MAP603_Social Psychology

Social Learning Theory 45 (v) Through these emotional processes, networks can develop group properties Repeated exchanges permit a network to evolve into a group. Affect idea highlights the contributions of thoughts in producing group properties. Successful interactions generate superb emotions for the concerned individuals, which motivates them to interact with the identical companions in the future. As exchanges repeat, the strong relationships emerge as seen to other parties, making salient their function as a crew and supporting to generate a team identity that continues to bind the companions collectively in a network. Affect concept predicts that networks of negotiated and reciprocal alternate will have a tendency to promote enhanced relational ties within partners; productive or generalized alternate will promote superior network or group-level ties. 2.5 Summary Feild theory exmines how individuals construct social fields and how they are affected by such fields. Social fields environments in which competition between individuals and groups takes place. Fields feature different positions which social actors can occupy. The dominant player in the fields are called the incumbents. Fields may also feature insurgents. Different field positions create different incentives. French social scientists Pierre Bourdieu used the field as one of the core concept. A field is a setting in which agents and their social positions are located. He uses the agency - structure bridging concept of field. In Bourdieu’s work, a field is a system of social positions structured internally in terms of power relationships.Fields are constructed according to underlying nomos, fundamental principles of vision and division or organising laws of experience that govern practices and experiences within a field. Role theory explains the various roles of an individual plays in daily life in a scientific way. A role is a behaviour pattern, which a person performs when having certain position in social system. A major portion of the observable social behaviour is the individuals performing their rules, just like actors or actresses do their roles on the stage. Role theory has some propositions while it tries to explain the observable social behaviour. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

46 Social Psychology According to role theory, if the role expectations related to some specified person are known, we can, to a large extent, predict a significant portion of the behaviour of that individual, who holds the position. We have to change a persons role if we want to change the persons behaviour. The role of a person affects his behaviour, attitudes and beliefs. There is a role conflict, due to the complexity induced by multiple roles. The three types of role conflict are personal role conflict, interrole conflict and intrarole conflict. The two primary mechanisms for reducing role conflict are role socialisation and role negotiation. Though role theory is very useful for understanding a substantial part of social behaviour and for understanding individual behaviour in social organisations, it has limitations like it does not explain certain types of social behaviour and it gives only a partial explanation of social behaviour. Exchange theory is based on the principle of reinforcement. It uses the concept of reinforcement, for explaining stability and change in relationship between individuals. Any behaviour involves some reward and cost. A person tries to maximise rewards and minimise costs. Generally a person prefers to do those behaviours that give more profit and avoid those behaviour that give less profit. The individuals take part in any action/behaviour, when they find that they provide profitable outcomes. Individuals engange in behaviour that is rewarding. Rewards may be any kind of positive reinforcement. Social approval is the most important reinforcer in social life cost includes punishment and the cost of lost alternatives which means the behaviour which could have been done but somehow it was not done. Profit is the difference between rewards and costs. Exchange theories help us in understanding many social processes including small group processes. It tries to predict the conditions under which the individuals restructure or change the personal relationship. It predicts ways to modify the inequitable relationship. 2.6 Key Words/Abbreviations  Habitus: The habitus is the subjective system of expectations and predispositions acquired through past experience. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 47  Social illusion: This acknowledgement of the stakes of the field and the acquiring of interests and investments prescribed by the field is termed social illusion, or illusio.  Reciprocity norm: The reciprocity norm states that a benefit should be returned and the one who gives the benefit should not be harmed.  Field theory: Field theory examines how individuals construct social fields and how they are affected by such fields.  Role theory: Role theory is a perspective in sociology and in social psychology that considers most of everyday activity, to be the acting out of socially defined under categories like mother, teacher, manager etc.  Exchange theory: Exchange theory is a sociological and psychological theory that studies the social behaviour in the interaction of two parties, that implement a cost - benefit analysis, to determine risks and benefits. 2.7 Learning Activity 1. Make a conclusion in your own words of theories in this unit. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. What are the various roles you have played in your life and narrate your experiences in each role? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. Narrate any one of your social behaviour in life in which you have compared the rewards and costs. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

48 Social Psychology 2.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. Explain the field theory in social psychology. 2. Discuss the role theory in social psychology. 3. Explain the exchange theory in social psychology 4. Explain in brief the two major types of role theory. 5. What are the different categories of social roles in sociology. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. ___________ theory involves economic relationship. (a) Field (b) Role (c) Exchange (d) Learning 2. _____________ is a set of rights duties, expectations, norms and behaviour that a person has to face and fulfill. (a) Role (b) Field (c) Exchange (d) Status 3. The essence of ___________ role theory is a role-play in an acceptable manner in society. (a) Structural Functionalism (b) Physical (c) Dramaturgical (d) Social 4. ___________ theory is essentially defined as everyone having a place in the social structure and every place had a corresponding role. (a) Structural Functionalism (b) Dramaturgical (c) Psychological (d) Social 5. ____________ are environments in which competition between individuals and between groups takes place, such as markets, academic disciplines etc. (a) Fields (b) Agricultural fields (c) Sports fields (d) Social fields CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 49 6. Within an organisation, there are _____________ main topologies. (a) One (b) two (c) three (d) four 7. The ___________ theory explains the various roles of an individual in a scientific way. (a) Motivational (b) Cognitive (c) Role (d) field Answers 1. (c), 2. (a), 3. (c), 4. (a), 5. (d), .6. (c), 7. (c) 2.9 References: 1. Arun Kumar Singh, 2020, “Social Psychology”, PHI, New Delhi. 2. Marquis, Christopher; Tilcsik, András (2016-10-01). \"Institutional Equivalence: How Industry and Community Peers Influence Corporate Philanthropy\".Organization Science.27(5): 325–1341.doi:10.1287/orsc.2016.1083.hdl:1813/44734. ISSN 1047-7039. 3. Cattani, Gino, Ferriani, Simone, and Allison, Paul. 2014. \"Insiders, Outsiders and the Struggle for Consecration in Cultural Fields: A Core-Periphery Perspective.\" American Sociological Review, vol.78(3): pp.417-447.[1] 4. Fligstein, Neil. 2001. \"Social Skill and the Theory of Fields.\" Sociological Theory, vol. 19:2 5. Martin, John Levi. 2003. \"What is Field Theory?” American Journal of Sociology. 6. Bourdieu, Pierre (1984). Distinction: a Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. London: Routledge. 7. Bourdieu, Pierre. 2005. \"The social structures of the economy\"; Bourdieu, Pierre. 2003. \"Acts of Resistance: Against the Tyranny of the Market\"; Bourdieu, Pierre. 2003. \"Firing Back: Against the Tyranny of the Market 2\"; Bourdieu, Pierre et al. 2000. \"The weight of the world.\" CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

50 Social Psychology 8. Hindin, Micelle J. (2007) \"role theory\" in George Ritzer (ed.) The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, Blackwell Publishing, 2007, 3959-3962 9. Yang, Peishan (2012-09-29). \"Revitalizing Roles of Older Adult Citizens: Successful Stories of Project History Alive\". Ageing International. 38 (2): 137–148. doi:10.1007/s12126-012-9163-2. ISSN 0163-5158. 10 \"Role Theory\". webhome.auburn.edu. Retrieved 2019-10-17. 11. Johansson, Bengt; Larsson, Larsåke (2015-06-01). \"The Complexity of Public Relations Work\". Nordicom Review. 36 (1): 125–139. doi:10.1515/nor-2015-0010. ISSN 2001- 5119. 12. Gerald, Grace (2011-12-08), “Role Conflict and the Teacher”, Routledge , p (3), ISBN 978-0415689489. 13. Roeckelein, Jon E. \"Elsevier's Dictionary of Psychological Theories\". Credo Reference. Elsevier B.V. Retrieved 21 October 2018. 14. Mcray, Jeni (2015). \"Leadership Glossary: Essential Terms for the 21st Century\". Credo Reference. Mission Bell Media. Retrieved 21 October 2018. 15. Emerson & Cook, R & K (1976). “Annual Review of Sociology”. The Social Exchange Theory. 2: 335–362. 16. Homans, George (1961). Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 13. 17. Cook, Karen S.; Rice, Eric (2006-11-24). \"Social Exchange Theory\". In DeLamater, John (ed.). The Handbook of Social Psychology. Pp. 53–76. ISBN 978-0-387-36921-1. 18. Ryan, Michael (2011). “The Encyclopedia of Literary and Cultural Theory”. Retrieved 2018-12-09. 19. Lawler, Edward J. (2001). “An Affect Theory of Social Exchange”. American Journal of Sociology. 107 (2): 321–352. doi:10.1086/324071. JSTOR 10.1086/324071. 20. McDonell, J.; Strom-Gottfried, K. J.; Burton, D. L.; Yaffe, J. (2006). “Behaviorism, social learning, and exchange theory”. In Robbins, S. P.; Chatterjee, P.; Canda, E. R. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 51 (eds.). Contemporary human behavior theory: a critical perspective for social work. Pearson. Pp. 349–85. 21. Roloff, Michael (1981). Interpersonal communication: The social exchange approach. Beverly Hills. 22. Jones, J. K. (1976). Social exchange theory: its structure and influence in social psychology. London: Academic Press. OCLC 163977277. 23. Lambe, C. Jay; Wittmann, C. Michael; Spekman, Robert E. (2001). “Social Exchange Theory and Research on Business-to-Business Relational Exchange”. Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing. 8 (3): 1–36. doi:10.1300/J033v08n03_01. 24. Thibaut, John; Kelley, Harold (2008). “Social Exchange Theory” (PDF). In Griffin, Em (ed.). A First Look at Communication Theory. McGraw Hill. pp. 196–205. ISBN 978-0-07-338502-0. 25. Gray, Paul S. (1980). “Exchange and Access in Field Work”.Journal of Contemporary Ethnography. 9 (3): 309–331. doi:10.1177/089124168000900303. 26. Mead, George H. (1934). Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 27. Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, 1949 28. Rose Laub Coser, “The Complexity of Roles as a Seedbed of Individual Autonomy”, in: The Idea of Social Structure: Papers in Honor of Robert K. Merton, 1975 29. Ralph Linton, The Study of Man, Chapter 8, \"Status and Role\", 1936 30. Blau, Peter (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-88738-628-2. 31. Miller, Katherine (2005). Communication Theories. New York: McGraw Hill. 32. Miller, Gerald R.; Steinberg, Mark (1975). Between people: A new analysis of interpersonal communication. Science Research Associates. ISBN 978-0-574-17501-4. 33. Thibaut, J. W.; Kelley, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-88738-633-6. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

52 Social Psychology UNIT 3 DEVELOPMENTAL VIEWS OF SELF: ERIKSON, SULLIVAN AND ROGERS Structure: 3.0 Learning Objectives 3.1 Introduction of Erikson 3.2 The Eight Stages of Erikson Theory 3.3 Developmental View of Self by Sullivan Theory 3.4 Carl Rogers Theory 3.5 Summary 3.6 Key Words/Abbreviations 3.7 Learning Activity 3.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 3.9 References 3.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the theory of Erikson, Sullivan, and Rogers  Describe the self development with these theories.  Elaborate the knowledge of self development. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 53 3.1 Introduction of Erikson Erikson maintained that personal develops in a predetermined order via eight degrees of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During every stage, the person experiences a psychosocial disaster which should have a superb or terrible effect for character development. For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature due to the fact they contain psychological needs of the man or woman (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the desires of society (i.e., social). According to the theory, profitable completion of each stage consequences in a wholesome personality and the acquisition of simple virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. Failure to efficiently whole a stage can end result in a reduced ability to whole further tiers and therefore a more unhealthy character and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved efficaciously at a later time. 3.2 The Eight Stages of Erikson Theory Table 3.1: Eight Stages of Erikson Theory Sr. No. Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age 0 - 1½ 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 1½ - 3 3-5 2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 5 - 12 12 - 18 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 18 - 40 40 - 65 4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 65+ 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

54 Social Psychology 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's idea of psychosocial development. This stage starts at delivery continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the child is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their important caregiver for steadiness and consistency of care. If we care, the toddler receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will strengthen a experience of believe which will elevate with them to other relationships, and they will be able to sense impervious even when threatened. If these wants are now not persistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiousness may additionally develop. If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the toddler may additionally enhance a feel of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the toddler will no longer have self assurance in the world around them or in their competencies to have an impact on events. If the care the child receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will boost a sense of trust which will elevate with them to other relationships, and they will be capable to feel impenetrable even when threatened. If these wants are not persistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiousness may also develop. If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the toddler can also improve a feel of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this state of affairs the child will not have confidence in the world round them or in their competencies to impact events. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame What Happens During This Stage? The child is creating bodily and turning into extra mobile, and discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as inserting on garments and shoes, enjoying with toys, etc. Such abilities illustrate the kid's growing feel of independence and autonomy. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 55 For example, at some stage in this stage teenagers commence to assert their independence, via taking walks away from their mother, selecting which toy to play with, and making selections about what they like to wear, to eat, etc. What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control? Erikson states it is essential that mother and father allow their youngsters to explore the limits of their competencies inside an encouraging surroundings which is tolerant of failure. For example, instead than put on a child's garments a supportive mum or dad have to have the persistence to enable the infant to strive until they prevail or ask for assistance. So, the dad and mom want to encourage the toddler to become extra unbiased whilst at the same time defending the baby so that regular failure is avoided. A delicate stability is required from the parent. They must try no longer to do everything for the child, however if the baby fails at a unique challenge they have to not criticize the infant for disasters and accidents (particularly when loo training). The goal has to be “self manipulate except a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992). 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Initiative versus guilt is the 0.33 stage of Erik Erikson's principle of psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, kids assert themselves extra frequently. These are mainly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the dad and mom may additionally see as aggressive.\" During this duration the fundamental characteristic includes the baby typically interacting with different kids at school. Central to this stage is play, as it gives youngsters with the chance to discover their interpersonal capabilities via initiating activities. Children start to layout activities, make up games, and provoke activities with others. If given this opportunity, youth increase a feel of initiative and sense invulnerable in their capability to lead others and make decisions. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

56 Social Psychology Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, both thru criticism or control, young people advance a sense of guilt. The toddler will regularly overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the chance is that the dad and mom will have a tendency to punish the infant and avoid his initiatives too much. It is at this stage that the infant will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the mother and father treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other factors of their conduct as threatening then the toddler might also have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”. Too a good deal guilt can make the child gradual to have interaction with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; in any other case the infant would not comprehend how to workout self-discipline or have a conscience. A healthful balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose, whilst failure effects in a feel of guilt. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. inferiority occurs in the course of childhood between the a long time of five and twelve. Children are at the stage where they will be gaining knowledge of to study and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers commence to take an vital role in the child’s existence as they educate the toddler precise skills. It is at this stage that the child’s peer team will reap higher significance and will emerge as a important supply of the child’s self-esteem. The baby now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific knowledge that are valued with the aid of society and start to increase a feel of pride in their accomplishments. If youth are encouraged and strengthened for their initiative, they start to sense industrious (competent) and feel confident in their capacity to acquire goals. If this initiative is no longer encouraged, if it is constrained by means of mother and father or teacher, then the infant starts to CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 57 sense inferior, doubting his very own skills and consequently might also now not reach his or her potential. If the toddler can't boost the specific ability they sense society is stressful (e.g., being athletic) then they may additionally increase a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be essential so that the toddler can advance some modesty. Again, a stability between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial improvement is identification vs. role confusion, and it happens throughout adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, young people search for a experience of self and personal identity, thru an excessive exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals. During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming greater independent, and begin to seem to be at the future in phrases of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The character wishes to belong to a society and suit in. The adolescent idea is in reality a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, and between the morality discovered by the child, and the ethics to be developed by means of the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245) This is a foremost stage of improvement the place the baby has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is at some stage in this stage that the adolescent will reassess his identity and try to find out precisely who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational. According to Bee (1992), what must manifest at the give up of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s splendid sex role”. During this stage the physique photograph of the adolescent changes. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

58 Social Psychology Erikson claims that the adolescent may experience uncomfortable about their body for a whilst until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity includes being capable to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there can also be ideological differences. During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to structure their own identity primarily based upon the result of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identification within society (“I don’t understand what I prefer to be when I develop up”) can lead to position confusion. Role confusion involves the individual now not being positive about themselves or their location in society. In response to function confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may also begin to experiment with one of a kind life (e.g., work, education or political activities). Also pressuring anyone into an identification can end result in rebellion in the structure of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. During this period, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member. Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 59 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). Generativity refers to \"making your mark\" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people. We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care. 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be” (1950) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982). As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

60 Social Psychology Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear. Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced. Merits By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development (McAdams, 2001). Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth. Erikson’s theory has good face validity. Many people find that they can relate to his theories about various stages of the life cycle through their own experiences. Demerits However, Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences must people have to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution. Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this development occurs. For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage. However, Erikson stressed his work was a ‘tool to think with rather than a factual analysis.’ Its purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be considered rather than testable theory. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 61 One of the strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial development across the entire lifespan. Although support for Erikson's stages of personality development exists (McAdams, 1999), critics of his theory provide evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages of personality development (McCrae & Costa, 1997). 3.3 Developmental View of Self by Sullivan Theory 1. Introduction Self-system (also referred to as self-dynamism) was a personality concept created by Harry S. Sullivan that he believed served to minimize the tension of anxiety. The self-system was defined as a unique collection of experiences that was used to describe one's own self. For the most part, Sullivan claimed that the self-system was the result of appraisals provided by caregivers during early childhood. Sullivan considered the self-system as a major structure in personality development that could appear as early as 6 months of age. The positive reinforcement a child received during mid- infancy would not only prompt the development of the self-system, but also act as preparation for societal expectations. 2. Sullivan's Self-System In order for the self-system to develop, Sullivan affirmed that \"good me\" and \"bad me\" personifications must first form. These personifications are organized perceptions that are account of certain experiences. The \"good me\" personification consists of experiences that are rewarded, which a child would sense a noticeable decrease of anxiety. The \"bad me\" personification on the other hand consists of experiences that are punished and cause greater anxiety to a child. These personifications then fuse into what Sullivan called the self-system. Furthermore, Sullivan emphasized that the self-system was the product of two additional factors: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

62 Social Psychology 1. The exploration of an infant's own body: Sullivan provided thumb sucking as an example of the exploration a child has during mid-infancy. The very act of thumb sucking would help differentiate the infant from himself or herself and others. 2. The appraisals from caregivers: Sullivan believed that interpersonal relationships were vital in personality development and specifically in the formation of the self-system. Therefore, the type of appraisals a child receives will determine the kind of self- dynamism they will develop. 3. Comparison to Freudian Constructs The self-system revolves around the idea of perception, evaluation, and regulatory behavior. Since this concept is associated with the self, it was often compared to Sigmund Freud's ego construct. Freudian analysts were concerned about the self-system, claiming that it was equivalent to the ego. This is because like both the self-system and the ego develop during early childhood and also serve to reduce anxiety (although the ego works with the id to reduce this anxiety). Additionally, they both include some sort of protective activity, mainly to decrease anxiety. Freud developed defense mechanisms, whereas Sullivan created security operations. In one of five lectures Sullivan gave at the White Psychiatric Foundation in 1947, he acknowledged that the self-system does have a few similarities with the psychoanalytic ego, however they are two different theoretical systems. 4. Security Operations To reduce anxiety, Sullivan emphasized that the self-system must use two specific security operations, dissociation and selective inattention. (i) Dissociation: This security operation describes the failure to acknowledge an undesirable portion of one's personality. An event may have been so threatening, that a child feels the need to disown that particular material. Dissociation is considered unconscious and must remain that way in order to prevent abnormal behavior from occurring. For example: A child might claim and believe that their hand was responsible for an action in order to prevent punishment. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 63 (ii) Selective Inattention: Similar to dissociation, selective inattention is accomplished unconsciously. The self-system reduces anxiety by merely ignoring any signs of threatening events and proceeds with regular activity. A child will act like nothing happened. For example: A mother yells at her child for throwing sand outside the sandbox. The child continues to play in the sandbox without showing any indications that he has been screamed at. 5. Disadvantages According to Sullivan, although the self-system serves to diminish anxiety, it is resistant to change. The self-system might get the impression that they can handle any situation, even though it rejects a situation or merely disowns it. The more the self-system encounters anxiety provoking events, the more ambitious the self-system will get. Additionally, the self-system may make a person believe that she is unique in many more ways than she really is. Sullivan also referred to the self-system as a \"microscope.\" When looking through a microscope for the first time, the image is blurry, therefore we must adjust the knobs to focus on the specific specimen we want to view. The self-system is the same way; it must focus much of its attention on experiences with close others, whether they resulted in reward or punishment, in order to form a clear image of ourselves. For the reason that the self-system focuses solely on experiences that resulted in pain or pleasure, it ignores what is going on outside of these experiences. Because the self-system is derived from the appraisals a child has experienced, negative events can affect its development. Sullivan explained in his first lecture, “Basic Conceptions,” that if a child only encountered belittling events as an infant, he or she will develop a self-system that will conform with these standards. This means that a child will think low of him or her self and find fault in everything he or she does. Not only will this critical self-system affect the way a child views him or herself, but also the way they view other people. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

64 Social Psychology 3.4 Carl Rogers Theory Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist who agreed with the main assumptions of Abraham Maslow. However, Rogers (1959) added that for a person to \"grow\", they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood). Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should, much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water. Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes, and desires in life. When, or rather if they did so, self actualization took place. This was one of Carl Rogers most important contributions to psychology, and for a person to reach their potential a number of factors must be satisfied. 1. Self Actualization “The organism has one basic tendency and striving - to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism” (Rogers, 1951, p. 487). Rogers rejected the deterministic nature of both psychoanalysis and behaviorism and maintained that we behave as we do because of the way we perceive our situation. \"As no one else can know how we perceive, we are the best experts on ourselves.\" Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self- actualize - i.e., to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness' we can. Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is constrained by its environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their environment is good enough. However, unlike a flower, the potential of the individual human is unique, and we are meant to develop in different ways according to our personality. Rogers believed that people are inherently good and creative. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 65 They become destructive only when a poor self-concept or external constraints override the valuing process. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence. This means that self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self” (i.e., who they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image). Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main determinant of whether we will become self-actualized is childhood experience. 2. The Fully Functioning Person Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goal. This means that the person is in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings, continually growing and changing. In many ways, Rogers regarded the fully functioning person as an ideal and one that people do not ultimately achieve. It is wrong to think of this as an end or completion of life’s journey; rather it is a process of always becoming and changing. Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person: 1. Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense mechanisms). 2. Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for the moment). 3. Trust feelings: feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People’s own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices. 4. Creativity: creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person’s life. A person does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new experiences. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

66 Social Psychology 5. Fulfilled life: a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new challenges and experiences. For Rogers, fully functioning people are well adjusted, well balanced and interesting to know. Often such people are high achievers in society. Critics claim that the fully functioning person is a product of Western culture. In other cultures, such as Eastern cultures, the achievement of the group is valued more highly than the achievement of any one person. 3. Personality Development Central to Rogers' personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept. This is defined as “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.” The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our inner personality, and can be likened to the soul, or Freud's psyche. The self is influenced by the experiences a person has in their life, and out interpretations of those experiences. Two primary sources that influence our self-concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others. According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self. The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image. The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept includes three components: (i) Self-worth: Self-worth (or self-esteem) comprises what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. (ii) Self-image: How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 67 At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image affects how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world. (iii) Ideal-self: This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e., forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc. 4. Positive Regard and Self Worth Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard from other people and self-worth. How we think about ourselves, our feelings of self-worth are of fundamental importance both to psychological health and to the likelihood that we can achieve goals and ambitions in life and achieve self-actualization. Self-worth may be seen as a continuum from very high to very low. For Carl Rogers (1959) a person who has high self-worth, that is, has confidence and positive feelings about him or herself, faces challenges in life, accepts failure and unhappiness at times, and is open with people. A person with low self-worth may avoid challenges in life, not accept that life can be painful and unhappy at times, and will be defensive and guarded with other people. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. As a child grows older, interactions with significant others will affect feelings of self-worth. Rogers believed that we need to be regarded positively by others; we need to feel valued, respected, treated with affection and loved. Positive regard is to do with how other people evaluate and judge us in social interaction. Rogers made a distinction between unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard. 1. Unconditional Positive Regard Unconditional positive regard is where parents, significant others (and the humanist therapist) accepts and loves the person for what he or she is. Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes a mistake. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

68 Social Psychology The consequences of unconditional positive regard are that the person feels free to try things out and make mistakes, even though this may lead to getting it worse at times. People who are able to self-actualize are more likely to have received unconditional positive regard from others, especially their parents in childhood. 2. Conditional Positive Regard Conditional positive regard is where positive regard, praise, and approval, depend upon the child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think correct. Hence the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she behaves only in ways approved by the parent(s). At the extreme, a person who constantly seeks approval from other people is likely only to have experienced conditional positive regard as a child. 3. Congruence A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in life and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence. Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state of congruence exists. Rarely, if ever, does a total state of congruence exist; all people experience a certain amount of incongruence. The development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence. According to Rogers, we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self. The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 69 Incongruence is \"a discrepancy between the actual experience of the organism and the self- picture of the individual insofar as it represents that experience. As we prefer to see ourselves in ways that are consistent with our self-image, we may use defense mechanisms like denial or repression in order to feel less threatened by some of what we consider to be our undesirable feelings. A person whose self-concept is incongruent with her or his real feelings and experiences will defend because the truth hurts. 5. Carl Rogers Quotes “The very essence of the creative is its novelty, and hence we have no standard by which to judge it”. (Rogers, 1961, p. 351) “I have gradually come to one negative conclusion about the good life. It seems to me that the good life is not any fixed state. It is not, in my estimation, a state of virtue, or contentment, or nirvana, or happiness. It is not a condition in which the individual is adjusted or fulfilled or actualized. To use psychological terms, it is not a state of drive-reduction, or tension-reduction, or homeostasis”. (Rogers, 1967, p. 185-186) “The good life is a process, not a state of being. It is a direction not a destination”. (Rogers, 1967, p. 187) 3.5 Summary Eric Erikson states that a person develops in a predetermined order through eight degrees of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. In every stage the person experiences a psychosocial dister which should have a superb or terrible effect for character development. The eight stages of Erikson theory are trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. Role confusion, intimacy vs. Isolation, generativity vs. stagnation and ego integrity vs. Despair. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

70 Social Psychology The merits of Eriksons theory are it outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development, psychology has reconceptualized the way, the later periods of life are viewed, and it has good face validity. The demerits of Eriksons theory are it is vague about the causes of development, his theory is a tool to think with rather than a fact and analysis and it laks discrete stages of personality development. Harry S. Sullivan created the personality concept of self-system (self dynamism), which served to minimize the tension of anxiety. Self-system was a unique collection of experiences that was used to describe one’s own self. Self-system was the result of appraisals provided by care givers during early childhood. Self-system was a major structure in personality development, that could appear as early as six months of age. In order for the self-system to develop, Sullivan affirmed that “good me” and “bad me” personifications must first form. Sullivan emphasized that the self-system was the product of two additional factors. (a) The exploration of an infants own body. (b) The appraisals from care givers. To reduce anxiety, Sullivan emphasized that the self-system must use two specific security operations, dissociation and selective in attention. The disadvantages of Sullivan theory are self-system serves to diminish anxiety, it is assistant to change, self - system is microscope. It ignores what is going on a outside of experiences and self-system is derived from the appraisals a child has experienced, negative events can affect its development. Carls Rogers was a humanistic psychologist. For a person ‘to grow’ they need an environment that provides them with genuiness, acceptance and empathy. Roger believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes and desires in life. When, or rather if they did so, self actualisation took place. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 71 Carl Roger believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self - actualize. Self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self’ is congruent with their actual behaviour. The five characteristic of fully functioning person are open to experience, existential living, trust feelings, creativity and fulfilled life. Self concept is the organized , consistent set of perception and beliefs about oneself. Self- concept includes three component, i.e., self-worth, self-image and ideal-self. Carl Roger viewed the child on having two basic needs: positive regard from others people and self-worth. Roger made a distinction between unconditional positive regard are conditional positive regards. Rogers explained the terms congruence and incongruence. The development of congruence. The development of congruence depends on unconditional positive regard. For a person to self- actualization they must be in a state of congruence. 3.6 Key Words/Abbreviations 1. Initiative Vs. Guilt: Initiative vs. Guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson’s principle of psychosocial development. 2. Self-system: The self-system was defined as a unique collection of experiences that was used to describe one’s own self. 3. Self-image: self-image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. 4. Congruence: Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a stat of congruence exists. 5. Dissociation: Dissociation is considered unconscious and must remain that way in order to prevent abnormal behavior from occurring. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

72 Social Psychology 3.7 Learning Activity 1. List some more self development theories and discuss in the class. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Do you agree with the views of these three theorist of this unit, say yes or no - state the reasons. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3.8 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive Questions) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. Explain the eight stages of Eriksons theory, in brief. 2. Explain the Developmental view of self by Harry S. Sullivan theory. 3. State the merits and demerits of Eriksons theory. 4. What are the five characteristics of a self developed person according to Rogers? 5. Explain positive regard and self worth. 6. What is self-worth, self-image and Ideal-self? 7. Explain the developmental views of self by Carl Rogers. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. _________ maintained that a person develops in a predetermined order via eight degrees of psychosocial developments from infancy to adulthood. (a) Sullivan (b) Rogers (c) Erikson (d) McClelland CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 73 2. _______ is the first stage in Eric Erikson’s idea of psychosocial development. (a) Trust Vs. Mistrust (b) Autonomy Vs. Shame (c) Initiative Vs. Guilt (d) Industry Vs. Inferiority 3. _______ is the basic virtue in Intimacy C. Isolation. (a) Fidelity (b) Care (c) Love (d) Will 4. ________ is the final stage of Eric Erikson’s Stage theory of Psychosocial development. (a) Industry Vs. Inferiority (b) Identity Vs. Stagnation (c) Generativity Vs. Stagnation (d) Ego Integrity Vs. Depair 5. Self-system was a personality concept created by ___________. (a) Harry S. Sullivan (b) Carl Rogers (c) Erik Erikson (d) Abraham Maslow 6. ________ is accomplished unconsciously. (a) Dissociation (b) Selective in attention (c) Association (d) Selection 7. ___________ describes the failure to acknowledge an undesirable portion of one’s personality. (a) Dissociation (b) Selective inattention (c) Self system (d) Self dynamism 8. According to ___________ for a person to grow, they need an environment that provides them with genuineness, acceptance and empathy. (a) Carl Rogers (b) Abraham Maslow (c) Erik Erikson (d) Harry S. Sullivan CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

74 Social Psychology 9. The ____________ concept includes three components. (a) Self (b) MY (c) Your (d) Him 10. __________ regard is where parents, significant others accept and loves the person for what he or she is. (a) Conditional Positive (b) Conditional negative (c) Unconditional negative (d) Unconditional positive 11. __________ regard is where positive regard, praise and approval, depend upon the child praise and approval depend upon the child (a) Conditional negative (b) Unconditional negative (c) Conditional positive (d) Unconditional positive Answers: 1. (c), 2. (a), 3. (c), 4. (d), 5. (a), 6. (b), 7. (a), 8. (a), 9. (a), 10. (d), 11. (c) 3.9 References 1. McLeod, S. A. (2018, May 03), Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html 2. Erikson, E. H. (1950), “Childhood and society” New York: Norton. 3. Erickson, E. H. (1958), “Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history”, New York: Norton. 4. Erikson E. H . (1982), “The life cycle completed”, New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 5. Erikson, E. H. (1959), “Psychological issues”, New York, NY: International University Press. 6. Gross, R. D., & Humphreys, P. (1992), “Psychology: The science of mind and behavior”, London: Hodder & Stoughton. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 75 7. McCrae, R. R., & Costa Jr, P. T. (1997), “Personality trait structure as a human universal”, American Psychologist, 52(5), 509. 8. Ewen, Robert B. (2010), “Harry Stack Sullivan: The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry.” In An Introduction to Theories of Personality. Psychology Press. 7th Edition. pp. 141-145. ISBN 978-1-84169-746-8. 9. Shainess, Natalie (1978), “Reflections on the contributions of Harry Stack Sullivan”. American Journal of Psychoanalysis. 38: 301–318. 10. Sullivan, Harry S. (1953), “The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry”, Begininings of the self-system: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 158–170. 11. Feist, J and Feist, G.J (2009), “Sullivan :Interpersonal theory” in Theories of Personality . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. 12. Sullivan, Harry S. (1953), “Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry” (2ed ), W.W Norton & Company Inc. pp. 19–29. 13. McLeod, S.A. (2014, Feb 05), “Carl Rogers”, Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-rogers.html 15. Rogers, C. (1959), “A theory of therapy, personality and interpersonal relationships as developed in the client-centered framework”, In (ed.) S. Koch, “Psychology: A study of a science”, Vol. 3: Formulations of the person and the social context. New York: McGraw Hill. 16. Rogers, C.R. (1961), “On Becoming a person: A psychotherapists view of psychotherapy”, Houghton Mifflin. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

76 Social Psychology UNIT 4 RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Structure: 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Research Methods in Social Psychology 4.3 Systematic Observation 4.4 Correlation 4.5 Experimental Method 4.6 Summary 4.7 Key Words/Abbreviations 4.8 Learning Activity 4.9 Unit End Questions(MCQ and Descriptive) 4.10 References 4.0 Learning Objectives After studying this chapter you will be able to:  Explain the different methods of research in social Psychology.  Differentiate the advantages and disadvantages of survey method.  Elaborate the merits and demerits of Experimental method.  Describe the advantages and disadvantages of observation method.  Illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of correlation method. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Methods in Social Psychology 77 4.1 Introduction Social psychology is an empirical science. Its theories and conclusions about social behaviour are tested through the use of systematic data collection and observation. Social psychology, like other science, is interested in research based knowledge and it uses wide variety of research methods, to investigate different of forms of social behaviour. 4.2 Research Methods in Social psychology Psychology is a science and as a science psychology uses wide variety of methods to study its subject-matter. Some important methods used by psychologists are as follows: 1. Observation Method 2. Case Study Method 3. Survey Method 4. Interview Method 5. Experimental Method 6. Projective Techniques 7. Correlational Method We would discuss each of these methods. Observation Method This method is also called as Method of Systematic Observation, Naturalistic Method or the Field Study Method. It is the careful observation and recording of behaviour in real-life setting. In this method the researcher does not willfully manipulate the independent variable as they do in formal experiments. They observe the behaviour as it occurs in natural environment. Social behaviours and social psychological phenomenon can be studied by using this method. Both human and animal behaviour can be observed by using this method. Sometimes, one way vision screen is also used to study the behaviour of organism. In human beings this method is used to study play and friendship patterns among children, love making among adolescents, leadership tactics of effective managers, etc. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

78 Social Psychology Advantages of Naturalistic Observation:  By using this method, realistic social behaviours can be studied under conditions and in settings where it normally occurs.  Wide range of subjects can be observed at a given period of time.  Many of the drawbacks of the experimental method like that of demand characteristics and problems of generalisability are lessened if this method is used. Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation:  Full control over independent variables is not possible as in the case with the experimental method. Experimenter cannot manipulate the independent variable as per his desires.  As opposed to the experimental method, there is greater possibility of the impact of extraneous (confounding) variables. If this occurs results would be greatly effected.  Difficult to protect the rights and the safety of participants, as in many social psychological research studies, deception is used and informed consent and debriefing often becomes Impossible.  The most important drawback of this method is that it tells us what is happening but not why or how a certain type of behaviour occurs. It only tells us about the correlationship between variables. It tells us nothing about cause-effect relationship. The Case Study Method Case study method is also called as the Clinical Method. Clinical psychologists or the clinician largely, makes use of this method. Clinical case study is a scientific biography of an individual. It is used to study a single person’s behaviour at a given time. It consists of preparing an in-depth case history of a patient through information gathered by interviewing the patient, his relatives, friends and others who are close to him. Most case studies are prepared by reconstructing the biography of a person according to remembered events and records. Case study method has many advantages and limitations, some of which are summarised below: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Methods in Social Psychology 79 Advantages of the Case Study Method  Case studies provide a detail account of rare or unusual phenomena or of method of diagnosis and treatment, e.g., rare disorders like multiple personality can be studied by case study method.  Case studies can also be used as an evidence to negate an assumed universal relationship or laws, e.g., Freud initially believed that early sexual assault was the basis of all mental problems in females. But one single case studies provided negative instance and Freud had to change his belief.  Case studies often generate hypothesis that can be further tested through controlled research. Disadvantages of Case Study Method  Case studies lack control and objectivity of other techniques. Data obtained by case study can be interpreted in various ways depending on the theoretical framework of the interpreter.  Case studies cannot be used to “prove” a theory because there is tendency to select that evidence which will support one’s theory and neglect, the negative instances.  Even if the case study is quite accurate, generalisation about the outcome are not easy. Because what applies to one individual, may not apply to other. Thus, the selectivity and biases on the part of both, the clinician and the patient, makes the method limited in scope. Survey Method This is one of the most widely used methods. It utilises interviews and questionnaires with individuals in community. The survey method is an observation method, which consists of taking a sample from the group and asking them questions. Then the replies are analysed and conclusions drawn. The questions used can be ‘Yes-No’ answer type or open-ended. The type of questions used depends upon the purpose and type of study. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

80 Social Psychology The survey method uses two types of techniques.  The questionnaire method.  The interview method. In the questionnaire method, researcher prepares a written questionnaire and sends it to random samples of population. The answers are analysed and conclusions drawn. In the interview method researcher asks questions in person to the individuals. Usually, interviews are standardised so that same question are asked to each and every person. Many branches of psychology like educational, clinical, counseling, etc., use survey method. Surveys are mostly used to study consumer opinions about television programme, particular consumer product, political opinion. Surveys are also used to disprove certain myths concerning sex-related behaviour. The classic surveys carried by Alfred Kinsey in late 1940s and early 1950s revealed that larger number of people indulged in masturbation and extramarital relationship that was expected at that time. Advantages  The primary advantage of the survey method is that we can gather a great deal of information in a relatively short period.  It helps us to study a large number of individuals and understand their problems, opinions, attitudes, etc.  It is very useful in the study of social issues and problems.  This method is useful to study the reaction of individuals to certain important events. Disadvantages:  The person who conducts the survey should be skillful and knowledgeable.  This method is not always reliable because no control group can be used in this method.  This method does not help us to know why certain people hold certain opinions or attitudes.  The accuracy of information obtained in survey method is questionable. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Methods in Social Psychology 81 Interview Method Interview can be defined as a face-to-face conversation carried on with some basic goal. Interview method is used to study human behaviour and to know about the causes of human behaviour. It is used to study the manifestation of the given behaviour in an individual as well as its recurring pattern. Interview method is also used as an assessment tool to measure an individual’s personality. This method is mostly used by clinical psychologists, child psychologists, educational psychologists and vocational counsellors. The interview method was employed in the field of child psychology when treatment was required, but now it is used for eliciting specific information. In this method the subject, (i.e., the child) is present before the psychologists who, asks the child a variety of questions. The answers given by the child and his accompanying non-verbal behaviour including his/her facial expressions will give us considerable knowledge about the behaviour of the child. The aim and object of the interview is determined before hand and questions are framed to suit the aim, so that only the required information is elicited. Interview method is of many types. Two broad types of interview areas follows:  Structured interview, and  Unstructured interview. Structured interview uses standardised questions. There are restrictions on what questions can be asked by the interviewer. Structured interview is generally used where strict measurement and exact quantification is required. In structured interview predetermined questions are asked for which answers are also highly specific. Unstructured interview is an open interrogation. Here the interviewer asks the subject or interviewee any question on any subject relevant to the situation. Detailed answers can be given in this interview and the scoring is often subjective. The distinction between structured and unstructured interview has been very well brought about as below: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

82 Social Psychology Structured Interview 1. In structured interview fixed set of questions are asked. The questions are standardised. 2. An interview asks a predetermined set of questions. He/she cannot ask any question, which are not in the list. 3. An interview gets limited information about the interviewee, as he cannot deviate from the list. 4. The result of the structured interviews are highly objective. 5. The structured interviews are generally used for employment interviews. Unstructured Interview 1. In unstructured interview, an interviewer can ask any set of questions, which require subjective answers. 2. An interviewer decides during the interview what questions are to be asked. 3. An interviewer gets more information bout the interviewee as he can ask any probing question. 4. The results of the unstructured interview are subjective. 5. The unstructured interviews are generally used by psychologists and psychotherapists to understand a person’s motives and problems. Uses of Interview Method The chief advantage of this method is that a trained interviewer can elicit wealth of information. Secondly, interview is a highly flexible tool and can be used with a wide variety of Populations. Criticisms of Interview Interview method has been criticised on the following grounds:  For being highly subjective.  For lacking in reliability and validity.  The personal qualities of the interviewer can influence the results. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Methods in Social Psychology 83  It is too time-consuming and at times costly.  This method also requires a well-trained and competent person to conduct the interview. 4.3 Systematic Observation Describing the World around Us: Method of systematic observation is one of the basic techniques for studying social behavior. This method is also called as the naturalistic observation method or the field study method. This method is similar to the experimental method in that variables are measured but it is different in that researchers do not willfully manipulate the independent variable. The psychologist makes the most systematic study of the behavior that occurs naturally. In other words method of systematic observation is a research method in which an individual’s behavior or behavior of a group of individuals is observed and recorded in as objective and unbiased a manner as possible. Many aspects of behavior are learned in this fashion. This method has been used in Social Psychology to study wide variety of social behavior, such as:  How frequently do people touch each other in different setting?  To study the effect of temperature on motorists’ horn honking.  To study attitudes concerning social issues, voting preferences or consumer reactions to new products, etc., (studied through survey method). Sometimes one-way vision screen is also used to study the behaviour of organism. In human beings this method is used to study play and friendship patterns among children, love making among adolescents, leadership tactics of effective managers, etc. While using this method the researcher simply notices and records as to what is happening in the various contexts. No attempt is made to change the behaviour of the people being observed. This method requires that the researcher takes great pain to avoid influencing the people being observed in any way. Systematic observation makes use of questionnaires, surveys, interviews, etc. The method of systematic observation can take many different forms. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

84 Social Psychology Advantages of the Method of Systematic Observation: (a) By using this method, realistic social behaviors can be studied under conditions and in settings where it normally occurs. (b) Wide range of subjects can be observed at a given period of time. (c) Many of the drawbacks of the experimental method like that of demand characteristics; problems of generalisability are lessened if this method is used. Disadvantages of the Method of Systematic Observation: (a) Full control over independent variable is not possible as in the case with the experimental method. Experimenter cannot manipulate the independent variable as per his desires. (b) As opposed to the experimental method, there is greater possibility of the impact of extraneous (confounding) variables. If this occurs results would be greatly affected. (c) Difficult to protect the rights and the safety of participants, as in many social psychological research studies, deception is used and informed consent and debriefing often becomes impossible. (d) The most important drawback of this method is that it tells us what is happening but not why or how a certain type of behavior occurs. It only tells us about the correlationship between variables. It tells us nothing about cause effect relationship. 4.4 Correlation The Search for Relationships: Correlation method is a method of research in which a scientist systemically observes two or more variables to determine whether changes in one are accompanied by changes in the other. In this method an effort is made to determine whether two or more variables are related by engaging in careful observation of both. If changes in one are found to be consistently associated with changes in the other, evidence for a link between them is obtained. This method tells us about the relationship between two variables. It tells us how the changes in one variable go along with the changes in the other variable. Correlation is a single number that tells us to what extent two variables are related, to what extent variations in one go with the variations in another. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Methods in Social Psychology 85 The coefficient of co-relation is a single number varying from +1.00 to 0.00 to –1.00. The number refers to the degree or magnitude of co-relationship, whereas, the signs indicate the direction of co-relationship. +1.00 means perfect positive co-relationship, whereas –1.00 means perfect negative co-relationship. 0.00 means no co-relationship. The three types of correlationship can be summarized as follows:  Positive co-relationship: When increase in one variable leads to simultaneous increase in another variable or vice versa it is called as positive co-relationship. Positive co- relationship expresses direct relationship. An example of positive correlation would be increase in need for affiliation leads to increase in socialization. Another example would be increase in the amount of anxiety or stress leads to increased desire to affiliate with others.  Negative co-relationship: When increase in one variable leads to simultaneous decrease in another variable or vice versa it is called as negative co-relationship. Negative co- relationship expresses inverse relationship. An example of negative correlation would be increase in examination anxiety leads to decline in performance on the given exam. Another example of negative correlation would be that decline in one’s health increases the probability that he/she would become more diet conscious. Thus, as one’s health declines there is an increased probability that there is an increase in consciousness about one’s diet intake.  Zero co-relationship: A zero co-relationship is said to exist when increase or decrease in one variable does not affect the other variable in any manner. An example of zero correlationship would be one’s success in examination and your housemaid’s health. Another example of zero correlation is the relationship between your health and the dieting that your next-door neighbor’s wife does. Social Psychology and the Correlation Method: Social psychologists have used the correlation method to study very many topics. Chaplin et. al., (2000) used the correlation method to test the hypothesis that, “Firm handshake (measured in terms of strength, vigor, duration and completeness of the grip) produces better first impression than the weak ones”. They conducted a CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

86 Social Psychology study in which participants in a study met an assistant who shook their hand. The assistant’s handshake was weak, moderate or firm in nature. The results of their study indicated that the stronger the handshake, the more favorable were participant’s first impression of the assistant. Participants perceived the assistant with the firm handshake to be more warm, friendly, confident and outgoing. Advantages of Co-relational Method: (i) It can be used for research in those situations in which practical and ethical constraints render the experimentation impossible (ii) It can be employed to study behavior in many real settings. Natural behavior or naturally occurring phenomenon can be studied most effectively. (iii) This method is often highly efficient and can yield large amounts of interesting data in a short time. It can also be extended to include many different variables at once. (iv) Once we know that the two variables are closely related we can estimate the value of one variable given the value of another. Thus, correlation can help us to make predictions. Disadvantages of Co-relational Method: (i) One of the chief limitations of this method is that it can tell us how two variables are occurring but not why? This method does not tell us anything about the cause-effect relationship. The fact that changes in one variable are accompanied by changes in another variable does not guarantee a causal link between the two. (ii) Use of deception in this method is another drawback. Use of deception has been criticized by many scholars. Due to use of deception, rights and safety of the subject cannot be protected. (iii) Since strict control over independent variable is not possible in this experiment, rights and the safety of the subjects cannot be protected. Correlation and Causation: With respect to correlation method it should be remembered that correlation is not equivalent to causation. In experiment method we can easily determine the exact cause-effect relationship. However, the correlation method only tells us as to how two variables are related but not why. In other words correlation method cannot be used to establish CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Methods in Social Psychology 87 cause-effect relationship. High correlation also does not mean that one variable is caused by the other or vice versa. Some times the relationship between the two variables can be influenced by some other third unknown variable. 4.5 Experimental Method Knowledge through Systematic Intervention: The experimental method is also called as experimentation. This is one of the most preferred research methods used by Social Psychologists. In this method one makes controlled observations. Experimental method helps us to establish cause-effect relationship. Experimental method is a method of research in which one or more factors (the independent variables) are systematically changed to determine whether such variations affect one or more other factors (dependent variables). The experimental method attempts to determine whether and how strongly a specific factor (variable) is related with some aspect of social behaviour or not. In order to determine this, an experimenter varies or changes something and attempts to determine whether these variations have any impact on the aspect of social behaviour or social thought under investigation. If the varied factor brings about changes in any aspect of social behaviour being studied then the relationship between the two is established. Experimental method goes beyond description and aims at explanation. It attempts to answer “why” question i.e., it offers explanation about the occurrence of a given phenomenon and helps establish cause-effect relationship. Experimental Method makes use of many variables. Variables: A variable is anything that varies quantitatively and that can be measured quantitatively. There are three types of variables. (i) Independent Variable: It is that variable which is systematically varied by the experimenter. It can be defined as the factor whose effect the experimenter wishes to find out. Independent variable is also defined as that variable whose quantitative value can be independently controlled by the researcher. Independent variable is within the hands of the experimenter. Its quantitative value can be increased, decreased or withdrawn. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

88 Social Psychology (ii) Dependent Variable: The effect of the independent variable is called as the dependent variable or in other words changes that comes about as a result of the changes in the independent variable is called as the dependent variable. The variable whose quantitative value depends on the effects of the independent variable is called as the dependent variable. The term dependent variable is used to show that this factor depends upon something else. The dependent variable is the measure of the behaviour of the subject or a report of the subject’s response to a stimulus, a change in the behaviour after administration of a drug, a score on a test and so on. (iii) Intervening Variable: It refers to those variables that intervene between the independent and dependent variable. Control: Besides the above-mentioned variables, experimental method makes use of what is called as control. In experimental method it is very essential that not only the independent variable be allowed to change, but factors other than independent variable, which might affect the dependent variable, must be held constant. Very often a researcher fails to control the appropriate variables. In such cases confounding takes place. There are two kinds of variables, which needs to be controlled:  Conditions: One has to control the conditions under which experiments are being performed.  Characteristics of the group, which are relevant, like age, sex, and experience, etc., have also to be controlled. Confounding of Variables: In an experimental method it is very essential that not only the independent variable be allowed to change, but factors other than independent variable, which might affect the dependent variable, must be held constant. Very often a researcher fails to control the appropriate variables. In such cases confounding takes place. Confounding of Variables means that the researchers have unknowingly not controlled certain significant variables which they should have controlled and that these variables have mixed with the independent variables and thus affected the results of the experiment. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Methods in Social Psychology 89 Experimentation: Its Basic Nature: The two basic steps in any experiment are as follows: (a) Some specific variables, which are presumed to have an influence on certain aspects of social behaviour are systematically altered to determine how changes in a given variable bring about corresponding changes in another presumed to be related variable. (b) The changes or effects of such alteration are precisely measured. In an experimental method the subjects in the different groups are exposed to contrasting levels of the independent variable (e.g., low, moderate, high, etc.). The behaviour of these persons is then carefully examined and compared to determine whether different levels of independent variable have influenced the behaviour. If it does, we can tentatively conclude that the independent variable does influence the behaviour under investigation. Social Psychologists may conduct a very simple experiment involving one independent variable having either one or more levels or they may conduct an experiment involving many independent variables having many different levels. When two or more variables are included in an experiment, a larger amount of information about the topics of interest can usually be obtained. In real social situation our behaviour and thoughts are usually influenced not by any one single factor but by many different factors acting concurrently. Social Psychologists are interested in examining the potential interactions between two or more variables. Through interaction we can determine whether the impact of one independent variable is affected in some manner by one or more other variables. Two basic requirements of successful experimentation: Any successful experimentation involves the two basic requirements, which are as follows: (i) Random Assignment of Participants to Groups: This is one of the basic requirements for conducting valid experimentation. According to this principle, each person taking part in a study must have an equal chance of being exposed to each level of the independent variable. The reason for this rule is simple. If participants are not randomly assigned to each group, it may prove impossible to determine whether differences in their CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

90 Social Psychology behaviour in the study stem from differences they brought with them, from the impact of the independent variable, or from both. (ii) Control: The second basic requirement of experimentation is that insofar as possible, all other factors that might also affect participant’s behaviour, aside not maintained then confounding may result. When confounding occurs it is impossible to determine the cause of any differences among the various experimental conditions. Merits (i) Most scientific method: Experimental method is the most scientific method and it meets all the criteria of the scientific method. (ii) Reliable and valid: It is the most reliable and the valid method, which can tell us about the exact cause-effect relationship. (iii) Strict control over variable possible: This method helps us to maintain strict control over variables. Subject’s rights and interest can be protected through informed consent, debriefing and confidentiality of results. Demerits (i) Limited scope due to practical and ethical constraints: The scope of this method is limited. In many situations a researcher cannot use the experimental method because of certain practical difficulties in conducting a controlled study in the laboratory or due to certain social, moral or ethical reasons for e.g., sexual behaviour of human beings cannot be studied in the laboratory set up. (ii) Problem of external validity or generalisation: Since, in the experimental method an artificial situation is created some of the results (in some of the experiments) cannot be easily generalised from laboratory findings to every day life situations. Thus, the experimental method poses the problem of external validity. External validity refers to the extent to which one can generalize from research setting and participant population to other settings and populations. If the external validity is high then we can easily make generalizations to other situations and participant populations. Replication of our experiment helps to assess external validity. Many social psychological experiments lack CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Methods in Social Psychology 91 external validity because the subjects chosen to participate in the study, very often, are students who come from a particular socio-economic level. (iii) Demand characteristic: The concept of demand characteristics was given by Martin Orne to highlight the pressure put on people participating in research. It refers to those cues available to participants in an experiment that may enable them to determine the purpose of the experiment or what is expected by the experimenter. It is also defined as the participant’s perception of what is demanded by an experimental procedure. This perception may be very different from the experimenter’s intention. This perception can be true or false. It effects the results of the experiment because subjects behave in a predetermined manner on the basis of his/her perception of what is expected of him/her by the experimenter or experimental procedure. (iv) Experimenter Effects: It has been observed that in an experimentation, a experimenter or researcher may sometimes get influenced or biased towards certain groups and offer them subtle indirect cues which may influence the results of the study (experimentation) in a desired direction. This phenomenon is called as experimenter effects. In other words, experimenter effects refer to the unintended effects on participant’s behaviour produced by researchers. It occurs when researchers unintentionally influence the behaviour of participants. In order to overcome the experimenter effects, researchers use a procedure called as double-blind procedure. In this procedure a researcher who is in contact with the participant do not know the hypothesis under investigation. Since the investigators (researchers) are not aware about the hypothesis of the experiment, the chances that they will influence the results of the experiment in a desired direction is eliminated. External Validity: Experimentation is one of the most important of all the methods in Social Psychology. One important issue related to experimentation is what is called as “External Validity”, which can be defined as the extent to which the findings of an experiment can be generalized to real-life social situations and perhaps to people from those who participated in the research. If the external validity is high then we can easily make generalizations to other situations and participant populations. Replication of our experiment helps to assess external validity. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

92 Social Psychology 4.6 Summary Social psychology uses different research methods to investigate different forms of social behaviour, which are as follows:  Observation Method: This method is also called as Method of Systematic Observation, Naturalistic Method or the Field Study Method.Social behaviours and social psychological phenomenon can be studied by using this method. Both human and animal behaviour can be observed by using this method  Survey Method: This is one of the most widely used methods. It utilises interviews and questionnaires with individuals in community. The survey method is an observation method, which consists of taking a sample from the group and asking them questions. Then the replies are analysed and conclusions drawn  Interview Method: Interview method is used to study human behaviour and to know about the causes of human behaviour. Interview method is of many types. Two broad types of interview areas follows:  Structured interview, and  Unstructured interview.  Correlation: This method tells us about the relationship between two variables. It tells us how the changes in one variable go along with the changes in the other variable. correlation is a single number that tells us to what extent two variables are related, to what extent variations in one go with the variations in another.  Experimental Method: The experimental method attempts to determine whether and how strongly a specific factor (variable) is related with some aspect of social behaviour or not. In order to determine this, an experimenter varies or changes something and attempts to determine whether these variations have any impact on the aspect of social behaviour or social thought under investigation. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Methods in Social Psychology 93 4.7 Key Words/Abbreviations  Observation Method: It is the careful observation and recording of behaviour in real- life setting.  Correlation : correlation is a single number that tells us to what extent two variables are related, to what extent variations in one go with the variations in another.  Experimental method: knowledge through Systematic Intervention  Casuality: The role of mediating variables  Independent Variable: Independent variable is also defined as that variable whose quantitative value can be independently controlled by the researcher.  Dependent Variable: The variable whose quantitative value depends on the effects of the independent variable is called as the dependent variable. 4.8 Learning Activity 1. State the advantages and disadvantages of the method of systematic observation. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. State the advantages and disadvantages of cor relational method. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. Explain the systematic observation research method of social psychology. 2. Explain any two forms of systematic observation. 3. State the advantages and disadvantages of survey method of research. 4. What are the requirement for survey method to be effective? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

94 Social Psychology 5. Explain the correlation method of research method of social psychology. 6. Explain the types of cor-relationships. 7. Explain the experimental method of research of social psychology. 8. What variables are used in experimental method? 9. What are the basic requirements of successful experimentation? 10. Explain the merits and demerits of experimental method of research in social psychology. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Social Psychology is interested in _______ based knowledge. (a) Research (b) Fan (c) Education 2. ______ is one of the basic techniques for studying social behaviour. (a) Correlation (b) Experiment (c) Systematic Observation 3. The method of _____ can take many different forms like questionnaire surveys, interviews etc. (a) Experiment (b) Correlation (c) Systematic Observation 4. In _____ research method, a scientist systematically observe two or more variables to determine, whether changes in one are accompanied in the others (a) Correlation (b) Experimental (c) Systematic Observation 5. When increase in one variable leads to simultaneous increase in another variables or vice versa, it is called as ______ co-relationship. (a) Positive (b) Negative (c) Zero CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)