the enterprise, it is a residual interest: (a) equity is the same as net assets, the difference between the enterprise’s assets and its liabilities and (b) equity is enhanced or burdened by increases and decreases in net assets from sources other than investments by owners and distributions to owners. Owners’ equity is the interest that, perhaps in varying degrees, bears the ultimate risk of enterprise failure and reaps the ultimate rewards of enterprise success. 2. Equity represents the source of distributions by an enterprise to its owners, whether in the form of cash dividends or other distributions of assets. Owners’ and others’ expectations about distributions to owners may affect the market prices of an enterprise’s equity securities, thereby indirectly affecting owner’ compensation for providing equity or risk capital to the enterprise. Thus, the essential characteristics of equity centre on the conditions for transferring enterprise assets to owners. Equity—an excess of assets over liabilities—is a necessary but not sufficient condition. Generally, an enterprise is not obligated to transfer assets to owners except in the event of the enterprise’s liquidation unless the enterprise formally acts to distribute assets to owners, for example, by declaring a dividend. In this way, owners’ equity has no maturity date. Owners may sell their interest in an enterprise to others and thus may be able to obtain a return of part or all their investments and perhaps a return on investments through a securities market, but those transactions do not normally affect the equity of an enterprise or its assets or liabilities. 3. An enterprise may have several types of equity (e.g., equity shares, preference share) with different degrees of risk stemming from different rights to participate in distributions of enterprise assets or different priorities of claims on enterprise assets in the event of liquidation. That is, some classes of owners may bear relatively more of the risks of an enterprise’s unprofitability or may benefit relatively more from its profitability (or both) than other classes of owners. 4. Owners’ equity is originally created by owners’ investments in an enterprise and may from time to time be augmented by additional investments by owners. Equity is reduced by distributions CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

112 Financial Reporting and Analysis by the enterprise to owners. However, the distinguishing characteristics of owners’ equity is that it inevitably decreases if the enterprise is unprofitable and inevitably increases if the enterprise is profitable, reflecting the fact that owners bear the ultimate risks of and reap the ultimate rewards from the enterprise’s operations and the effects of other events and circumstances that affect it. Ultimately, owners’ equity is the interest in enterprise assets that remain after liabilities are satisfied, and in that sense it is a residual. Equity and Liabilities Assets are probable future economic benefits owned or controlled by the enterprise. Liabilities and equity are mutually exclusive claims to or interest in the enterprise’s assets by entities other than the enterprise. In a business enterprise, equity or the ownership interest is a residual interest, remaining after liabilities are deducted from assets and depending significantly on the profitability of the enterprise. Distributions to owners are discretionary, depending on its effect on owners after considering the needs of the enterprise and restrictions imposed by law, regulations, or agreement. An enterprise is generally not obligated to transfer assets to owners except in the event of the enterprise’s liquidations. In contrast, liabilities once incurred, involve nondiscretionary future sacrifices of assets that must be satisfied on demand, at a specified or determinable date, or on occurrence of a specified event, and they take precedence over ownership interest. Although the line between equity and liabilities is clear in concept, it may be obscured in practice. Often, several kinds of securities issued by business enterprises seem to have characteristics of both liabilities and equity in varying degrees or because the names given to some securities may not accurately describe their essential characteristics. For example, convertible debts have both liability and residual interest characteristics, which may create problems in accounting for them. Preference share also often has both debt and equity characteristics and some preference shares may effectively have maturity amounts and dates at which they must be redeemed for cash. 4.4 Meaning of Inventory Inventory includes tangible property that: (i) is held for sale in the normal course of business or (ii) will be used in producing goods or services for sale. Inventories are current asset and reported on the balance sheet and as current assets they can be used or converted into cash within one year or within the next operating cycle of the business, whichever is longer. The Institute of Chartered Accounts of India in its Accounting Standard No. 2 defines inventory as: “Tangible property held: (i) for the sale in the ordinary course of business or (ii) in the process of production for such sale, or (iii) for consumption in the production of goods or service for sale including maintenance, supplies and consumables other than machinery spares.” Inventories are kept by manufacturing firms and merchandising (retailing) firms. For merchandising firms, inventories are often the largest or most valuable current asset. The types of inventory usually held by these two kinds of enterprise are as follows: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 113 A. Manufacturing Enterprises (i) Finished goods inventory — Goods produced, completed and kept ready for sale. (ii) Work-in-process inventory — Goods in the process of being produced but not yet completed as finished goods. When completed, work-in-process inventory becomes finished goods inventory. (iii) Raw materials inventory — Items purchased or acquired for using in making finished goods. Such items are known as raw materials inventory until used. When raw materials are used, they become the part of the work in process inventory. (Work-in-process includes cost such as raw materials, direct labour and factory overhead). B. Merchandising Enterprises In merchandising or retailing firms, inventory consists of goods (generally known as merchandise) held for resale in the normal course of business. The goods are acquired in a finished condition and are ready for sale without further processing. 4.5 Need for Inventories Inventory is one of the major problems that accountants face today. It is difficult in terms of cash. It is almost impossible to assess its value in terms of future profits. The basic reason for holding inventories is that it is physically impossible and economically impractical for each inventory item to arrive exactly where it is needed and exactly when it is needed. Adam and Ebert1 have listed the following reasons for carrying inventories: Level Reason Fundamental (Primary) Physical impossibility of getting the right amount of stock at the exact time of need. Economical. Impracticability of getting the right amount of stock at exact time of need. Secondary Favourable return on investment. Buffer to reduce uncertainty. Decouple operations. Level or smooth production. Reduce material handling costs. Allow production of family of parts. Price changes (can be disadvantageous). Bulk purchases. Display to customers. Inventory is not purchased as investment or to hold or to realise a gain from possession but rather to sell and realise a gain from resale. In fact, each purchase of saleable goods is in anticipation of the very next sale. Inventory should be considered as an investment and should compete for funds with other investments contemplated by the business firm. Inventory represents type of business insurance which assures the company that it will not have to close down due CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

114 Financial Reporting and Analysis to shortages of saleable goods. Inventory is a variable cost insurance. That is the cost of this insurance will vary in the same direction as the value of sales. As the sales increase, the company will find it necessary to maintain a larger and larger inventory to meet the expanded sale volume. The variable cost of the increased capital investment, necessary to maintain the continuing operations should not be deferred and charged against later revenues but rather should be charged against the current period of which it is a direct factor. It is often claimed that, for seasonal industries, it is advisable to have adequate opening inventories. If attractive quantity discounts are available, a business enterprise may prefer to buy in excess of its current sales requirements and can build up additional inventories. Many firms — especially those that sell in seasonal markets — buy in excess of their needs when supply prices are favourable. They store the goods and can then maintain sales during a period of unfavourable supply prices. 4.6 Objectives of Inventory Measurement The measurement of inventory has a significant effect on income determination and financial position of a business enterprise. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (USA) states: “A major objective of accounting for inventories is the proper determination of income through the process of matching appropriate costs against revenues.”2 It is significant to observe that a direct relationship exists between cost of goods sold and closing inventory. Cost of goods sold is measured by deducting closing inventory from cost of goods available for sale. Because of these relationships, it may be said that the higher the cost of closing inventory, the lower the cost of goods sold will be and the higher the resulting net income. On the contrary, the lower the value of closing inventory, the higher the cost of goods sold and the lower the net income. Items which are not in the closing inventory are considered as sold and become the part of cost of goods sold. In this way, measurement of closing inventory influences the income statements (through influencing cost of goods, and net income) and balance sheet because inventory appears as current assets on the balance sheet. Also, closing inventory influences net income of not only the current period but it also influences the net income of the next accounting period because closing inventory of the current period becomes the opening inventory for the next period and thus becomes cost of goods sold. Hence, the primary objectives of inventory measurement are: 1. To match costs with related revenues in order to compute net income within the traditional accounting structure since the closing inventory determines cost of goods sold. The expression matching costs against revenues means determining what portion of the cost of goods available for sale should be as cost of the period and deducted from the revenue of the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 115 current period and what portion should be carried (as inventory) to be matched against the revenue of the following period. Other things remaining the same, i.e., if all other items appearing on an income statement are constant and also income tax rates do not change, any change in the amount of closing inventory will bring similar change in the amount of reported net income. This is illustrated in the following data taken to explain this situation. Effect of Inventory Value on Net Income (` in Lakhs) Data Situations Sale ABCD Opening inventory Purchases 50 50 50 50 Goods available for sale 6 6 66 Closing inventory 40 40 40 40 Cost of goods sold 46 46 46 46 Net Income 8 10 12 14 36 36 34 32 12 14 16 18 In the above example, it can be noticed that in all four situations, (A, B, C and D) sale, opening inventory, purchases are identical. As the value of closing inventory changes among the four situations, net income also changes to the extent the closing inventory increases or decreases. For instance, closing inventory increases by ` 2 lakhs from situation A to B, from B to C, C to D, so net income also goes up by ` 2 lakhs. 2. To state the fair value of inventory which appears as current asset on the balance sheet. This, along with other assets, reflect the value of assets to the firm and in turn, the financial position of a business enterprise. 3. To help inventory and other users to predict the future cash flows of the firm. This can be accomplished from two points of view. First, the amount of inventory resources available will support the inflow of cash through their sale in the ordinary course of business. Second, the amount of inventory resources available will, under normal circumstances, have an effect on the amount of cash required during the subsequent period to acquire the merchandise that will be sold during the period. 4.7 Inventory Systems There are two principal ways of accounting for inventories: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

116 Financial Reporting and Analysis Perpetual Inventory System The perpetual inventory method requires a continuous record of addition to or reductions in material, work-in-progress and cost of goods sold on a day-to-day basis. Such a record facilitates managerial control and preparation of interim financial statements. Physical inventory counts are usually taken at least once a year in order to check on the validity of the accounting records The perpetual inventory system may give such additional information as goods ordered, expected delivery date and units costs. Usually, these records are maintained on a quantity basis but values can be included. It is an essential feature of the perpetual inventory method that items of stock are checked periodically, normally at least once or twice each year. This ensures that the stock records tally with the physical stocks, which is vital if the control procedure is to function properly. The perpetual inventory method has the following advantages: 1. The stock taking task which is long and costly is avoided under this method. On the other hand, the inventory of different items of materials in accordance with the stores ledger can be promptly prepared for the preparation of the income statement and balance sheet at interim periods if required without a physical inventory being taken. 2. Management may be informed daily of number of units and the value of each kind of material on hand — information which tends to eliminate delays and stoppage in production. 3. The investment in materials and supplies may be kept at the lowest point in conformity with operating requirements. 4. A system of internal check is always in operation and the activities of different departments, such as purchasing, stores and production are continuously checked against each other. This results into detailed and reliable checks on the stores also. 5. It is not necessary to stop production so as to carry out a complete physical stock taking. 6. Perpetual inventory records provide details about materials cost for individual products, jobs, processes, production orders or departments. These information are helpful to management in exercising control over costs. 7. Discrepancies and errors are promptly discovered and localised and remedial action can be taken to avoid their occurrence in the future. 8. This method has a moral effect on the staff, makes them disciplined and careful and acts as a check against dishonest actions. 9. The disadvantages of excessive stock are avoided, such as loss of interest on capital invested in stock, loss through deterioration, risk of obsolescence. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 117 Periodic Inventory System Under the periodic method, the entire book inventory is verified at a given date by an actual count of materials on hand. This physical inventory is usually taken near the end of accounting period. Some firms even suspend plant operations when this is done. This method provides for the recording of purchases, purchase returns and purchase allowances on a daily basis but does not provide for a continuous inventory or for a daily computation of the goods sold. At the end of each accounting period, a physical count is made of the quantity of goods on hand and the value of inventory is determined by using an inventory pricing method (FIFO, LIFO or Average Cost) and attaching costs to units counted. The cost of goods sold is computed by deducting closing inventory from the sum of opening inventory and purchases made during the current period. It is assumed that goods not on hand at the end of accounting period have been sold. There is no system and accounting for shrinkage, losses, theft and waste throughout the accounting period and they can be discovered only after the end of the period. Taking a physical inventory at the year end is an important task in the periodic inventory system. It must be ensured that all items have been counted accurately. Counting procedures usually involves teams of people assigned to specific sections of the factory and to inventory storage areas. Large items are counted individually, while small items may be weight-counted. Counted items are tagged to prevent double counting and information from the tags concerning each item’s description and quantity is recorded on the inventory sheet. 4.8 Inventory Costing Methods The pricing or costing of inventory is one of the most interesting and most widely debated problems in accounting. Generally, inventories are priced at their cost in conformity with the cost concept. According to AICPA (USA), “the primary basis of accounting for inventory is cost, which is the price paid or consideration given to acquire an asset. As applied to inventories, cost means, in principle, the sum of the applicable expenditures and charges directly or indirectly incurred in bringing an article to its existing condition and location.” The cost of inventory, as per the above definition and in practice as well, includes the following costs: (i) Invoice price less cash discounts; (ii) Freight or transportation, insurance including insurance in transit; and (iii) Applicable taxes and tariffs Other costs such as those for purchasing, receiving and storage should theoretically be included in inventory cost. In practice, however, it is so difficult to allocate these costs to specific inventory items and also sometimes these costs are often not material in amount that they are in most cases considered expenses of the accounting period instead of an inventory cost. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

118 Financial Reporting and Analysis Inventory costing is quite simple when acquisition prices remain constant. When prices of identical lot of purchases vary in the accounting period, it is difficult to say which price should be used to measure the closing inventory. Also, when identical items are bought and sold, it is often impossible to tell which items have been sold and which are still in inventory. For this reason, it is necessary to make assumption about the order in which items have been sold. Two terms — goods flow and cost flow — are useful in considering the problems of pricing inventories under fluctuating prices. Goods flow refers to the actual physical movement of goods in the firm’s operations. Cost flow is the real or assumed association of costs with goods either sold or in inventory. The assumed cost flow may or may not be the same as the actual goods flow. Though this statement or practice may appear strange, there is nothing wrong or illegal about this practice. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAPs) accept the use of an assumed cost flow that does not reflect the real physical movement of goods. In fact, the assumption about the cost flow is more important to goods flow as the former helps in determining net income which is the major objective of inventory valuation. The following are generally accepted methods of inventory pricing, each based on a different assumption of cost flow: A. Cost Price Methods 1. First-in, First-out (FIFO) Method 2. Last-in, First-out (LIFO) Method B. Average Price Methods 1. Weighted Average Method 2. Periodic Simple Average Method 3. Periodic Weighted Average Method 4. Moving Simple Average Method 5. Moving Weighted Average Method C. Normal Price Methods 1. Standard Price Method 2. Inflated Price Method 3. Replacement or Market Price Method D. Specific Identification Method CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 119 A. COST PRICE METHODS First-in, First-out (FIFO) The FIFO method follows the principle that materials received first are issued first. After the first lot or batch of materials purchased is exhausted, the next lot is taken up for supply. It does not suggest, however, that the same lot will be issued from stores. Sometimes, all materials are tagged with their arrival date and issued in date order especially with stocks that deteriorate. The inventory is priced at the latest costs. Advantages A good system of inventory management requires that oldest units should be sold or used first and inventory should consist of the latest purchases. This is found in the FIFO method of costing. Under the FIFO method, management has little or no control over the selection of units in order to influence recorded profits. Valuation of inventory and cost of goods manufactured are consistent and realistic. Besides, the FIFO method is easy to understand and operate. Disadvantages The objective of matching current cost with current revenues is not achieved under the FIFO method. If the prices of materials are rising rapidly, the current production cost may be understated. If the sales price is fixed, then sales revenue may not produce enough income to cover the purchase of raw materials. The valuation of inventory in terms of current cost depends on the frequency of price changes and the stock turnover. In case stocks turnover rapidly, the inventory valuations will reflect current prices. There are other limitations under the FIFO method. FIFO costing is improper if many lots are purchased during the period at different prices. This method overstates profit especially with high inflation. It does not consider the cost of replacing used materials, a situation created by high inflation. The FIFO method is suitable where: (i) the size and cost of raw materials units are large, (ii) materials are easily identified as belonging to a particular purchased lot, and (iii) not more than two or three different receipts of the materials are on hand at one time. Illustrative Problem 1. The following is a summary of the receipts and issue of materials in a factory during January. January 1 Opening balance 500 units @ ` 25 per unit 3 Issue 70 units 4 Issue 100 units 8 Issue 80 units 13 Received from supplier 200 units @ ` 24.50 per unit CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

120 Financial Reporting and Analysis 14 Returned to store 15 units @ ` 24 per unit 16 Issue 180 units 20 Received from supplier 240 units @ ` 24.75 per unit 24 Issue 304 units 25 Received from supplier 320 units @ ` 24.00 per unit 26 Issue 112 units 27 Returned to store 12 units @ ` 24.50 per unit 28 Received from supplier 100 units @ ` 25 per unit Work out on the basis of First-in, First-out. This revealed that on the 15th there was a shortage of five units and another on the 27th of eight units. Solution: Stores Ledger Account (FIFO) Receipts Issue Stock Date Qty. Rate Amt Qty. Rate Amt Qty. Rate Amt Jan. 1–– –– – – 500 25.00 12,500 3–– – 70 25 1,750 430 – 10,750 4–– – 100 25 2,500 330 – 8,250 8–– – 80 25 2,000 250 – 6,250 13 200 24.50 4,900 – – – 250 25.00 6,250 Refund 200 24.50 4,900 14 15 24.00 36 – – – 250 25.00 6,250 200 24.50 4,900 15 24.00 360 15 – – Shortage 5 25 125 245 25.00 6,125 200 24.00 4,900 15 24.00 360 16 – – – 180 25 4,500 65 25.00 1,625 200 24.00 4,900 15 24.50 360 20 240 24.75 5,940 – – – 65 25.00 1,625 200 24.50 4,900 15 24.00 360 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 121 24 – – – 65 25.00 1,625 240 24.75 5,940 7,680 200 24.50 4,900 25 320 24.00 15 24.00 216 24.75 5,346 26 – – 24 24.75 360 216 24.75 5,346 27 12 24.50 594 320 24.50 7,680 –– 104 24.75 2,574 – 320 24.00 7,680 – 112 24.75 104 24.75 2,574 2,772 320 24.00 7,680 294 – – – –– –– – – 12 24.50 294 27 – – Shortage 8 24.75 198 96 24.75 12,376 320 24.00 7,680 12 24.50 294 28 100 25.00 2,500 – – – 96 24.75 2,376 320 24.00 7,680 12 24.50 100 25.00 294 2,500 Closing stock 528 units = ` 12,850 Last-in, First-out (LIFO) The LIFO method of costing and inventory valuation is based on the principle that materials entering production are the most recently purchased. The method assumes that the most recent cost, generally the replacement cost is the most significant in matching cost with revenue in the income determination. The cost of the last lot of materials received is used to price materials issued until the lot is exhausted, then the next lot pricing is used, and so on through successive lots. Advantages 1. It provides a better matching of current costs with current revenues. 2. It results in real income in times of rising prices, by maintaining net income at a lower level than other costing methods. 3. In industries subject to sharp materials price fluctuations, the method minimises unrealised inventory gains and losses and tends to stabilise reported operating profits. Income is reported only when it is available for distribution as dividends or for other purposes. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

122 Financial Reporting and Analysis 4. Probably the most important arguments in favour of LIFO is its role in tax saving. It is generally considered a cheap form of tax avoidance by business firms. By valuing inventory at beginning-of-period prices and calculating cost of sales at the current prices, the firm creates secret reserves which are not taxed. As long as prices and inventory levels do not decline, this benefit remains and in this case the tax saving is permanent. However, if the tax rates go up in the meantime, the so-called tax saving will be eliminated by higher tax rates. 5. LIFO produces an income statement which shows correct profit or losses and financial position, it correlates current cost and sales, and income statements show the result of operation, excluding profits or losses due to changing price levels. Disadvantages The following are the limitations of the LIFO method of costing: 1. Inventory valuations do not reflect the current prices and therefore are useless in the context of current conditions. 2. The argument that LIFO should be used for matching current costs with current revenue, is not sound. The most recent purchase costs are matched against the revenue of the current period. However, unless both purchases and sales occur regularly in even quantities, the revenues will not be matched with the current costs at the time of sale. When purchases are irregular and unrelated to the timing of sales, the matching is illogical and unsystematic, particularly if prices and costs are changing rapidly. 3. The profit of a firm can be manipulated with the LIFO method in operation. By timing purchases, a company can cause higher or lower costs to flow into the income statement thus increasing or decreasing reported net income at will. 4. Another limitation which also results from LIFO’s lowering of the earnings figure is the effect it will have on existing bonus and profit sharing plans. Employees and managers who are interested in the growth of these plans may have difficulty in understanding a drop in the benefits which were created wholly or partially by an accounting change During a period of rising costs, LIFO produces the desirable effect of reducing taxable income and tax liability; thereby conserving cash. On the other hand, it also affects the profit reported in the financial statements. Illustrative Problem 2. Prepare a stores ledger account from the following transaction under the LIFO method. Jan. 1 Received 1,000 units @ ` 1.00 per unit 10 Received 260 units @ ` 1.05 per unit 20 Issue 700 units CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 123 Feb. 4 Received 400 units @ ` 1.15 per unit 21 Received 300 units @ ` 1.25 per unit March 16 Issue 620 units April 12 Issued 240 units May 10 Received 500 units @ ` 1.10 per unit 25 Issued 380 units Solution: Stores Ledger Account (LIFO) Date Receipts Issue Stock January Qty. Rate Amt Qty. Rate Amt Qty. Rate Amt 1 1,000 1.00 1,000 –– – 1,000 1.00 1,000 10 260 1.05 273 –– 1,260 1,273 20 – – 260 1.05 273 – 440 1.00 440 560 560 February 400 1.15 460 – – – 960 1,020 4 300 1.25 375 – – – 1,260 1,395 21 – – – 300 1.25 375 640 652 March 16 320 1.15 368 April –– – 80 1.15 92 400 400 12 500 1.10 160 1.00 160 900 950 May –– 520 532 10 550 – 418 25 – 380 1.10 The Closing Stock consists of: 120 units at ` 1.10 = 132 400 units at ` 1.00 = 400 ` 532 B. AVERAGE PRICE METHODS Weighted Average Under this method, issue of materials is priced at the average cost price of the materials in hand, a new average being computed whenever materials are received. In this method, total quantities CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

124 Financial Reporting and Analysis and total costs are considered while computing the average price and not the total of rates divided by total number of rates as in simple average. The weighted average is calculated each time a purchase is made. The quantity bought is added to the stock in hand, and the revised balance is then divided into the new cash value of the stock. The effect of early price is thus eliminated. This method avoids fluctuations in price and reduces the number of calculations to be made, as each issue is charged at the same price until a fresh purchase necessitates the computation of a new average. It gives an acceptable figure for stock values. Advantages The following are the advantages of the weighted average method: 1. The method is logical and consistent as it absorbs cost while determining the average for pricing material issues. 2. The changes in the prices of materials do not much affect the materials issues and stock. 3. The method follows the concept of total stock and total valuation. 4. Both cost of materials issued and in stock tend to reflect actual costs. Disadvantages However, the weighted average method also has the following disadvantages: 1. Simplicity and convenience are lost when there is too much change in the prices of materials. 2. An average price is not based on actual price incurred, and therefore is not realistic. It follows only arithmetical convenience. Illustrative Problem 3: Prepare a store ledger account on the basis of following information by following the weighted average method. Rate per unit (`) January 1, 2017 Received 500 units 20 January 10, 2017 Received 300 units 24 January 15, 2017 Issued 700 units — January 20, 2017 Received 400 units 28 January 25, 2017 Issued 300 units — January 27, 2017 Received 500 units 22 January 31, 2017 Issued 200 units — CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 125 Solution: Receipts Issue Stock Date Qty. Rate Amt Qty. Rate Amt Qty. Rate Amt 2017 Jan. 1 500 20 10,000 – – – 500 20 10,000 Jan. 10 300 24 7,200 800 21.50 17,200 Jan. 15 – – – 700 21.50 15,050 100 2,150 Jan. 20 400 28 11,200 – – – 500 26.70 13,350 Jan. 25 – – – 300 26.70 8,010 200 5,340 Jan. 27 500 22 11,000 – – – 700 16,340 Jan. 31 – – – 200 23.34 4,668 500 11,672 Periodic Simple Average In cost accounting where job costs may be prepared infrequently, say monthly, it may be necessary to price materials issued by taking the average price ruling during that period. If it is calculated monthly, the average of the unit prices of all the receipts during the month is adopted as the rate for pricing issues during the month. Only a simple calculation has to be done at the end of the accounting period. The opening stock is not considered for computing periodic simple average because it has not been purchased during the current period and would have been included in the previous year’s calculations. However, purchases made during the current year and closing stock are taken into account while computing this average. Basically, this method follows the principle of simple average price, but a period is set for which the average is calculated. Taking the above example, the total receipts and issue of the materials would be shows as follows: Receipts Issues Qty. Rate Amt Qty. Rate Amt 1,700 94 39,400 1,200 23.50 28,200 The periodic simple average= Total prices of the materials Total No. of prices 94 = 4 ` 23.50 Closing stock = Units 1700 – 1200 = 500 = ` 39,400 – 28,200 = ` 11,200 The above rate, i.e., ` 23.50 per unit will be used for pricing the materials issued during the period. Moving Simple Average Under this method, periodic simple average prices are further averaged. In this way, moving average is obtained by dividing periodic average prices of different periods by the number of periods CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

126 Financial Reporting and Analysis taken. The periods chosen cover the period in which the material is issued. The following example explains this method. Months Periodic Average Price Moving Average Price (`) (`) January 2.55 February 2.65 March 2.72 April 2.95 May 3.15 June 3.25 2.88 July 3.40 3.02 August 3.50 3.16 September 3.68 3.32 October 3.80 3.46 November 3.90 3.59 December 4.15 3.74 In the above example, moving average has been obtained for a six month period. The moving simple average method will give prices to be used for materials issues which are below the periodic average prices. This will be true when prices are showing an upward trend. In periods of falling prices, the resulting issue prices under the moving average method will be greater than the periodic average prices. This influences the value of closing stock which may be under- valued or overvalued. Periodic Weighted Average This method is quite similar to the weighted average price method with only one difference that in this method average price is not calculated at the time of every new receipt of materials but only periodically. Periodic weighted average is calculated by dividing the total value of the materials purchased during a given period, by the total quantity purchased during the same period. Opening stock —its value and quantity both — are not considered while computing this average. In the above example, the periodic weighed average will be computed as follows: Receipts Issues Qty. Rate Amt Qty. Rate Amt 1,700 23.18 39,400 1,200 23.18 27,816 Closing stock quantity = 500 Amount = ` 11,584 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 127 Periodic weighted average= Total cos t of materials purchased Total quantity purchased 39,400 = 1,700 = 23.18 Moving Weighted Average This method finds the materials issues price by dividing the total of the periodic weighted average prices for a number of periods by the total number of such periods. This is similar to the moving simple average method. C. NORMAL PRICE METHODS Standard Price This method charges materials issued into the factor at a predetermined budgeted, or estimated price reflecting a normal or an expected future price. A standard price is fixed for each class of materials in advance after making proper investigations. Receipts and issues of materials are recorded in quantities only on the materials ledgers, thereby simplifying the record keeping. The difference between actual price and standard price is transferred to a purchase price variance which reveals to what extent actual costs are different from standard materials cost. Materials are charged into cost of goods sold at the standard price avoiding inconsistencies in different actual cost methods. This method helps in knowing the purchase efficiency. If the total actual cost is less than the standard price, there will be favourable purchasing efficiency and vice versa. This method is simple to operate and provides stability in costing system. However, standard price does not often reflect actual or expected cost, but only a generalised target. The stock value need not show actual cost incurrence and therefore does not necessarily conform to acceptable principles of stock valuation. Inflated Price This price includes carrying costs, cost of contingencies and also the losses arising out of evaporation, shrinkage, etc. This method aims to cover/recover the full cost of materials purchased. Replacement Price or Market Price Under this method, materials issues are priced at replacement price on the date the issue is made. The replacement cost (market price) is the cost of securing the same type of material at the current moment in time. This method has the following advantages: Advantages 1. The replacement cost approach matches current revenue against current cost and is therefore useful in measuring the operating results of a business firm correctly and accurately. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

128 Financial Reporting and Analysis 2. The use of replacement cost brigs out clearly the difference between holding gains and operating gains and financial statement users will have a better understanding of the financial statement. If replacement cost is not used, the profit resulting due to holding of materials and inventory is taxed and therefore, impairs the capital of a business firm. 3. The replacement price if used, will disclose good or bad buying made by the purchase department of the firm. 4. The replacement cost approach helps in determining a selling price for the product which is competitive and realistic. 5. In case the prices of materials have decreased, the materials should be charged to the production at the current replacement price and the resulting loss should be taken into consideration in the accounts of the firm. Disadvantages However, this method has certain disadvantages. Firstly, the objectivity is lost in accepting the replacement cost as the basis of materials pricing. The “replacement” concept is a relative one and in the absence of market for the materials, no equitable replacement price is determinable. This increases the subjectivity in selection of a current replacement price. Secondly, this is not based on actual cost, that is, cost incurred, and therefore, may add confusion and complications in cost accounting. Thirdly, this method is workable only when market prices are available and reflect current cost of replacing the materials. Illustrative Problem 4. The following are the transactions in respect of purchase and issue of components forming part of an assembly of a product manufactured by a firm which requires to update its cost of production, every often for bidding tenders and finalising cost-plus contracts. Date Quantity (in Nos.) Particulars 2017 January 5 1,000 purchased at ` 1.20 each 11 2,000 issued February 1 1,500 purchased ` 1.30 each 18 2,400 issued 26 1,000 issued 8 1,000 purchased at ` 1.40 each 17 1,500 purchased at ` 1.30 28 2,000 issued The stock on 1st January, 2017 was 5,000 Nos. valued at ` 1.10 each. State the method you would adopt in pricing the issue of components giving reasons. What value would be placed on CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 129 stocks as on 31st March which happens to be the financial year-end and how would you treat the difference in value if any, on the stock account? Solution: Stores Ledger Date Receipts Amt Issue Qty. Stock Amt Qty. Rate 1,200 Qty. Rate Amt 5,000 Rate 5,500 Jan. 1 6,000 1.10 6,700 5 1,950 1,000 1.20 1,500 4000 4400 11 5,500 6,350 1,400 1,000 1.20 1,200 Feb. 1 1,500 1.30 1,950 1,000 1.10 1,100 3100 3410 18 2,100 2,310 1.30 1,950 990 3,100 3,710 26 900 1.10 1,100 4,600 5,660 Mar. 8 1,000 1.10 2,600 3,010 17 1,000 1.40 2,600 3,010 28 1,500 1.30 1,500 1.30 1,950 500 1.40 700 31 Note: The closing stock consists of 500 units @ ` 1.40 = ` 700 2,100 units @ ` 1.10 = ` 2,310 2,600 ` 3,010 The stores ledger shows that the value of closing stock based on actual cost is ` 3,010. The last purchase effected on 17th March @ ` 1.30 per unit represents the current market price. On this basis, the value of stock as on 31st March works out to ` 3,380. This is higher than cost. Moreover, in cost books, stocks are shown at cost and not at market value. Hence, no adjustment is otherwise necessary. Illustrative Problem 5. From the records of an oil distributing company, the following summarised information is available for the month of March 2015. Sales of the month: ` 19,25,000 Opening Stock as on 1st March, 2005: 1.25,000 litres @ ` 6.50 per litre Purchases (including freight and insurance): 5th March 1,50,000 litres @ ` 7.10 per litre 27th March 1,00,000 litres @ ` 7.00 per litre CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

130 Financial Reporting and Analysis Closing stock as on 31st March, 2015: 1,30,000 litres. General administrative expenses for the month: ` 45,000 On the basis of the above information, work out the following using FIFO and LIFO methods of inventory valuation assuming that pricing of issues is being done at the end of the month after all receipts during the month: (a) Value of closing stock as on 31st March, 2015 (b) Cost of goods sold during March 2015 (c) Profit or loss for March 2015 Solution: A. FIFO Method of Pricing Issues Stores Ledger Receipts Issue Stock Rate Rate Value Date Particulars Qty. ` per Value Qty. ` per ` Qty Rate Value litre litre ` litres litre litres ` per ` 1,50,000 1,25,000 1,00,000 2,75,000 litre 3,75,000 1.3.2015 Balance b/d 2,50,000 6.50 8,12,500 5.3.2015 Purchases 27.3.2015 Purchases 7.10 10,65,000 18,77,500 Issues 7.00 7,00,000 (3,75,000 – 25,77,500 1,30,000 = 1,25,000 6.50 2,45,000 8,12,500 17,65,500 units) 1,20,000 7.10 8,52,000 1,30,000 9,13,000 2,50,000 17,65,000 2,45,000 16,64,500 B. LIFO Method of Pricing Issues Stores Ledger Receipts Issue Stock Date Particulars Qty. Rate Value Qty. Rate Value Qty Rate Value litre ` per ` litres ` p er ` litres ` per ` 1,50,000 1,00,000 litre litre litre 1.3.2015 Balance b/d 1,25,000 6.50 8,12,500 5.3.2015 Purchases 27.3.2015 Purchases 7.10 10,65,000 2,75,000 18,77,500 Issues 7.00 7,00,000 3,75,000 25,77,500 1,00,000 7.00 7,00,000 8,48,000 1,45,000 7.10 10,29,500 1,30,000 2,50,000 17,65,000 2,45,000 17,29,500 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 131 Closing stock, cost of goods sold, profit under FIFO: ` 9,13,000 ` 16,64,500 (a) Value of closing stock ` 19,25,00 (b) Cost of goods sold (8,12,500 + 8,52,000) ` (16,64,500) (c) Profit ` (45,000) Sales ` 2,15,500 Less: Cost of goods sold ` 848,000 General administration expenses ` 17,29,500 ` 19,25,000 Profit Closing stock, cost of goods sold, profit under LIFO 17,74,500 ` 1,50,500 (a) Value of closing stock (b) Cost of goods sold (7,00,000 + 10,29,500) (c) Profit: Sales Less: Cost of goods sold 17,29,500 General administration expenses 45,000 Profit Illustrative Problem 6. Show how the items given ahead relating to purchases and issue of raw material item will appear in the stores ledger card, using weighted average method for pricing: Units Prices per units ` Jan. 1 Opening Balance 300 20 Jan. 5 Purchases 200 22 Jan. 11 Issue 150 ? Jan. 22 Purchases 200 23 Jan. 24 Issue 150 ? Jan. 28 Issue 200 ? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

132 Financial Reporting and Analysis Solution: Stores Ledger Account Date Receipts Amt Issue Amt Stock Jan. 1 Qty. Rate – Qty. Rate – Qty. Rate Jan 5 – 300 6,000 Jan 11 –– 4,400 –– 500 10,400 Jan 22 200 22 – –– 3,120 350 7,280 Jan 24 –– 150 20.80 – 550 11,880 Jan 28 200 23 4,600 –– 400 8,640 –– – 150 21.60 3,240 200 4,320 –– – 200 21.60 4,320 Issue Prices: 10,400 Jan 11 = 500 = ` 20.80 per unit Jan. 24 11,800 = 550 = ` 21.60 per unit Jan. 28 8,640 = 400 = ` 21.60 per unit Illustrative Problem 7: The Stock Ledger Account for Material X in a manufacturing concern reveals the following data for the quarter ended 30th September, 2017. Receipts Issues Quantity Price Quantity Price Units ` Units ` July 1 Balance b/d 1,600 2.00 – – July 9 3,000 2.20 – – July 13 1,200 2,556 Aug. 5 – – 900 1,917 Aug. 17 – – – – Aug. 24 3,600 2.40 1,800 4,122 Sept. 11 – – – – Sept. 27 2,500 2.50 2,100 4,971 – – Sept. 29 –– 700 1,656 Physical verification on 30th September, 2017 revealed an actual stock of 3,800 units. You are required to: (a) Indicate the method of pricing employed above. (b) Complete the above account by making entries you would consider necessary including adjustments, if any, and giving explanations for such adjustments. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 133 Solution: (a) The verification of the value of issues applied in the problem shows that Weighted Average Method of pricing has been followed. For example, the issue price of 1200 `  ` 2556  units of July 13 will be 2.13   which is the weighted average price of  1200 units  purchase made on July 9 and July 1 opening stock, calculated as follows: (1600 units × ` 2) + (3000 units × ` 2.20) Weighted average price = 1600 units + 3000 units ` 9600 = 4600 units = ` 2.13 (b) The complete Stores Ledger account giving the transactions as stated in the problem together with the necessary adjustments is given below: Stores Ledger Account (Weighted Average Method) Date Receipts Amt Qty. Issue Amt Stock Qty. Rate Rate Qty. Rate Amt July 1 1600 2.00 3,200 1,600 2.00 3,200 Aug. 9 3,000 Sept. 13 2.20 6,600 4,600 2.13 9,800 5 3,600 17 2,500 1200 2.13 2,556 3,400 2.13 7,244 24 11 900 2.13 1,917 2,500 2.13 5,327 27 29 2.40 8,640 6,100 2.29 13,967 30 1800 2.29 4,122 4,300 2.29 9,845 2.50 6,250 6,800 2.37 16,095 2100 2.37 4,971 4,700 2.37 11,124 700 2.37 1,656 4,000 2.37 9,468 200* 2.37 473 3,800 2.37 8,995 Closing Stock: 3,800 units, value of closing stock = ` 8,995 * Shortage of 200 units has been charged at the weighted average price of the goods in stock. Closing stock 3,800 units × ` 2.37 = ` 9,006. Since the figures of issue prices have been taken directly as given in the question, there is a minor difference in the value of closing stock. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

134 Financial Reporting and Analysis Illustrative Problem 8. The following transactions in respect of material Y occurred during the six months ended 30th June, 2017. Month Purchase (units) Price per units (`) Issued (units) January 200 25 Nil February 300 24 250 March 425 26 300 April 475 23 550 May 500 25 800 June 600 20 400 Required: The chief accountant argues that the value of closing stock remains the same, no matter which method of pricing of material issues is used. Do you agree? Why or why not? Detailed stores ledgers are not required. Solution In the given problem, the total number of units purchased from January to May 2017 is 1,900 and the same have also been issued during this period. Thus, there was no stock at the end of May, 2017 which could become opening stock for the next month. In June, 2005; only a single purchase and a single issue of material was made. The closing stock is of 200 units. In this situation, stock of 200 units at the end of June 2017 will be valued at ` 20 per unit irrespective of the pricing method of material issues. Hence, one would agree with the argument of the Chief Accountant. However, this will not be true with the value of closing stock at the end of each month. Moreover, the value of closing stock at the end of June 2017 would have been different under different pricing methods if there were several purchases at different prices and several issues during the month. Illustrative Problem 9. ABC Limited provides you the following information. Calculate the cost of goods sold and ending inventory, applying the LIFO method of pricing raw materials under the Perpetual and Periodical Inventory Control System. Month 1 Particulars Units Price per units (`) January 10 12 Opening Stock 200 10 16 Purchases 400 12 19 Withdrawals 500 – 30 Purchases 300 11 Issues 200 – Receipts 100 15 Also, explain in brief the reasons for a difference in profit, if any. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 135 Solution: Computation of Cost of Goods Sold and Ending Inventory Particulars Under Perpetual Under Periodic Inventory Method Inventory Method Units × Rate = Amount Units × Rate = Amount (`) (`) 100 × 10 = 1,500 300 × 11 = 3,300 (i) Cost of Goods sold/withdrawn or issued: 300 × 12 = 3.000 On 12th Jan. 400 × 12 = 4,800 700 ` 8,400 100 × 10 = 1,000 100 × 12 = 1,200 100 × 10 = 2,000 500 15,800 300 ` 3,200 On 19th Jan. 200 × 11 = 2,200 (ii) Ending Inventory Total ` 8,000 100 × 10 = 1,000 100 × 11 = 1,100 100 × 15 = 1,500 300 ` 3,600 Reasons for Difference in Profits. The cost of goods sold/issued/withdrawn is more under Periodic Inventory System as compared to Perpetual Inventory System. Hence, the profit under the former less as compared to the latter. Alternatively, it can be so said that less the amount of ending inventory, less will be the profits. Illustrative Problem 10. The following are the particulars regarding receipts and issues of certain material: Opening stock 1,000 kg @ ` 9.00 per kg. Purchased 5,000 kg @ ` 8.50 per kg Issued 600 kg Issued 3,750 kg Issued 650 kg Purchased 2,500 kg @ ` 8 per kg The credit balance of price variance account, before transfer to costing profit and loss account, was ` 500. Calculate the standard rate at which the above issues should be made, and determine the value of closing stock. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

136 Financial Reporting and Analysis Solution: The standard price at which the materials were issued in the last period was ` 9. This gave a profit of ` 500. Therefore, this time, materials should be valued at a lower standard price as compared to last period. The standard price for this period should therefore be: ` 9000 – 500 ` 8,500 = 1000 1000 = ` 8.50 per kg Value of the Closing Stocks: Opening stock 1,000 kg @ ` 9 ` 9,000 Purchases 5,000 kg @ ` 8.50 42,500 Purchases 2,500 kg @ ` 8 20,000 8,500 Less: Issues @ ` 8.50 71,500 Balance 5,000 42,500 3,500 units ` 29,000 The value of stock at standard price is ` 29,750 (3,500 × 8.50). The stock, therefore, will be valued at ` 29,750 and ` 750 will be debited to the price variance account. D. SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION METHOD The specific identification method involves: (a) Keeping track of the purchase price of each specific unit; (b) Knowing which specific units are sold; and (c) Pricing the ending inventory at the actual prices of the specific units not sold. The objective is to match the unit cost of the specific item sold with sales revenue. This method is based on the assumption that each unit purchased, sold or in inventory has its own identity, that it is separate and distinguishable from any other unit. Each unit sold or remaining in inventory is identified and its specific unit cost is used in calculating cost of goods sold or ending inventory cost. To take an example, assume that an art dealer purchased two seemingly identical pieces of pottery during a period. The first piece is purchased for ` 3000 and the second is purchased several months latter for ` 3,500. Assume also that only one of these items is sold by the dealer during the period. The amounts assigned to cost of goods sold and ending inventory will depend on which specific piece of pottery is sold. If the item sold is the first piece of pottery, cost of goods sold is ` 3000 and ending inventory is ` 3,500. On the other hand, if the second piece is the one sold, the numbers would be reversed; that is cost of goods sold will be ` 3,500 and ending inventory would be ` 3000. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 137 The specific identification method provides a highly objective procedure for matching costs with sales revenue because the costs flow pattern matches the physical flow of the goods. However, this method does not work for large volumes of identical low-cost items. This method is appropriate for companies that handle a relatively low volume of physical units, each having a high cost per unit such as original oil paintings, antiques, diamonds, automobiles, jewellery, furs, etc. The specific identification method is not appropriate where each unit is the same in appearance but is differentiated from other units through serial numbers, such as the same model of washers, refrigerators or televisions. 4.9 Lower of Cost or Market (LCM) The different methods of inventory costing such as FIFO, LIFO determine the value of inventory in terms of historical cost. However, according to conservatism concept, inventory should be reported on the balance sheet at the lower of its cost or its market value. Generally, speaking, inventory is valued in terms of cost. But there should be a departure from the cost basis of valuing inventory and it should be reduced below cost when the utility of goods has declined and its sale proceeds or value of the items will be less than their cost. The decline in the value of inventory below cost can be due to different causes such as physical deterioration, obsolescence, drops in price level etc. In these situations, inventory is reported at market value. The difference in value (cost – market value) is recognised as a loss of the current period. It should be understood that the market value of inventory needs to be estimated as the inventory has not in fact been sold. As a rule, the market value concept is used in terms of current replacement cost of inventory, that is, what it will cost currently to purchase or manufacture the item. Thus, the LCM rule recognises a holding loss in the period in which the replacement cost of an item dropped, rather than in the period in which the item actually is sold. The holding loss, as stated earlier, is the difference between purchase cost and the subsequent lower replacement cost. If applicable, the LCM rule simply measures inventory at the lower (replacement) market figure. As a result of it, net income decreases by the amount the closing inventory has been written down. When the closing inventory becomes part of the cost of goods sold in a future period when selling prices are low, the lower carrying value of closing inventory helps in maintaining normal profit margins in the period of sale. While applying the rule of ‘lower of cost or market’ the following upper and lower boundaries are used with regard to market value (current replacement cost) concept: 1. Market value should not be higher than the estimated net realisable value, that is, the estimated selling price of the item less the costs associated with selling it. 2. Market value should not be lower than the net realisable value less a normal profit margin. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

138 Financial Reporting and Analysis The above rules on ‘lower of cost or market’ is summarised as follows: “Use historical cost if the cost price is lowest; otherwise, use the next-to-lowest of the other three possibilities.” The following example presents the application of ‘lower of cost or market’ in different situations. In this example four possible situations A, B, C and D are assumed and historical cost, current replacement cost, net realisable value and net realisable value less profit margin figures of inventory are given. The value of which inventory will be valued in these different situation is indicated by star(*). Situation Historical Current Net Realisable Net Realisable Value Cost Replacem ent Value (Ceiling) less Profit Margin A (` ) (` ) B *700 (` ) (` ) 900 C 800 1000 D 900 *700 *800 900 900 *800 700 900 1000 700 900 *800 The above example proves that not all decreases in replacement prices are followed by proportionate reductions in selling prices (net realisable value). Therefore, the application of LCM rule is subject to the following additional guidelines: (i) If selling price is not expected to drop, inventory may be priced at cost even though it exceeds replacement cost. For example, assume that an item costing ` 80 are being sold for ` 100 during the year, yielding a gross profit of 20% on sales. If the selling price remains at ` 100 and the replacement cost drops to ` 60 (a 25% decline), inventory will not be written down. However, if there is a proportionate decrease in the selling price, i.e., selling price also declines by 25% and becomes ` 75, then inventory will be shown at ` 60 replacement cost. In this case, after showing the inventory at ` 60, the current period’s income will be less by ` 20 (the difference between the historical cost and replacement cost). Further, when this item valued at ` 60, is sold in a subsequent period for ` 75, a normal gross profit of 20% on sales will be reported (` 75 – ` 60 = ` 15 gross profit margin). (ii) If selling price is expected to drop — but less than proportionately to the decline in replacement cost — inventory is written down only to the extent necessary to maintain a normal gross profit in the period of sale. Taking the above example, if the selling price drops from ` 100 to ` 90 and the replacement cost declines to ` 60, inventory will be shown at ` 72 (` 90 – 20% of ` 90). This amount maintains a 20% gross profit margin when the item is sold for ` 40. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 139 Arguments in Support of LCM Rule Supporters of the LCM Rules argue that an exception to the historical costs basis is desirable because it (LCM) serves the useful purpose of achieving better matching of costs and revenues and contributes to usefulness of periodic income measurement. The arguments in favour of LCM rule is that no assets should appear on a business enterprise’s balance sheet in an amount greater than is likely to be recovered from the use or sale of that asset in the normal course of events. Unrecoverable amounts have no value and therefore are not assets. International Accounting Standards Committee3 observes: “The historical cost of inventories may not be realisable if their selling prices have declined, if they are damaged, or if they have become wholly or partially obsolete. The practice of writing inventories down below historical cost to net realisable value accords with the view that current assets should not be carried in excess of amounts expected to be realised. Declines in value are computed separately for individual items, groups or similar items, an entire class of inventory (for example, finished goods), or items relating to a class of business, or they are computed on an overall basis for all the inventories down based on a class of inventory, on a class of business, or on an overall basis results in offsetting losses incurred against unrealised gains.” Depending on the character and composition of the inventory, the rule of cost or market, whichever is lower may properly be applied either directly to each item or to the total of the inventory (or in some case to the total of the components of each major category). The method should be that which most clearly reflects periodic income. Criticisms of LCM Rule At the outset, it may be noted that lower of cost or market is not a method of inventory costing but rather one of recognising measurable expected loss. The cost or market concept when applied to inventories is tied closely to the concept of realisation of revenue at the time of sale, but with the recognition of loss as soon as evidence of loss appears. The principal objections to the rule centres around its violation of the historical cost principle. LCM rule is criticised on many grounds: (i) It violates the concept of consistency because it permits a change in valuation base from one period to another and even within the inventory itself. It treats value increases and value decreases differently. If the market value of goods is greater than its cost, there is no recognition of the increased value on the balance sheet. (ii) It is said to be a major cause of distortion of profit and loss. (iii) Although it may be considered conservative with respect to the current period, it is unconservative with respect to the income of future period. (iv) The current period may be charged-with the result of inefficient purchasing and management, which should be included in the measurement of operating performance at the time of sale. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

140 Financial Reporting and Analysis However, it may also be argued that these should be recorded in the current period rather than in the period of sale. (v) An increase in the market price in a subsequent period may result in an unrealised gain if the original cost is always used as the basis for comparison with the current market price (assuming, of course, that market in both periods is below the original cost). (vi) The cost or market rule is said to permit excessive subjectivity in the accounts. This is based on the assumption that market is always more subjective than cost. Ind AS-2: Valuation of Inventory Inventories constitute a major portion of current assets of an entity. Aprimary issue in accounting for inventories is the amount of cost to be recognised as an asset and carried forward until the related revenues are recognised. Ind AS-2 Standard deals with:  the determination of cost and its subsequent recognition as an expense.  including any write-down to net realisable value.  it also provides guidance on the cost formulas that are used to assign costs to inventories. The following are the subject matter of Ind AS-2: Valuation of Inventory, issued in February 2016. 1. Scope IndAS-2 applies to all inventories, except financial instruments (IndAS-32, ‘Financial Instruments: Presentation’ and Ind AS-109, ‘Financial Instruments); and biological assets (i.e., living animals or plants) related to agricultural activity and agricultural produce at the point of harvest. 2. Definition of Inventory Inventories are assets: (a) held for sale in the ordinary course of business (Finished Goods); (b) in the process of production for such sale (WIP); or (c) in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production process or in the rendering of services (Raw Material). 3. Principles forValuation of Inventory Measurement of Inventories: Inventories shall be measured at the lower of cost and net realisable value. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 141 Cost: Cost of inventories comprises all costs of purchase, costs of conversion and other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition. Cost Cost of Purchase Conversion Cost Other cost to bring inventory to present location and condition Cost of Purchase: The costs of purchase of inventories comprise:  the purchase price,  the import duties and other taxes (other than those subsequently recoverable by the entity from the taxing authorities),  the transport, handling and other costs directly attributable to the acquisition of finished goods, materials and services.  the trade discounts, rebates and other similar items are deducted in determining the costs of purchase. Conversion Cost: The costs of conversion of inventories include:  costs directly related to the units of production, such as direct labour  systematic allocation of fixed and variable production overheads that are incurred in converting materials into finished goods. Other Cost: Other costs are included in the cost of inventories only to the extent that they are incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition. For example, it may be appropriate to include non-production overheads or the costs of designing products for specific customers in the cost of inventories. Excluded in Cost (a) abnormal amounts of wasted materials, labour or other production costs; (Normal wastage will be considered.) (b) storage costs, unless those costs are necessary in the production process before a further stage; (For example: In case of wine, it has to be stored as a part of the production process.) (c) administrative overheads that do not contribute to bringing inventories to their present location and condition; and (d) selling costs. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

142 Financial Reporting and Analysis 4. Inventory Valuation Techniques – Cost Formulae The cost of inventories shall be assigned by using the first-in first-out (FIFO) or weighted average cost formula. An entity shall use the same cost formula for all inventories having a similar nature and use to the entity. Inventory Valuation Technique Inventory Inventory not ordinarily ordinarily interchangeable interchangeable Historical Cost Non-historical Cost Specific Identification Method Methods Methods (generally used in jewelery and tailormade industries) FIFO Weighted Retail Inventory/ Standard Cost Average Adjusted selling Method price method 5. Net Realisable Value Net realisable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business less the estimated costs of completion and the estimated costs necessary to make the sale. Estimates of net realisable value are based on the most reliable evidence available at the time the estimates are made, of the amount the inventories are expected to realise. NRV would be different for finished goods and WIP. It is fully applicable to WIP, but for fished goods it would be: Net realisable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business less the estimated costs necessary to make the sale. Recognition as an expense: When inventories are sold, the carrying amount of those inventories shall be recognised as an expense in the period in which the related revenue is recognised. The amount of any write-down of inventories to net realisable value and all losses of inventories shall be recognised as an expense in the period the write-down or loss occurs. The amount of any reversal of any write-down of inventories, arising from an increase in net realisable value, shall be recognised as a reduction in the amount of inventories recognised as an expense in the period in which the reversal occurs. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Financial Statements: The Balance Sheet II 143 Some inventories may be allocated to other asset accounts, for example, inventory used as a component of self-constructed property, plant or equipment. Inventories allocated to another asset in this way are recognised as an expense during the useful life of that asset. Major Change in Ind AS-2 vis-a-vis Notified AS-2 (i) Subsequent Recognition: Ind AS-2 deals with the subsequent recognition of cost/carrying amount of inventories as an expense, whereas the existing AS-2 does not provide the same. (ii) Inventory of Service Provider: Ind AS-2 provides explanation with regard to inventories of service providers whereas the existing AS-2 does not contain such an explanation. (iii) Machinery Spares: The existing AS-2 explains that inventories do not include machinery spares which can be used only in connection with an item of fixed asset and whoso use is expected to be irregular; such machinery spares are accounted for in accordance with AS- 10, ‘Accounting for Fixed Assets’. Ind AS-2 does not contain specific explanation in respect of such spares as this aspect is covered under Ind AS-16. (iv) Inventory held by Commodity Broker-traders: Ind AS-2 does not apply to measurement of inventories held by commodity broker-traders, who measure their inventories at fair value less costs to sell. However, this aspect is not there in the existing AS-2. (v) Definition of Fair Value and Distinction Between NRV and Fair Value: Ind AS-2 defines fair value and provides an explanation in respect of distinction between net realisable value’ and ‘fair value’. The existing AS-2 does not contain the definition of fair value and such explanation. (vi) Subsequent Assessment of NRV: Ind AS-2 provides detailed guidance in case of subsequent assessment of net realisable value. It also deals with the reversal of the write-down of inventories to net realisable value to the extent of the amount of original write-down, and the recognition and disclosure thereof in the financial statements. The existing AS-2 does not deal with such reversal. (vii) Inventories Acquired on Deferred Settlement Terms: An entity may purchase inventories on deferred settlement terms When the arrangement effectively contains a financing element, that element, for example, a difference between the purchase price for normal credit terms and the amount paid, is recognised as interest expense over the period of the financing. (viii) Exclusion from its Scope but Guidance given: Ind AS-2 excludes from its scope only the measurement of inventories held by producers of agricultural and forest products, agricultural produce after harvest, and minerals and mineral products though it provides guidance on measurement of such inventories. However, the existing AS-2 excludes from its scope such types of inventories. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

144 Financial Reporting and Analysis (ix) Cost Formulae: The existing AS-2 specifically provides that the formula used in determining the cost of an item of inventory should reflect the fairest possible approximation to the cost incurred in bringing the items of inventory to their present location and condition whereas Ind AS-2 does not specifically state so and requires the use of consistent cost formulas for all inventories having a similar nature and use to the entity. (x) Disclosures: Ind AS-2 requires more disclosures as compared to the existing AS-2. A. Cost Price Methods First-in, First-out (FIFO) The FIFO method follows the principle that materials received first are issued first. After the first lot or batch of materials purchased is exhausted, the next lot is taken up for supply. It does not suggest, however, that the same lot will be issued from stores. Sometimes, all materials are tagged with their arrival date and issued in date order especially with stocks that deteriorate. The inventory is priced at the latest costs. Advantages A good system of inventory management requires that oldest units should be sold or used first and inventory should consist of the latest purchases. This is found in the FIFO method of costing. Under the FIFO method, management has little or no control over the selection of units in order to influence recorded profits. Valuation of inventory and cost of goods manufactured are consistent and realistic. Besides, the FIFO method is easy to understand and operate. Disadvantages The objectives of matching current cost with current revenues is not achieved under the FIFO method. If the prices of materials are rising rapidly, the current production cost may be understated If the sales price is fixed, then sales revenue may not produce enough income to cover the purchase of raw materials. The valuation of inventory in terms of current cost depends on the frequency of price changes and the stock turnover. In case stocks turnover rapidly, the inventory valuations will reflect current prices. There are other limitations under the FIFO method. FIFO costing is improper if many lots are purchased during the period at different prices. This method overstates profit especially with high inflation. It does not consider the cost of replacing used materials, a situation created by high inflation. The FIFO method is suitable where: (i) the size and cost of raw materials units are large, (ii) materials are easily identified as belonging to a particular purchased lot, and (iii) not more than two or three different receipts of the materials are on hand at one time. Illustrative Problem 1. The following is a summary of the receipts and issue of materials in a factory during January. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)