It’s important to note that first Simon’s model contained only three phases – implementation phase was added later. Also, we could add a fifth phase – monitoring, but that can be viewed as an input for the intelligence phase. Intelligence Phase Firstly, the decision-making process starts with the intelligence phase. In the first phase, decision makers examine reality and try to identify problems or opportunities correctly. This phase is not only related to the Simon’s decision-making process, but also to other fields and other methodologies. For example, we like to practice Lean Startup methodology which emphasizes the importance of right problem definition before building anything (product or business). Additionally, one of the pillars of digital transformation is the data. Organizations need to become data driven. That means proper usage and implementation of Business Intelligence (BI) systems. Business Intelligence implementations are considered successful only if you have clear business needs and see real benefits from it. Business Intelligence is not just about data. It should be connected with organizational goals and objectives! Therefore, intelligence phase includes actions like: Defining organizational objectives Data collection 51 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Problem identification and classification The intelligence phase can last really long. But, since decision-making process starts with this phase, it should be to be done properly. This is a key ingredient in every business success. Design Phase The main goal of the design phase is to define and construct a model which represent a system, by defining relationships between collected variables. Once we validate the model, we define the criteria of choice and search for several possible solutions for the defined problem (opportunity). We wrap up the design phase by predicting the future outcomes for each alternative. Choice Phase In this phase we are actually making decisions. The end product of this phase is a decision. Decision is made by selecting and evaluating alternatives defined in previous step. If we are sure that the decision we made can actually be achieved – we are ready for the next phase. Implementation Phase All the previous steps we’ve made (intelligence, design, and choice) are now implemented. Implementation can be either successful or not. Successful implementation results with a solution to the defined problem. On the other hand, failure brings us back to the earlier phase. We described Simon’s model which, even today, serves as the basis of most models of decision-making process. A process is described as a series of events that precede final decisions. It is important to say that, at any point, the decision maker may choose to return to the previous step for additional validation. Even Simon’s model was sometimes criticized as being general, that is why we need to be aware of the importance of decision-making. This model is a concept, a framework of how organizations and managers make decisions. 5.4 SUMMARY Successful implementation results with a solution to the defined problem The main goal of the design phase is to define and construct a model which represent a system, by defining relationships between collected variables The intelligence phase can last really long. But, since decision-making process starts with this phase, it should be to be done properly. Business Intelligence implementations are considered successful only if you have clear business needs and see real benefits from it. Decision is made by selecting and evaluating alternatives defined in previous step 52 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.5 KEYWORD Intelligence phase: Consist on surveying the environment for situations that demand decisions. It implies an identification of the problem(s), the collection of information and the establishment of goal and evaluative criteria. Design phase: Involves delineating and analysing various courses of action for the problem identified in the intelligence phase. It implies an enumeration of a combination of feasible alternatives and their evaluation on the basis of the criteria established in the intelligence phase. Choice phase: Involves selecting the best alternative. Monitor phase (also called review or implementation): Designed to insure the proper execution of choice. HRM aims at achieving organizational goals meet the expectations of employees; develop the knowledge, skills and abilities of employees, improve the quality of working life and manage human resources in an ethical and socially responsible manner. 5.6LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define choice phase ___________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2. State the principles of HRM ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ 5.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Explain Top Level Management Problems. 2. Explain Middle Level Management Problems. 3. Explain Operational Level Management Problems. 4. What are the MIS need for Information Systems? 5. Write a note short of MIS playing a vital importance to any organization. 53 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Long Questions 1. Explain Simon's Model of Decision Making. 2. Write a note on Intelligence Phase. 3. Write a note on Design Phase. 4. Write a note on Choice Phase. 5. Write a note on Implementation Phase. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Management information systems (MIS) ____ a. Create and share documents that support day-today office activities b. Process business transactions (e.g., time cards, payments, orders, etc.) c. Capture and reproduce the knowledge of an expert problem solver d. Use the transaction data to produce information needed by managers to run the business 2. The person who ensures that systems are developed on time, within budget, and with acceptable quality is a a. Systems designer b. Project manager c. Systems owner d. External system user 3. A task of developing a technical blueprint and specifications for a solution that fulfills the business requirements is undertaken in the following phase of the system development process. a. System initiation b. System implementation c. System analysis d. System design 4. If a university sets up a web-based information system that faculty could access to record student grades and to advise students, that would be an example of a/an a. CRM 54 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
b. Intranet c. ERP d. Extranet 5. WAN Stands for a. Whole Area Network b. Wide Access Network c. Wild Area Network d. Wide Area Network Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-c. 4-c, 5-d 5.8 REFERENCES References book T1 D.P. Goyal: Management Information Systems. MacMillon. T2 KhushdeepDharni:Management Information Systems R1 Davis &Olson: Management Information Systems. R2 Laudon&Laudon: Management Information System, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 55 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT 6: STRUCTURED VS UN-STRUCTURED DECISIONS STRUCTURE 6.0 Learning Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Definition 6.3 Differences 6.4 Examples 6.5 Summary 6.6 Keywords 6.7 Learning Activity 6.8 Unit End Questions 6.9 References 6.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: Describe nature of Structured Vs un-structured decisions 6.1 INTRODUCTION Structured problems are routine in nature. They commonly occur in a similar or recognizable way within the organization. In this way, structured problems are easily understood by the organization 6.2 DEFINITION Structured Decision - These decisions are these that can be programmed and well defined. They are essentially repetitive, routine and involve a defined. They are essentially repetitive, routine and involve a definite procedure for handling them so that they do not have to be treated each as if they were new. Structured decisions are also called programmable decisions involve situations where the procedures decisions involve situations where the procedures to follow when a decisions are structured or programmed by the decisions procedures or decision rules developed for them. 56 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
A structured decision could possibly involve what is known as a deterministic decision or an algorithmic decision. Exp. Decision making of students results. Decision about the payroll systems etc. Characteristics :- Structured decisions can be delegated. The cost of taking such decisions is not as high as that of unstructured ones. These decisions can be made with the help of computer systems. Unstructured Decision - These types of decisions are occasional and unique in nature. There are no predefined procedures available to solve these problems and a new analysis is required for each occurrence. In top level managers are usually faced with more such unstructured decision making situations. They the strategic decision are non-repetitive vital and important and aim of determining or changing the ends or means of the enterprise. Unstructured decisions are not simple. They are usually quite complex in nature. So, there is no tried and true method of handling them. 57 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Unstructured decisions are those in which the decision makes must provide judgment evaluation and insight into the problem definition. The risk involved in taking decisions to solve the problems in this is usually high. Exp. Produce scheduling, capital budgeting. Features of unstructured decision:- These decisions cannot be delegated. The cost of taking such decisions is quite high. Compared to structured decisions. 6.3 DIFFERENCES No. Structured Unstructured 1. Goals are defined in structuredOutput are uncertain in unstructured decision. decision. 2. Information is obtainable andThe required information and resource are manageable. hard to assess. 3. Appear in a well define context andAppear in a unique context in procedures are known. unstructured decision. Unstructured decision cannot be 4. Structured decision can be delegated. delegated. The cost of taking such decision is notThe cost of taking such decisions is quite 5. as high as that of unstructured one. high, compare to structured decisions. 6. They are essentially repetitive, routineThere are no predefined procedures and involve a defined. available to solve. Structured decision are simpleUnstructured decision are not as simple as 7. compare to unstructured decisions. structured decisions. 6.4 EXAMPLES Unstructured decisions: These decisions require judgement, evaluation and insight to solve the problem. Unstructured means “decision processes that have not been encountered in quite the same form and for which no predetermined and explicit set of ordered responses exists in the organization”. (Mintzberg, et al., 1976, 246) These decisions are seen as novel, 58 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
important and non-routine. There is no well understood procedure for making them. An example of an unstructured decision that management may face could be deciding if the company should enter into a new market or would it be more beneficial for them to stay in just their current market. Information systems help to make such decisions. Semi structured decisions: these decisions have elements of both structured and semi structured decisions. Only part of the problem has a clear-cut answer provided by accepted procedure. A semi structured decision is one which is partially programmable but still requires human judgement. There are three dimensions to a semi structured decision: 1. Degree of decision-making skill required. 2. Degree of problem complexity 3. Number of criteria considered Structured decisions: means having processes in place to handle a situation. The implication is that structured problems are recurring ones. Because they recur, we put processes and procedures in place to handle them. These decisions are repetitive and routine. They involve definite procedures for answering. Therefore they don’t need to be treated as new each time the decision has to be made. A good example of a structured decision would be the hiring process in a company. It’s important to create structure around repetitive situations so that a lot of time is not spent on very minor decisions. 6.5 SUMMARY Unstructured means “decision processes that have not been encountered in quite the same form and for which no predetermined and explicit set of ordered responses exists in the organization An example of an unstructured decision that management may face could be deciding if the company should enter into a new market or would it be more beneficial for them to stay in just their current market. Information systems help to make such decisions. A semi structured decision is one which is partially programmable but still requires human judgement The implication is that structured problems are recurring ones. A good example of a structured decision would be the hiring process in a company. It’s important to create structure around repetitive situations so that a lot of time is not spent on very minor decisions. 6.6 KEYWORD The cost of taking such decisions is not as high as that of unstructured ones. 59 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Structured decisions are also called programmable decisions involve situations where the procedures decisions involve situations where the procedures to follow when a decisions are structured or programmed by the decisions procedures or decision rules developed for them. A structured decision could possibly involve what is known as a deterministic decision or an algorithmic decision. 6.7LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define structured decisions ___________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2. State the principles of unstructured decisions ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ 6.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Define Problem in Structured decision 2. Define objectives in Structured decision 3. Define alternatives in Structured decision 4. Define consequences in Structured decision 5. Define decision and trade action in Structured decision Long Questions 1. Define Problem in unstructured decision 2. Define objectives in unstructured decision 3. Define alternatives in unstructured decision 4. Define consequences in unstructured decision 5. Define decision and trade action in unstructured decision B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. A ___ is a computer application used to support determinations, decisions, and courses of action in an organization or a business. a. Decision Support System (DSS) b. Transaction Process System 60 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
c. Executive Support System d. None of these 2. A Decision Support System (DSS) is an application for information systems that helps in ___ a. System Design b. System Analysis c. Decision making d. All of these 3. DSS is most widely used in the ___, analysis in an organization. a. Planning b. Support c. System maintenance d. All of these 4. A decision support system differs from an ordinary ___ a. Operating System b. Transaction Process System c. Operational Application d. None of these 5. A ___ can integrate all multiple variables and produces an outcome. a. ESS b. DSS c. TPS d. All of these Answers 61 1-a, 2-c, 3-a. 4-c, 5-b 6.9 REFERENCES References book T1 D.P. Goyal: Management Information Systems. MacMillon. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
T2 KhushdeepDharni:Management Information Systems R1 Davis &Olson: Management Information Systems. R2 Laudon&Laudon: Management Information System, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 62 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT 7: ANALYSIS & DESIGN STRUCTURE 7.0 Learning Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Developing Information systems 7.3 Analysis and design of information systems. 7.4 Summary 7.5 Keywords 7.6 Learning Activity 7.7 Unit End Questions 7.8 References 7.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: Describe nature of Developing Information systems Identify scope of Analysis and design of information systems State the need and importance of HRM 7.1 INTRODUCTION The simplest definition of an information system is a collection of software, hardware, and telecommunication networks that are built to create, collect, and distribute information within an organization. These systems are designed to support decision-making, visualization, coordination, and analysis. Information systems are comprised of three major components: Hardware Software Data All of these components are crucial to the overall function and success of the information system. Updates to any one of these components could necessitate the design and implementation of a new information system. 7.2 DEVELOPING INFORMATION SYSTEMS There are a number of different reasons you might want to develop a new system. In some cases, you might only want to make partial changes to your current information system, but in many cases, organizations choose to completely replace their information system. Whether 63 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
you’re only going to make partial changes or complete changes to your system, the development steps are the same. The development steps for an information system are as follows: System Analysis Determine your needs System design System implementation Testing Maintenance The most common reason why organizations choose to develop a new information system is that their current system can no longer meet the demands or needs of their users. New software and technology advancements also play a role too. If you want to take advantage of the latest technology, you might need to make partial or complete changes to your information system in order to ensure compatibility. Why the First Step in Information System Development is so important The first step in the information system development process is system analysis. While every step of the development process is important, the first step sets the tone and ensures that your organization is moving forward in the right direction. The first step of the process can be broken down into three sub-steps. These system analysis sub-steps are: Identification Selection Planning Let’s take a closer look at these sub-steps and explain their importance in the information system development process. Identification This is the very beginning of the development process. Here, your team will be looking at the problems and challenges facing your organization. They will also be examining your current information system and how adept it is at handling your needs. For example, if you rely on IoT devices, you need an information system that can process, store, and analyze large amounts of data. In this part of the development process, your teams need to be looking for opportunities to address the challenges facing your organization. Failure to properly identify the challenges your organization faces will make it nearly impossible for you to find the right information system solutions. Selection 64 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
After you clearly define your needs, challenges, and potential system solutions, you need to make a final decision. You should not rush the selection process because once you have a new system, you will hopefully be using it for years to come. Evaluate how each potential solution handles the needs of your business and the challenges you face. Take the time to think about how this information system solution will aid you in reaching your targets. Do you need a whole or a partial information system solution? Does your solution require a custom app? You should have a clear idea about exactly how your business will benefit from a specific system design and how it will integrate with your current system. Your team should have a list of features most important to your organization so that you can evaluate and compare options so that your organization is choosing the best solution for your needs. Planning Once your needs have been identified and a solution selected, you need to create an implementation plan for your information system. Arguably, this planning phase is simpler if you’re completely replacing your current system. If you’re updating parts of your information system, you will need a more detailed integration plan. You should know which aspects of your system will be implemented first, who will be trained on the updates, etc. The most successful projects are well planned. Take the time to put together a comprehensive implementation plan so that the process is as frictionless as possible. Final Thoughts Developing a new information system can be a challenging task. The first step in this development process is system analysis. The more thorough and detailed you are in this initial step, the more likely it is that your project will be successful. 7.3 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS Systems development is systematic process which includes phases such as planning, analysis, design, deployment, and maintenance. Here, in this tutorial, we will primarily focus on − Systems analysis Systems design Systems Analysis It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and decomposition of a system into its components. 65 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in order to identify its objectives. It is a problem solving technique that improves the system and ensures that all the components of the system work efficiently to accomplish their purpose. Analysis specifies what the system should do. Systems Design It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing system by defining its components or modules to satisfy the specific requirements. Before planning, you need to understand the old system thoroughly and determine how computers can best be used in order to operate efficiently. System Design focuses on how to accomplish the objective of the system. System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on − Systems Processes Technology What is a System? The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means an organized relationship between any set of components to achieve some common cause or objective. A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to achieve a specific goal.” Constraints of a System A system must have three basic constraints − A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to achieve a predefined objective. Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system components. The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the objectives of its subsystems. For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library system, human resources information system. Properties of a System A system has the following properties − Organization 66 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to achieve predetermined objectives. Interaction It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other. For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with production department and payroll with personnel department. Interdependence Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one another. For proper functioning, the components are coordinated and linked together according to a specified plan. The output of one subsystem is the required by other subsystem as input. Integration Integration is concerned with how a system components are connected together. It means that the parts of the system work together within the system even if each part performs a unique function. Central Objective The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is not uncommon for an organization to state an objective and operate to achieve another. The users must know the main objective of a computer application early in the analysis for a successful design and conversion. Elements of a System The following diagram shows the elements of a system − Outputs and Inputs 67 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
The main aim of a system is to produce an output which is useful for its user. Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing. Output is the outcome of processing. Processor(s) The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input into output. It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input either totally or partially, depending on the output specification. As the output specifications change, so does the processing. In some cases, input is also modified to enable the processor for handling the transformation. Control The control element guides the system. It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing input, processing, and output. The behavior of a computer System is controlled by the Operating System and software. In order to keep system in balance, what and how much input is needed is determined by Output Specifications. Feedback Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system. Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages the performance of the system. Negative feedback is informational in nature that provides the controller with information for action. Environment The environment is the “supersystem” within which an organization operates. It is the source of external elements that strike on the system. It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and competitors of organization’s environment, may provide constraints that affect the actual performance of the business. Boundaries and Interface A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that identify its components, processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces with another system. 68 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control. The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining the nature of its interface with other systems for successful design. Types of Systems The systems can be divided into the following types − Physical or Abstract Systems Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them. Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, desks and chairs are the physical parts of computer center which are static. A programmed computer is a dynamic system in which programs, data, and applications can change according to the user's needs. Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be formulas, representation or model of a real system. Open or Closed Systems An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs from and delivers outputs to the outside of the system. For example, an information system which must adapt to the changing environmental conditions. A closed system does not interact with its environment. It is isolated from environmental influences. A completely closed system is rare in reality. Adaptive and Non-Adaptive System Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to improve their performance and to survive. For example, human beings, animals. Non-Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the environment. For example, machines. Permanent or Temporary System Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business policies. Temporary System is made for specified time and after that they are demolished. For example, A DJ system is set up for a program and it is dissembled after the program. Natural and Manufactured System Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, solar system, seasonal system. Manufactured System is the man-made system. For example, Rockets, dams, trains. 69 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Deterministic or Probabilistic System Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction between system components is known with certainty. For example, two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen makes water. Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior. The exact output is not known. For example, Weather forecasting, mail delivery. Social, Human-Machine, Machine System Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs, societies. In Human-Machine System, both human and machines are involved to perform a particular task. For example, Computer programming. Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are performed by the machine. For example, an autonomous robot. Man–Made Information Systems It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular organization, under Direct Management Control (DMC). This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and application for producing information according to the need of an organization. Man-made information systems are divided into three types − Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of information in the form of memos, instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of management. Informal Information System − this is employee based system which solves the day to day work related problems. Computer Based System − this system is directly dependent on the computer for managing business applications. For example, automatic library system, railway reservation system, banking system, etc. Systems Models Schematic Models A schematic model is a 2-D chart that shows system elements and their linkages. Different arrows are used to show information flow, material flow, and information feedback. Flow System Models A flow system model shows the orderly flow of the material, energy, and information that hold the system together. 70 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), for example, is used to abstract a real world system in model form. Static System Models They represent one pair of relationships such as activity–time or cost–quantity. The Gantt chart, for example, gives a static picture of an activity-time relationship. Dynamic System Models Business organizations are dynamic systems. A dynamic model approximates the type of organization or application that analysts deal with. It shows an ongoing, constantly changing status of the system. It consists of − Inputs that enter the system The processor through which transformation takes place The program(s) required for processing The output(s) that result from processing. Categories of Information There are three categories of information related to managerial levels and the decision managers make. Strategic Information This information is required by topmost management for long range planning policies for next few years. For example, trends in revenues, financial investment, and human resources, and population growth. This type of information is achieved with the aid of Decision Support System (DSS). 71 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Managerial Information This type of Information is required by middle management for short and intermediate range planning which is in terms of months. For example, sales analysis, cash flow projection, and annual financial statements. It is achieved with the aid of Management Information Systems (MIS). Operational information This type of information is required by low management for daily and short term planning to enforce day-to-day operational activities. For example, keeping employee attendance records, overdue purchase orders, and current stocks available. It is achieved with the aid of Data Processing Systems (DPS). 7.4 SUMMARY An information system (IS) is a formal, sociotechnical, organizational system designed to collect, process, store, and distribute information. From a sociotechnical perspective, information systems are composed by four components: task, people, structure (or roles), and technology. Information systems can be defined as an integration of components for collection, storage and processing of data of which the data is used to provide information, contribute to knowledge as well as digital products that facilitate decision making. A computer information system is a system composed of people and computers that processes or interprets information. The term is also sometimes used to simply refer to a computer system with software installed. Information Systems is an academic study of systems with a specific reference to information and the complementary networks of hardware and software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create and also distribute data. An emphasis is placed on an information system having a definitive boundary, users, processors, storage, inputs, outputs and the aforementioned communication networks. 7.5 KEYWORD Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery and equipment. In a modern information system, this category includes the computer itself and all of its support equipment. The support equipment includes input and output devices, storage devices and communications devices. In pre-computer information systems, the hardware might include ledger books and ink. 72 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if any) that support them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware parts of the system to function in ways that produce useful information from data. Programs are generally stored on some input/output medium, often a disk or tape. The \"software\" for pre-computer information systems included how the hardware was prepared for use (e.g., column headings in the ledger book) and instructions for using them (the guidebook for a card catalog). Data: Data are facts that are used by systems to produce useful information. In modern information systems, data are generally stored in machine-readable form on disk or tape until the computer needs them. In pre-computer information systems, the data are generally stored in human-readable form. Procedures: Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of an information system. \"Procedures are to people what software is to hardware\" is a common analogy that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a system. People: Every system needs people if it is to be useful. Often the most overlooked element of the system is the people, probably the component that most influence the success or failure of information systems. This includes \"not only the users, but those who operate and service the computers, those who maintain the data, and those who support the network of computers. 7.6LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Explain why the personal computer is now considered a commodity. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. Name two differences between RAM and a hard disk ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 7.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What are the five components that make up an information system? 2. What are three examples of information system hardware? 3. Microsoft Windows is an example of which component of information systems? 4. What is application software? 5. What roles do people play in information systems? Long Questions 73 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
1. What is the definition of a process? 2. What was invented first, the personal computer or the Internet (ARPANET)? 3. In what year were restrictions on commercial use of the Internet first lifted? When were eBay and Amazon founded? 4. What does it mean to say we are in a “post-PC world”? 5. Write your own description of what the term information systems hardware means. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Decision-Table is a way a. Of representing multiple conditions b. Of representing the information flow c. To get an accurate picture of the system d. All of these 2. Information systems support an organization's business operations, managerial decision making and strategic competitive advantage. Such system is called a. Business process reengineering b. Globalization c. Roles of information systems d. Competitive advantage 3. Mistakes made in the system analyses stage show up in a. System design b. System development c. Implementation d. All of these 4. The document listing all procedure and regulations that generally govern an organization is the a. Administrative policy manual b. Personal policy book c. Procedures log d. Organization manual 74 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5. A pseudo code is a/an a. Machine code b. Computer generated random number c. Easy way to communicate the logic of a program, in English-like statements d. Protocol used in data communication Answers 1-a, 2-c, 3-c. 4-d, 5-c 7.8 REFERENCES References book T1 D.P. Goyal: Management Information Systems. MacMillon. T2 KhushdeepDharni:Management Information Systems R1 Davis &Olson: Management Information Systems. R2 Laudon&Laudon: Management Information System, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 75 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT 8: IMPLEMENTATION STRUCTURE 8.0Learning Objectives 8.1Introduction 8.2Implementation and evaluation 8.3Pitfalls in MIS development 8.4Summary 8.5Keywords 8.6Learning Activity 8.7Unit End Questions 8.8References 8.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: Describe nature of human resource management Identify scope of human resource State the need and importance of HRM List the functions of HRM 8.1 INTRODUCTION Implementation of a system is as much important as the creation of it. Implementation can easily destroy the good work done in the earlier phases and bring the system to a standstill. Implementation requires technical and managerial skills as the implementers work as change agents. Implementation is also a process that has a series of sequential steps which culminates in making operational the new system. 8.2 IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION Implementation as an activity has to be carefully managed. It requires client interaction at every stage. The implementers need the full support and cooperation of the client and the IS department functionaries to successfully execute the implementation of information systems. In order to help them perform this task of implementation smoothly, a series of predefined steps are followed. These implementation tasks are as follows: Implementation Plan 76 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
It is the series of action-oriented steps planned for making the implementation smooth. It normally involves the following steps: Creating a master schedule of the implementation activities Setting timelines for critical and non-critical activities Identifying major bottlenecks and their solutions Communication of the plan. This step is required to help the user community to understand the time frame for installation of the new system. Communication plays a vital role in the implementation and without proper communication especially, from the top management on the installation and implementation of the new system the change management will be difficult. Resistance to change related issues will come to the fore making the difficult task of implementation more difficult. Communication of the plan of implementation to the user community helps the users to prepare for the change and makes them mentally prepared for it. The communication is required to be formal so that rumors cannot be spread about the system. The communication process may itself be in several phases. The top level can communicate the general intent of the new system and then detailed briefings to staff may be left to the divisional heads. The communication process also indicates (indirectly), the role each employee is required to play in the implementation process. Organizing the MIS Department The MIS department will be the custodian of the new system. Hence, they have to be gear up to support the new system. Organization of the department is therefore necessary before the new system becomes operational. The roles of each member of the MIS department have to be clearly laid out before the new system becomes operational. Effort is made to ensure that the role of the MIS staff is understood by each member of the organization. Training is provided to those who need training on the new system so that they in turn can help others. This process of organizing the MIS department starts much before the actual implementation process begins as it entails some hiring and training which requires some lead time. The organization is done in such a timeframe that staff is available when the actual implementation starts. This enables the MIS staff to provide support to the implementation team, when the implementation process starts. This will also help the MIS staff to understand the nitty-gritty of the new system as they will be able to get a hands-on experience in the implementation of the new system. Selection and Procurement of Hardware This step of the implementation process is an important step as it involves huge investments. Proper care is taken to ensure that the organization gets the best deal from such selection and procurement of the hardware. The process of selection and procurement of hardware also 77 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
varies greatly from firm to firm depending on the size of the firm and the sector in which it operates the type of management. However, the following procedure is followed: Preparation of vendor list-a list of reliable vendors is prepared. This list of vendors may be prepared after analyzing the vendor management experience of the organization with different vendors or may be prepared based on some accepted list of vendors in that business space prepared by some organization of repute or some industry body/regulatory body. The vendors that are selected to be part of the list are chosen carefully after a thorough checking of their credentials and goodwill in the market. This is essential as the vendor relationship is based on trust and compromise and not only on the basis of strict commercial terms. Preparation of RFP-the implementation team must prepare the request for proposal document based on their understanding of the hardware requirement of the new system. The RFP must have complete technical details about the required hardware systems including specifications, format, performance expectation, and warranty and service quality requirements. This document is prepared by the implementers in consultation with the development team, management of the organization and the MIS team of the organization so that the need for each specification is well established and there is no scope for any difference of opinion. The consultative process results in the RFP which is a technical document. The RFP also has commercial details which the implementation team prepares in consultation with the management of the organization. The RFP is a quasi-legal document in some countries and proper legal opinion is normally sought before sending it to the enlisted vendors. Request for bids/proposal to select vendors-after the RFP is prepared it is sent by some mode of communication to the enlisted set of vendors. The communication medium can be an open advertisement in print or electronic media or may be in the form of a letter to the vendors with a deadline for submission of the proposal. Evaluation of RFP-this is a difficult process. After bids are received before the deadline, they are checked (preliminary check) for basic errors. Those found to be prima facie proper are then evaluated. Several methods of evaluation exist. The evaluation could be on the basis of cost alone or quality alone or may be a mix of both cost and quality. Typically, a score based system of evaluation is used to rank the vendors’ proposals. Scores are assigned to each attribute of a vendor’s proposal like cost, goodwill, track record and service quality guarantee. Based on the weight age given to each attribute a composite score is prepared, which is used to evaluate the proposals. Whatever tJ1emethodology for evaluating the proposal, one must take care to apply the same evaluation criteria to all proposals. Different yardsticks should not be applied to different proposals. Selection of vendor-based on the evaluation a single vendor or a select set of vendors are chosen for delivery of hardware. Contract negotiations and price negotiations are held with this select group of vendors and following the successful completion of the negotiations the final contract will be signed. 78 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Procurement of Software The new system being implemented will have been created based on assumptions of operating environment of the organization. Procurement of system software is done on similar lines as the procurement of hardware. The only difference in the case of procurement of software is that the choice of what software to purchase is already made at the design stage of the system development and hence, the RFP preparation process is straightforward. The implementation team need not prepare the specification for the system software. They only need to procure the system software that the new system is designed to run on. The rest of the process is almost similar to the hardware procurement process. Creating the Database The new system to be implemented will have data stores. In modern systems, data stores are databases. These databases are relational database management systems, which is a separate application software package. The database has to be created and structures inside the database have to be created in order to enable it to store data. The implementation team creates the database, its structures and rules so that the application system being implemented can be plugged into the database and start working. Training of Users Implementation is a larger issue than installation. The new system may get installed but without proper training of users, it may not be of good use. Implementation is a larger concept and focuses on the installation and hand-holding part of the transition process. A training needs assessment is done to understand the training needs of the users. A training programme is planned and the required training given to users. This is an important part of the implementation process and helps in reducing the resistance to change related behavior among the user community. The training also helps users to appreciate the new features of the new system and helps build trust and appreciation for the new system. Creating Physical Infrastructure The new system being implemented may require a physical infrastructure. The implementation team must ensure that the system performance must not suffer due to infrastructure bottlenecks. The implementers will have to use their persuasive skills and convince the management of the organization to create the required physical infrastructure so that it does not affect the performance of the new system. Transition to the New System This is the last step in the implementation process. The transition if done wrongly leads to a lot of pain. Hence, it is necessary to move slowly on the transition front. Normally, after the new system is installed and ready, the new system and the old system are both used for a period to ensure that the company performance does not suffer due to transition problems. 79 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Slowly when the users gain more capability to handle the new system the old system is phased out. 8.3 PITFALLS IN MIS DEVELOPMENT Following are the pitfalls of the MIS development: (A) Fundamental Weaknesses: Following are the fundamental weaknesses of the MIS development: (a) No Management System to Build Upon: The MIS must be built on top of a management system that includes the organizational arrangements, the structure and procedures for adequate planning and control, the clear establishment of objectives, and all the other manifestations of good organization and management. The lack managerial and operational application is serious because it implies that the process not being performed well. If we can say that the information is the raw material of decision making, and if information is not generated, disseminated and used for management, then no system-manual or computer-is going to solve the problem. (b) What business are we in? : Not having the crispy stated mission and purpose for the company is a common weakness. Since if it is not terrible clear what business we are in, each major challenge the company must face is a completely new challenge and must be analyzed from the ground up. If there was a mission statement, some of these problem could be dealt with routinely as opposed to their being major crises. (c) Company Objectives: written objective are also often missing in the company. A firm without objectives is much like a company without a statement of mission and purpose. An effective MIS requires continuous, consistent, long-range planning with involvement and commitment from the management as an institutionalized planning process involving everybody concerned. There is a need for an information steering committee and it may take more than one iteration to establish the process firmly. It has to undergo an application development cycle consisting of analysis, synthesis and implementation phases. Systems feasibility (consisting of technical, economic and operational feasibility) is a most important starting point of MIS development. In other words, the development process should take into account the rationale, definition and characteristics, economics, design, specification; schedule, implementation plan, implementation status and review. Some of the usual pitfalls and problems in developing and running effective Information System are mentioned below along with -some ways of increasing effectiveness: 1. Emphasis on Clerical System: Just taking over an existing clerical system and modifying it without upgrading or changing it does not help. The clerical system has to be upgraded to a management system. On the other hand, computers have been put to work on those things that are best understood and easily structured and which require little management involvement. 80 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
2. Communication gap between Computer Technologist and Manager/ User: Ensuring maximum cooperation and coordination between computer personnel and managers is necessary. A greater degree of interaction and involvement between the systems function and the managementfunction is required. 3. Lack of a Master Plan: A systematic long range plan/planned approach is necessary for establishing an effective Management Information System. Increased focus on the area of problems definition is required in the systems analysis. The dramatic changes in business strategy together with changes in the top management personnel and organisation structure call for a through plan. 4. Subordination of MIS Function to EDP Accounting System: Management Information System's function should be made an independent function so that it reports directly to top management. 5. Lack of Managerial Participation: This involvement and support of top management as well as participation of all managers in the design of their own management information system are necessary. If top management tends to depend upon its informally designed private information systems, development of structured, formalised and a public management information systems becomes difficult. Many top managers wrongly feel that good strategic decisions are made more by intuition than by a quantitative analysis of the available data. 6. Overlooking Human Acceptance: Users of Management Information System should be involved right at the early stages of design. Their cooperation by demonstrating how Management Information System will positively affect their job is a must. 7. Lack of Resources and Trained Personnel: Lack of trained personnel consisting of system analysts, system designers, programmers and chief information officers who are business trained and/or have a basic business prospective is a handicap. 8. Voluminous and Unstructured Nature of Data: Sometimes the volume of data itself can be a hurdle unless careful sifting is done. On the other hand, it may also be difficult to locate and retrieve relevant data. Often, the data required by top management is unstructured, non- programmed, future oriented. Inexact and external and hence difficult to capture. 9. Limited Use of Management Science and or Techniques: Some of the ways of increasing the effective of Management Information System include motivating managers to participate and get involved in Management Information System, establishing consistent performance and work criteria for Management Information System, maintaining simplicity and ease of use, training systems analysts and careful consideration of basic computer feasibility criteria like volume and repetitive nature of transactions, degree of mathematical processing, quick turnaround time, accuracy and validity of data, common source documents and well understood processing logic. 81 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
10. Enormous Time, Effort and Resources Required: MIS budget includes data processing costs, hardware costs, personnel costs, supplies, services, etc. 8.4 SUMMARY Overlooking Human Acceptance: Users of Management Information System should be involved right at the early stages of design. Their cooperation by demonstrating how Management Information System will positively affect their job is a must. Lack of Resources and Trained Personnel: Lack of trained personnel consisting of system analysts, system designers, programmers and chief information officers who are business trained and/or have a basic business prospective is a handicap. Voluminous and Unstructured Nature of Data: Sometimes the volume of data itself can be a hurdle unless careful sifting is done. On the other hand, it may also be difficult to locate and retrieve relevant data. Often, the data required by top management is unstructured, non- programmed, future oriented. Inexact and external and hence difficult to capture. Limited Use of Management Science and or Techniques: Some of the ways of increasing the effective of Management Information System include motivating managers to participate and get involved in Management Information System, establishing consistent performance and work criteria for Management Information System, maintaining simplicity and ease of use, training systems analysts and careful consideration of basic computer feasibility criteria like volume and repetitive nature of transactions, degree of mathematical processing, quick turnaround time, accuracy and validity of data, common source documents and well understood processing logic. 8.5 KEYWORD Business functions-Specialized tasks performed in a business organization, including manufacturing and production, sales and marketing, finance and accounting, and human resources. Business model-An abstraction of what an enterprise is and how the enterprise delivers a product or service, showing how the enterprise creates wealth. Business processes -The unique ways in which organizations coordinate and organize work activities, information, and knowledge to produce a product or service. 4. 82 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
complementary assets Additional assets required to derive value from a primary investment Computer hardware -Physical equipment used for input, processing, and output activities in an information system. Computer literacy -Knowledge about information technology, focusing on understanding of how computer-based technologies work. 8.6LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define MIS. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. State the principles of PITFALL IN MIS ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 8.7UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Explain the concept of Creating a master schedule of the implementation activities 2. How to Setting timelines for critical and non-critical activities 3. Identifying major bottlenecks and their solutions 4. How to do Communication of the plan. 5. How to Organize MIS. Long Questions 1. What is MIS? Define the Function and characteristics of MIS? 2. What is MIS Planning? Discuss the need and objectives of MIS Planning 3. Critical Success Factors In Implementation of Information Systems 4. What is the procedure for carrying out the cost/benefit evaluation of an MIS 5. Different MIS Functions B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Management information systems (MIS) a. create and share documents that support day-today office activities b. Process business transactions (e.g., time cards, payments, orders, etc.) c. capture and reproduce the knowledge of an expert problem solver 83 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
d. use the transaction data to produce information needed by managers to run the business 2 The term used to describe those people whose jobs involve sponsoring and funding the project to develop, operate, and maintain the information system is a. information worker b. internal system user c. systems owner d. external system user 3 The person who ensures that systems are developed on time, within budget, and with acceptable quality is a a. systems designer b. project manager c. systems owner d. external system user 4 Which one of the following is not a business driver for an information system? a. business process redesign b. knowledge asset management c. proliferation of networks and the Internet d. security and privacy 5 A task of developing a technical blueprint and specifications for a solution that fulfills the Business requirements is undertaken in the following phase of the system development process a. system initiation b. system implementation c. system analysis d. system design Answers 1-d, 2-c, 3-b. 4-d, 5-b 84 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
8.8 REFERENCES References book T1 D.P. Goyal: Management Information Systems. MacMillon. T2 KhushdeepDharni:Management Information Systems R1 Davis &Olson: Management Information Systems. R2 Laudon&Laudon: Management Information System, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 85 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT 9: DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS STRUCTURE 9.0 Learning Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Introduction to Decision Support Systems 9.3 Characteristics and Objectives 9.4 Role of decision support systems and its applications 9.5 Summary 9.6 Keywords 9.7 Learning Activity 9.8 Unit End Questions 9.9 References 9.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: Describe nature of decision support system Explain characteristics in DSS 9.1 INTRODUCTION A decision support system (DSS) is a computerized program used to support determinations, judgments, and courses of action in an organization or a business. A DSS sifts through and analyzes massive amounts of data, compiling comprehensive information that can be used to solve problems and in decision-making. 9.2 INTRODUCTION TO DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS Decision Support System refers to a class of systems which support in the process of decision making and does not always give a decision itself. Decision Support Systems (DSS) are a specific class of computerized information system that supports business and organizational decision-making activities. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software based system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from raw data, documents, personal knowledge, and/or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions DSS is an application of Hebert Simon model, as discussed, the model has three phases: i) Intelligence 86 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
ii) Design iii) Choice The DSS basically helps in the information system in the intelligence phase where the objective is to identify the problem and then go to the design phase for solution. The choice of selection criteria varies from problem to problem. It is therefore, required to go through these phases again and again till satisfactory solution is found. In the following three phase cycle, you may use inquiry, analysis, and models and accounting system to come to rational solution. These systems are helpful where the decision maker calls for complex manipulation of data and use of several methods to reach an acceptable solution using different analysis approach. The decision support system helps in making a decision and also in performance analysis. DSS can be built around the rule in case of programmable decision situation. The rules are not fixed or predetermined and requires every time the user to go through the decision making cycle as indicated in Herbert Simon model. Attributes: i) DSS should be adaptable and flexible. ii) DSS should be interactive and provide ease of use. iii) Effectiveness balanced with efficiency (benefit must exceed cost). iv) Complete control by decision-makers. v) Ease of development by (modification to suit needs and changing environment) end users. vi) Support modeling and analysis. vii) Data access. viii) Standalone, integration and Web-based DSS Characteristics: i) Support for decision makers in semi structured and unstructured problems. ii) Support managers at all levels. iii) Support individuals and groups. iv) Support for interdependent or sequential decisions. v) Support intelligence, design, choice, and implementation. vi) Support variety of decision processes and styles 87 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
9.3 CHARACTERISTICS AND OBJECTIVES The primary purpose of using a DSS is to present information to the customer in an easy-to- understand way. A DSS system is beneficial because it can be programmed to generate many types of reports, all based on user specifications. For example, the DSS can generate information and output its information graphically, as in a bar chart that represents projected revenue or as a written report. As technology continues to advance, data analysis is no longer limited to large, bulky mainframe computers. Since a DSS is essentially an application, it can be loaded on most computer systems, whether on desktops or laptops. Certain DSS applications are also available through mobile devices. The flexibility of the DSS is extremely beneficial for users who travel frequently. This gives them the opportunity to be well-informed at all times, providing the ability to make the best decisions for their company and customers on the go or even on the spot. 9.4 ROLE OF DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND ITS APPLICATIONS What is a Decision Support System (DSS)? A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that aids a business in decision- making activities that require judgment, determination, and a sequence of actions. The information system assists the mid- and high-level management of an organization by analyzing huge volumes of unstructured data and accumulating information that can help to solve problems and help in decision-making. A DSS is either human-powered, automated, or a combination of both. Purpose of a Decision Support System A decision support system produces detailed information reports by gathering and analyzing data. Hence, a DSS is different from a normal operations application, whose goal is to collect data and not analyze it. In an organization, a DSS is used by the planning departments – such as the operations department – which collects data and creates a report that can be used by managers for decision-making. Mainly, a DSS is used in sales projection, for inventory and operations- related data, and to present information to customers in an easy-to-understand manner. Theoretically, a DSS can be employed in various knowledge domains from an organization to forest management and the medical field. One of the main applications of a DSS in an organization is real-time reporting. It can be very helpful for organizations that take part in just-in-time (JIT) inventory management. 88 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
In a JIT inventory system, the organization requires real-time data of their inventory levels to place orders “just in time” to prevent delays in production and cause a negative domino effect. Therefore, a DSS is more tailored to the individual or organization making the decision than a traditional system. Components of a Decision Support System The three main components of a DSS framework are: 1. Model Management System The model management system S=stores models that managers can use in their decision- making. The models are used in decision-making regarding the financial health of the organization and forecasting demand for a good or service. 2. User Interface The user interface includes tools that help the end-user of a DSS to navigate through the system. 3. Knowledge Base The knowledge base includes information from internal sources (information collected in a transaction process system) and external sources (newspapers and online databases). Types of Decision Support Systems Communication-driven: Allows companies to support tasks that require more than one person to work on the task. It includes integrated tools such as Microsoft SharePoint Workspace and Google Docs. Model-driven: Allows access to and the management of financial, organizational, and statistical models. Data is collected, and parameters are determined using the 89 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
information provided by users. The information is created into a decision-making model to analyze situations. An example of a model-driven DSS is Dicodess – an open-source model-driven DSS. Knowledge-driven: Provides factual and specialized solutions to situations using stored facts, procedures, rules, or interactive decision-making structures like flowcharts. Document-driven: Manages unstructured information in different electronic formats. Data-driven: Helps companies to store and analyze internal and external data. Advantages of a Decision Support System A decision support system increases the speed and efficiency of decision-making activities. It is possible, as a DSS can collect and analyze real-time data. It promotes training within the organization, as specific skills must be developed to implement and run a DSS within an organization. It automates monotonous managerial processes, which means more of the manager’s time can be spent on decision-making. It improves interpersonal communication within the organization. Disadvantages of a Decision Support System The cost to develop and implement a DSS is a huge capital investment, which makes it less accessible to smaller organizations. A company can develop a dependence on a DSS, as it is integrated into daily decision-making processes to improve efficiency and speed. However, managers tend to rely on the system too much, which takes away the subjectivity aspect of decision- making. A DSS may lead to information overload because an information system tends to consider all aspects of a problem. It creates a dilemma for end-users, as they are left with multiple choices. Implementation of a DSS can cause fear and backlash from lower-level employees. Many of them are not comfortable with new technology and are afraid of losing their jobs to technology. 90 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
9.5 SUMMARY A decision support system increases the speed and efficiency of decision-making activities. It is possible, as a DSS can collect and analyze real-time data. The model management system S=stores models that managers can use in their decision-making. A decision support system produces detailed information reports by gathering and analyzing data. Hence, a DSS is different from a normal operations application, whose goal is to collect data and not analyze it. Decision Support System refers to a class of systems which support in the process of decision making and does not always give a decision itself. Lack of trained personnel consisting of system analysts, system designers, programmers and chief information officers who are business trained and/or have a basic business prospective is a handicap. Systems feasibility (consisting of technical, economic and operational feasibility) is a most important starting point of MIS development. A systematic long range plan/planned approach is necessary for establishing an effective Management Information System. Increased focus on the area of problems definition is required in the systems analysis. The unique ways in which organizations coordinate and organize work activities, information, and knowledge to produce a product or service. 4. complementary assets Additional assets required to derive value from a primary investment. 9.6 KEYWORD Client-A program or computer that connects to and requests information from a server. Examples: Internet Explorer or Firefox. A client program also may be referred to as \"client software\" or \"client-server software\". Client-server technology-Refers to a connection between networked computers in which the services of one computer (the server) are requested by the other (the client). Information obtained is then processed locally on the client computer. Cloud-a common shorthand for a provided cloud computing service (or even an aggregation of all existing cloud services) is \"The Cloud\". 91 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Cloud computing A general term used to describe Internet services such as social networking services (e.g., Facebook and Twitter), online backup services, and applications that run within a Web browser. Cloud computing also includes computer networks that are connected over the Internet for server redundancy or cluster computing purposes. CMS-'Content Management System' is the collection of procedures used to manage work flow in a collaborative environment. In a CMS, data can be defined as nearly anything: documents, movies, pictures, phone numbers, scientific data, and so forth. CMSs are frequently used for storing, controlling, revising, semantically enriching, and publishing documentation. Serving as a central repository, the CMS increases the version level of new updates to an already existing file. Version control is one of the primary advantages of a CMS. 9.7 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define CMS ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. State the principles of Cloud Computing. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 9.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions 92 Short Questions 1. What is DSS? 2. What is the purpose of DSS? 3. What are the components of DSS? 4. Explain Model Management. 5. Write a note on user interface. Long Questions 1. What are knowledge driven DSS? 2. What are the advantages of DSS? 3. What are the disadvantages of DSS? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4. What are the attributes of CSS? 5. What are the characteristics of DSS? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. A ___ is a computer application used to support determinations, decisions, and courses of action in an organization or a business. a. Decision Support System (DSS) b. Transaction Process System c. Executive Support System d. None of the mentioned above 2. A Decision Support System (DSS) is an application for information systems that helps in ___ a. System Design b. System Analysis c. Decision making d. All of the mentioned above 3. DSS is most widely used in the ___, analysis in an organization. a. Planning b. Support c. System maintenance d. All of the mentioned above 4. A decision support system differs from an ordinary ___ a. Operating System b. Transaction Process System c. Operational Application d. None of the mentioned above 5. A ___ can integrate all multiple variables and produces an outcome. 93 a. ESS CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
b. DSS c. TPS d. All of these Answers 1-a, 2-c, 3-a. 4-c, 5-b 9.9 REFERENCES References book T1 D.P. Goyal: Management Information Systems. MacMillon. T2 KhushdeepDharni:Management Information Systems R1 Davis &Olson: Management Information Systems. R2 Laudon&Laudon: Management Information System, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 94 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT 10: COMPONENTS OF DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS STRUCTURE 10.0Learning Objectives 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Data subsystem 10.3 Model subsystem and user interface 10.4 Summary 10.5 Keywords 10.6 Learning Activity 10.7 Unit End Questions 10.8 References 10.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: Describe nature of Data subsystem Identify scope of Model subsystem and user interface 10.1 INTRODUCTION Systems may consist of numerous sub-systems, each of which has elements, interactions, and objectives. Subsystems perform specialized tasks related to the overall objectives of the total system. A system exists on more than one level and can be composed of subsystems or element parts. 10.2 DATA SUBSYSTEM Following are the subsystems of the Management Information System: 1. Transaction Processing System 2. Management Reporting System 3. Decision Support System 4. Office Information System 5. Business Expert System 95 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Transaction Processing System - A transaction is defined as an exchange between two or more business entities. Overall transaction processing, also known as data processing, reflects the principal business activities of a firm like - sales, production, inventory, shipping, receiving, billing, accounts payable, accounts receivables, payroll, general ledger, etc. Transactions are important events for an organization, and collecting data about them is called transaction processing. Transaction Processing System's primary purpose is to record, process, validate, and store transactions that take place in the various functional areas of a business for future retrieval and use. Transaction processing systems are cross-functional information systems that process data resulting from the occurrence of business transactions. A TPS records internal and external transactions for a company. A TPS performs routine and repetitive tasks. It is mostly used by lower-level managers to make operational decisions. Transactions can be recorded in batch mode or online. In batch mode files are updated periodically; and in online mode, each transaction is recorded as it occurs. TPS is a six-step process - Data entry, Data capture, Data validation, Processing and re-validation, Storage, Output generation, and Query support. Management Reporting System - Management Reporting Systems are the most elaborate of management-oriented MIS components. Its main objective is to provide lower and middle management with printed reports and inquiry capabilities to help maintain operational and management control of the enterprise. MRSs are usually developed by information system professionals, rather than by end- users. MRSs are oriented towards reporting on the past and the present, rather than projecting the future. MRSs largely report on internal company operations. MRSs generally have limited analytical capabilities. MRSs do not directly support the decision-making process MRSs provide Scheduled or Periodic Reports, Exception Reports, and Demand or Ad-hoc Report. Decision Support System - Decision Support Systems are a class of computerized information systems that support decision-making activities. DSS are interactive computer- based systems and subsystems intended to help decision-makers. A DSS may present information graphically and may include an expert system or artificial intelligence. DSS tends to be designed primarily to serve management control level and strategic planning level managers. 96 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
DSSs support for decision-makers in semi-structured and unstructured problems. DSSs are more focused on specific decisions rather than routine flows of information. DSS present information graphically and may include an expert system or artificial intelligence. DSSs are adaptive over time. Office Information System - Office Information System is an information system that uses hardware, software, and networks to enhance workflow and better communication between employees. Office automation refers to the application of computer and communication technology to office functions. Office automation systems are meant to improve the productivity of managers at various levels of management by providing secretarial assistance and better communication facilities. Office automation systems are the combination of hardware, software, and people in information systems, that process office transactions and support office activities at all levels of the organization. These systems include a wide range of support facilities, which include word processing, electronic filing, electronic mail, message switching, data storage, data and voice communication, etc. Business Expert System - The business expert system is a knowledge-based information system that uses its knowledge about a specific, complex application area to act as an expert. This system is one of the knowledge-based information systems. The expert system provides decision support to managers in the form of advice from an expert in a specific problem area. Expert systems find application in diverse areas, ranging from medical, engineering, and business. 10.3 MODEL SUB-SYSTEM AND USER-INTERFACE A useful tool in system engineering is the system model, which can drive development, requirements generation, design, and just about anything else to do with your project. While the WBS, schedule, and other tools are good for their particular area, the system model has the potential to be useful in replacing all your other planning methods, becoming the one-stop source for information about your project. The system model language SysML was first developed by No Magic - though the framework is somewhat older - for project management and was quickly adapted for use in the Department of Defense, NASA, and other government bodies. The full framework is quite extensive, covering every possible level of system engineering from the highest goal oriented concept to the most basic layers like what data types are used and what interfaces carry them. The system model is a key part of the functionality of Rational Rhapsody, which uses the system model as built to generate code for programs the system runs. The a good set of resources can be found here. A quick glance makes it obvious that most robot cists doe 97 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
not need most of the views and charts, but some are useful and we will go over them in the following sections. HierarchyPermalink The most important aspect of system modeling tools is the hierarchy. The highest level is usually the requirement - or even the rationale behind the requirement - and each of these should have a separate diagram which itself is made up of blocks, capabilities, activities, information flows, etc. which all expand into further diagrams until you reach the lowest operating level of a system. This way you can go up and down the conceptual flow to find out how every part of your development supports a requirement on the system. Operational View Permalink One of the most useful views is the operational. In practice, you will rarely go below level 2, it being the meat of the view type for our purposes. It can generally be combined with the concept of the activity diagram which you can find in the overview of SysML. Level 1Permalink In this level, one can usually put the Use Case. While technically it belongs in the Capability View or All View, since we’re otherwise not using CVs (unless you start modeling at the very beginning and use the CV for requirements). In the Use Case, put the Actors (the user, obviously, and the highest level subsystems you’d normally see in a WBS), and then what information flows between them. This would be the highest level information packet containing all other information flow we see on the level 2 Activity Diagrams. Level 2Permalink This is the meat of the Interface Design Description, where you can flow out all the things the system might do. Rather than go into a lot of operational or capability viewpoints, go straight 98 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
into activity diagrams since the system is relatively small. Each box at the first indenture of level 2. Use “indentures” of activity diagrams since the other “levels” of OV are technically something else, signified by letters like OV-2b or OV-2c) is a high level activity (see below for the highest level view of MRSD 2015 “Dock in Piece” project). As you can see from this chart, the highest level activities of docking the quadcopter are things like ‘take off’ and ‘rendezvous with docking face’, which have lines between to signify the temporal flow, and labels to signify what information needs to pass in order to make it happen. Most important are the labels which cross swim lanes, because that’s information that will have to be packaged and sent from one subsystem to another. At this level the swim lanes are the actors and high level subsystems, but if we go a level down, we see subsystems within subsystems (the system-of-systems concept made manifest). 99 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
The first three swim lanes from the left are subsystems of the quadcopter while the final is crossing to/from the Palantir. Here all four swim lanes are different subsystems (though the Palantir is technically part of the dock, it is quite separate physically and informationally), but support the higher level activity of docking) Level 3Permalink OV-2c is where intrasystem activities show up in the architecture. This indenture shows information flowing and activities that occur entirely on one system, sometimes with a single information flow leaving the internal swim lanes to some external box or all flowing to a 100 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
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