MAE605-eL10

IDOL Institute of Distance and Online Learning ENHANCE YOUR QUALIFICATION, ADVANCE YOUR CAREER.

M.A 2 All right are reserved with CU-IDOL English Language Course Code: MAE 605 Semester: First E-Lesson: 8 SLM Unit: 10 www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605)

ENGLISH LANGUAGE 33 OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION Student will be introduced to learn the meaning of In this unit the student will be able to learn Phonetics the speech sound mechanism Student will be able to understand Consonant & The student will be able to understand the Vowel sounds classification of speech sound system Student will be able to understand Stress & Student will be able to understand Stress & Intonation in speech Intonation Student will be able to understand subject-verb Student will be able to understand the agreement & Paragraph Writing subject-verb agreement & Paragraph Writing www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAAEE 660055)) INASlTl ITriUgThEt OarFeDrIeSsTeArNvCeEd AwNitDh OCNUL-IIDNOE LLEARNING

TOPICS TO BE COVERED 4 > Student will be introduced to Phonetics > Student will be able to introduced to Consonant & Vowels Sounds > Student will be able to introduced to Stress & Intonation in speech > Student will be introduced to Subject-Verb Agreement > Student will be introduced to Paragraph Writing www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

PHONETICS 5 Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the sounds of speech and their production, combination, description, and representation by written symbols Adjective: phonetic. Pronounced [fah-NET-iks]. From the Greek, \"sound, voice” A linguist who specializes in phonetics is known as a phonetician. As discussed below, the boundaries between the disciplines of phonetics and phonology aren't always sharply defined. In any language we can identify a small number of regularly used sounds (vowels and consonants) that we call phonemes; for example, the vowels in the words 'pin' and 'pen' are different phonemes, and so are the consonants at the beginning of the words 'pet' and 'bet.' Because of the notoriously confusing nature of English spelling, it is particularly important to learn to think of English pronunciation in terms of phonemes rather than letters of the alphabet; one must be aware, for example, that the word 'enough' begins with the same vowel phoneme as that at the beginning of 'inept' and ends with the same consonant as 'stuff. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 6 Voiced: a voiced sound is a sound where the vocal cords vibrate, thus producing some sort of pitch. This is the kind of sound most people associate with regular talking or singing. Voiceless / unvoiced: a voiceless or unvoiced sound is one where the vocal cords do not vibrate, thus making the sound very whispery and without a pitch. It can tend to make a letter sound harsher when pronounced. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 7 Stop: a consonant sound where the airflow is stopped completely by the mouth and then sharply released. Think of sounds like “p,” “k,” and “t.” All languages contain stops. Fricative: a consonant sound where the airflow becomes noisy and turbulent because it only has a very small space to travel through in the mouth. Think of sounds like “f,” “s,” and “sh.” Most languages have fricatives, but not all. Nasal: a consonant sound where the airflow passes exclusively through the nose instead of the mouth. Think of sounds like “m,” “n,” or “ng.” Almost all languages have nasals. Affricate: a consonant sound that begins like a stop but then releases like a fricative, thus making it a sort of combination sound. Think of sounds like “ch” and “j.” Affricates are common, especially in English.  Alveolar ridge: a ridge found on the roof of the mouth between the upper teeth and the hard palate, which is used in conjunction with the tip of the tongue to make many sounds www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 8 Soft palate: the soft tissue in the back of the roof of your mouth, which is used In conjunction with the back of the tongue to make many sounds Glottis: the part of the larynx (air passage) that contains the vocal cords and the opening between them /P/ Voiceless stop made with both lips Found in words like: pen, spin, tip, happy Letters that usually represent it: “p” /B/ Voiced stop made with both lips Found in words like: but, web, baby Letters that usually represent it: “b” www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 9 As you may have noticed, the only difference between producing /p/ and /b/ is the voicing, while all other factors remain the same. It’s common, including in English, to have pairs of words that are essentially the same, except one is voiced and the other is unvoiced. If you’re having trouble pronouncing certain sounds, try to identify a corresponding sound with a different voicing as a reference.  /T/ Voiceless stop made with the tip of the tongue on the alveolar ridge Found in words like: two, sting Letters that usually represent it: “t” /D/ Voiced stop made with the tip of the tongue on the alveolar ridge Found in words like: do, daddy, odd Letters that usually represent it: “d” www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 10 /K/ Voiceless stop made with the back of the tongue on the soft palate Found in words like: cat, kill, skin, queen, unique, thick, chaos Letters that usually represent it: “k,” “c,” “q,” “que,” “ck,” sometimes “ch” /G/ Voiced stop made with the back of the tongue on the soft palate Found in words like: go, get, beg, bigger Letters that usually represent it: “g” /F/ Voiceless fricative made by putting your upper front teeth on your lower lip Found in words like: fool, enough, leaf, off, photo, glyph Letters that usually represent it: “f,” “ph,” sometimes “gh” www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 11 /V/ Voiced fricative made by putting your upper front teeth on your lower lip Found in words like: voice, have, of, over Letters that usually represent it: “v,” sometimes “f” /Θ/ Voiceless fricative made by putting your tongue between your teeth Found in words like: thing, teeth, Athens Letters that usually represent it: “th” If you’re curious about this symbol, it comes from the Greek letter “theta,” which makes the same sound in Greek. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 12 /Ð/ Voiced fricative made by putting your tongue between your teeth Found in words like: this, breathe, father Letters that usually represent it: “th” You might have noticed that both /θ/ and /ð/ are represented by “th” in English. Although sometimes there are rules as to when a letter or letter cluster makes different sounds, there really is no rule for “th.” Sometimes it’s voiced, and sometimes it’s unvoiced, and you’ll just have to memorize the difference as you come across each word with a “th” in it. This letter seems to be based off of the Greek letter “delta,” which makes the same sound in Greek. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 13 /S/ Voiceless fricative made by putting the tip the tongue nearly on the alveolar ridge Found in words like: see, city, pass, lesson Letters that usually represent it: “s,” sometimes “c” /Z/ Voiced fricative made by putting the tip the tongue nearly on the alveolar ridge Found in words like: zoo, rose, clothes, asthma Letters that usually represent it: “z,” sometimes “s,” rarely “th” /Ʃ/ Voiceless fricative made by putting the tip the tongue a little bit past the alveolar ridge Found in words like: she, sure, session, emotion, leash Letters that usually represent it: “sh,” “si,” “ti,” sometimes “s,” www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 14 /Ʒ/ Voiced fricative made by putting the tip the tongue a little bit past the alveolar ridge Found in words like: genre, pleasure, beige, equation, seizure, vision Letters that usually represent it: “g,” “si,” “ti,” “z,” sometimes “s” /TƩ/ Voiceless affricate made with the tip of the tongue on the alveolar ridge Found in words like: chair, nature, teach Letters that usually represent it: “ch,” sometimes “t” This is one of the two affricates in English, the other being /dʒ/. As stated in the definitions above, an affricate is a combination of a stop and a fricative, so the “ch” sound is actually represented by two IPA symbols. The same goes for the “j” sound. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 15 /DƷ/ Voiced affricate made with the tip of the tongue on the alveolar ridge Found in words like: gin, joy, edge, did you, judgment Letters that usually represent it: “j,” sometimes “g,” “dg,” sometimes “d” /H/ Voiceless fricative made by a forced breath through the glottis Found in words like: genre, pleasure, beige, equation, seizure, vision Letters that usually represent it: “g,” “si,” “ti,” “z,” sometimes “s” www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 16 /ʔ/ Glottal stop made by shutting and releasing airflow through the glottis Found in words like: uh–oh, kitten, Manhattan, bet, important (American) Letters that usually represent it: “t,” “-,” the beginnings of vowels You might be a little confused by this backwards-question-mark-looking symbol, but the best way to hear and feel it is to say the word “uh-oh.” You’ll feel your vocal cords close for just a moment in order to block your airflow, which is what linguists call a “glottal stop.” You can also feel this stop happen every time you begin to pronounce a vowel without a consonant before it. The glottal stop is common in some British accents, but it’s especially common in American accents, where the letter “t” is often replaced by this sound in the middle and ends of words. Yes, it’s true. Most Americans don’t pronounce “kitten” with such a strong, harsh /t/ in the middle, but rather with a /ʔ/ instead. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 17 /M/ Nasal sound formed while the lips are shut Found in words like: man, them, hammer Letters that usually represent it: “m” /N/ Nasal sound formed while the tip of the tongue is on the alveolar ridge Found in words like: no, tin, winner Letters that usually represent it: “n” www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 18 /Ŋ/ Nasal sound formed while the back of the tongue is on the soft palate Found in words like: ringer, sing, finger, drink Letters that usually represent it: “ng,” sometimes part of “ng,” part of “nk” The letters “ng” can be problematic because the /ŋ/ sound is sometimes followed by a /g/ sound, but sometimes it isn’t. Note the difference between “singer” and “finger,” where “finger” has that extra /g/ sound, but “singer” doesn’t. This difference is random and should be memorized, just like the “th” phenomenon, but there are a few tricks that can help. For example, if a word ends in “ng,” then there is never a following /g/ sound. There also is no /g/ sound if the word ends in “-ing,” which turns verbs into participles or gerunds. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 19 /ɾ/ A momentary stop-like sound called a flap or tap, caused by the tip of the tongue lightly throwing itself against the alveolar ridge Found in words like: better, hidden, hater, odor Letters that usually represent it: “t,” “d” This is another sound that might confuse you. This is because it’s primarily found in American accents and is essentially another way that Americans become lazy with the letter “t.” You saw previously that the glottal stop is a way to replace the /t/ sound in the middle and ends of words. However, Americans sometimes use the flap instead in the middle of words, though note that the /ʔ/ and /ɾ/ sounds are mutually exclusive. For example, an American would pronounce the word “button” with a /ʔ/ in the middle, but not a /ɾ/. Meanwhile, “better” is pronounced with a /ɾ/ but not a /ʔ/, at least in an American accent. /ɾ/ is actually the letter “r” in many other languages like Spanish, Korean, and Arabic (the symbol even looks like some degenerate letter “r”). In terms of sound, consider it to be a softer version of /d/, which is why the letter “d” is often replaced by it, too. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 20 /X/ Voiceless fricative made by putting the back of your tongue nearly on your soft palate Found in words like: loch (Scottish), ugh Letters that usually represent it: “gh” This is an interesting sound because it is not actually a standard sound in English. However, it is easy for most English speakers to make, and occasionally shows up in oddball words like “ugh,” where the /x/ sound is almost an extra marker of exasperation. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 21 ALMOST CONSONANTS So far we have seen sounds that are, for the most part, unmistakably consonants. At this point, you might think we’d move onto vowels. However, there are some sounds that seem to share characteristics of both consonants and vowels. Already, you have seen the nasals /m/ and /n/, which almost act like vowels but up in the nasal cavity. But in the IPA, there is another class of sounds called “approximants” that lie somewhere between vowels and consonants. Two categories within these approximants are known as “glides” and “liquids.” Glides are sounds that are phonetically similar to vowels but function more as consonants, while liquids are sounds in which the tongue creates a partial closure in the mouth, resulting in a vowel-like sound. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 22 /L/ Liquid created by keeping the tip of the tongue on the upper teeth Found in words like: left, bell, table, please Letters that usually represent it: “l” Though the /l/ symbol is used for the “l” sound in most European languages, the sound in English is a little bit different in that the tip of the tongue touches the teeth rather than other places of the mouth like the alveolar ridge. This is what gives the “l” that fuller, arguably uglier quality, almost like you’re about to swallow your tongue. In British English, the tip of the tongue tends to touch the alveolar ridge instead. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 23 /ɹ/ Liquid created by curling the tongue backward toward the back of the mouth. The tip of the tongue should not be touching any part of the mouth. Found in words like: run, very, probably, far, earnest Letters that usually represent it: “r” The /ɹ/ sound is arguably one of the most difficult English sounds for foreigners to grasp. Although it is found in almost all accents of English, it is most common in American accents. For example, even though an American would typically pronounce the “r” in “car,” but a British person wouldn’t, both speakers would usually pronounce the “r” in “grow.” Notice that /ɹ/ is actually an upside-down letter “r.” The /r/ can sometimes be used to replace /ɹ/ when the language is assumed to be English, but the actual /r/ symbol is a trilled “r,” like in the Spanish word “perr” www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONSONANT SOUNDS 24 /J/ Glide created by bringing the middle of the tongue very close to the roof of the mouth, and then releasing Found in words like: yes, neuron, cube Letters that usually represent it: “y,” sometimes other vowels Though /j/ seems like it is the vowel /i/ but shorter, the tongue is tenser in this sound so that it can be brought closer to the roof of the mouth. If pronounced correctly, you should be able to pronounce the word “year” and hear a distinction between the /j/ sound and the vowel after it. The letter “u” also tends to be pronounced with the /j/ sound in certain words, such as “cute” or “pure.” /W/ Glide created by pursing the lips closely together, and then releasing Found in words like: we, queen, Huang, lower Letters that usually represent it: “w,” sometimes “u” www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS 25 VOWELS Though there are many consonants in English (and in general), much more than can be individually represented by the 26 letters in the alphabet, vowels can sometimes be even harder to describe. While consonants can at least be described with precise terms and actions, vowels tend to be more of approximations in the IPA. This is because vowels tend to lie more on a spectrum than consonants, and also because vowels can change subtly from accent to accent and from language to language. However, these subtleties can make a noticeable difference to our ears. Because I personally am an American English speaker, I am most familiar with the standard American accent (General American) and some of its variations, as well as the standard British accent (Received Pronunciation). www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS 26 Three major factors in the production of vowels are the openness, or height, of the mouth, the position of the tongue, and the roundness of the lips. If a vowel is produced while the mouth is almost closed, it would be considered a close If the vowel is slightly more open, it would be considered a mid vowel. And if the mouth is open very tall, it would be considered an open vowel. If the tongue is positioned near the front of the mouth, any vowel produced would be a front If the tongue were set slightly more back in the mouth, the vowel would be a central vowel. If the tongue were set in the far back of the mouth, the vowel would be a back vowel. If a vowel is produced while the lips are tense and rounded, it would be considered a rounded. If the vowel is produced while the lips are relaxed, it would be considered an unrounded vowel. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS 27 In order to better visualize these differences, it’s helpful to look at a chart. Think of the following chart as a diagram of the mouth facing left sideways, where the position of the tongue traces along the different points to produce different vowels. /Æ/ Found in words like: cat, lad, bat Letters that usually represent it: “a” /Ɑ/ Found in words like: off, loss, cloth (General American) Letters that usually represent it: “o,” “a” Notice that this symbol is different from the symbol /a/, which some people pronounce in the word “father.” However, the symbol has been omitted from this list. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS 28 /Ɔ/ Found in words like: law, caught, all, talk Letters that usually represent it: “a,” “aw,” “au,” “al” At least in the General American accent, this is an interesting sound because it’s starting to fall out of usage. For example, there used to be a clear geographical distinction in the United States between people who pronounced the words “cot” and “caught” the same and those who pronounced with different vowels (/ɑ/ and /ɔ/) These days, however, there is a much blurrier distinction between these two pronunciations, and many more Americans are beginning to pronounce both “cot” and “caught” with the /ɑ/ vowel. This is what linguists call the “cot-caught merger” and is an example of how certain sounds are currently dying out of English pronunciations. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS 29 /Ə/ Found in words like: about, the, spotted, lemon, basil, analysis, acumen Letters that usually represent it: almost any vowel This symbol is known as the “schwa” and is often called the neutral vowel. Technically, it is the “mid central unrounded vowel,” and in English, it is only used for unstressed vowels. Stressed vowels that make a similar sound are represented by the /ʊ/ symbol. What’s interesting about the schwa is that almost any vowel letter in English can make this sound, probably because it is the neutral vowel, and therefore a logical go-to for any vowel that becomes weakened from a lack of stress. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS 30 /Ɪ/ Found in words like: sit, hidden, amiss Letters that usually represent it: “i,” “y” /I/ Found in words like: city, see, meat, theme, fluorine, people Letters that usually represent it: “ee,” “ea,” “y,” “i” This is one of the few IPA symbols where its uppercase counterpart is a separate symbol. Notice the difference between /i/ and /ɪ/. /Ɛ/ Found in words like: bed, instead, friend Letters that usually represent it: “e,” “ea” In Australian and other accents, this sound is replaced entirely by the /e/ sound, which is a more close, front vowel and has a brighter sound. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS 31 /ɹ̩ / OR /ɚ/ Found in words like: burn, herd, earth, bird, worm, amateur, winner (General American) Letters that usually represent it: “er,” “ear,” “ir,” “or,” “ur,” “eur” These two symbols feature diacritics, which are small markings added to IPA symbols to modify their sounds. The small notch placed beneath the /ɹ/ symbol indicates that it can constitute its own syllable without the help of a vowel. Meanwhile the little tail added to the schwa colors it with the /ɹ/ sound. /Ɜ/ Found in words like: burn, herd, earth, bird, worm (Received Pronunciation) Letters that usually represent it: “er,” “ear,” “ir,” “or,” “ur,” “eur” Not to be confused with the /ɛ/ symbol. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS Ʌ/ 32 Found in words like: run, won, flood, sudden, alumnus Letters that usually represent it: “u,” “o,” “oo” /Ʊ/ Found in words like: put, look, would Letters that usually represent it: “oo,” “oul,” “u” Remember that this sound is very similar to the schwa sound, but it is typically reserved for stressed syllables. /U/ Found in words like: tube, you, choose, through, threw, issue Letters that usually represent it: “oo,” “u,” “ou,” “ew” In a broad transcription (general use of the IPA) of English, it is acceptable to simply use the /u/ symbol alone. However, it is more accurate to use this symbol for sounds such as the “u” in the Spanish word “tú” or “luna,” where the vowel is much purer than in English. For a narrower transcription in English, you can use the symbols /ʊu/ or /əu/, depending on the accent. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS 33 /O/ Found in words like: no, toe, soap, throw, though Letters that usually represent it: “o,” “oe,” “oa,” “ow” Similar to /u/’s case, this symbol is acceptable to use in a broad transcription of English, but it really represents the sound that “o” makes in the Spanish word “hola” or “gato.” In English, the “o” is sound is typically more of a diphthong and can be represented with something like [oʊ]. In Australian English, the sound is more of an [ɔʊ]. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS 34 DIPHTHONGS So far, we have seen mostly symbols for pure vowels, and with these symbols, we can represent almost any sound made in common accents of English. However, English is a language known for being full of diphthongs (double vowels) that are represented by combinations of symbols. Examples already given for this are [ʊu] and [oʊ], but there are many more. Here are the most common examples: /AJ/ Found in words like: my, wise, high, Thai, island Letters that usually represent it: “i,” “y,” “igh,” “ai” In Received Pronunciation, the diphthong is more of a /ɑj/ sound. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS 35 /EJ/ Found in words like: date, day, pain, whey, rein, neighbor Letters that usually represent it: “a,” “ay,” “ai,” “ey,” “ei,” “eigh” In Received Pronunciation, this diphthong is more of a /ɛj/ sound. /ƆJ/ Found in words like: boy, noise, Euler Letters that usually represent it: “oy,” “oi” Oftentimes, this is pronounced as /oj/ instead. /AW/ Found in words like: now, trout, Laos Letters that usually represent it: “ow,” “ou” Americans often pronounce this as a /æw/ sound. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

VOWELS SOUNDS 36 /JU/ Found in words like: cute, ewe, use, new (in some accents), you Letters that usually represent it: “u,” “ew” Though the /j/ sound can be combined with mostly any vowel, it appears very often before the /u/ sound, even without the appearance of the letter “y.” www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

STRESS & INTONATION 37 Stress is about which sounds we emphasise in words and sentences. For example in the word ‘banana’ the stress is on the second syllable, in the word ‘orange’ the stress is on the first syllable. In sentences, we usually stress the most important, ‘content’ words.  Rhythm is about how we use a combination of stressed and unstressed words in sentences. Sentences have strong beats (the stressed words) and weak beats (the unstressed words).  Intonation is the way the pitch of a speaker’s voice goes up or down as they speak. We use intonation to help get our message across. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

STRESS & INTONATION 38 Stress Identifying the main words that are stressed.  Rhythm Concentrates on saying the strong beats, and not worrying too much about the weaker parts.  Intonation means going up or down or staying flat, because the patterns are very different in my own language. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 39 Basic Rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb. Example: The list of items is/are on the desk. If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.  Rule 1. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes. Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake in the following sentence: Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room. Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend) www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 40 Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb. Examples: My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today. Neither Juan nor Carmen is available. Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 41 Rule 3. The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to it. Examples: Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf. Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf. This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence: Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival. If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences. Better: Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival. OR She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 42 Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and. Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation. But note these exceptions: Exceptions: Breaking and entering is against the law. The bed and breakfast was charming. In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 43 Rule 5a. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular. Examples: The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly. Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking. Rule 5b. Parentheses are not part of the subject. Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome. If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 44 Rule 6. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb. Examples: There are four hurdles to jump. There is a high hurdle to jump. Here are the keys. NOTE: The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences like There's a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say \"there's\" than \"there are.\" Take care never to use there's with a plural subject www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 45 Rule 7. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a unit. Examples: Three miles is too far to walk. Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense. Ten dollars is a high price to pay. BUT Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 46 Rule 8. With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, some, all—Rule 1 given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb. Examples: Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL A lot of the pie has disappeared. A lot of the pies have disappeared. A third of the city is unemployed. A third of the people are unemployed. All of the pie is gone. All of the pies are gone. Some of the pie is missing. Some of the pies are missing www.cuidol.in

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 47 Rule 9. With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the verb might be singular or plural, depending on the writer's intent. Examples: All of my family has arrived OR have arrived. Most of the jury is here OR are here. A third of the population was not in favor OR were not in favor of the bill. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 48 Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurate—and also consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed sentence one sees and hears a lot these days: The staff is deciding how they want to vote. Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural they to staff in the same sentence. Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote. Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence would read even better as: The staff members are deciding how they want to vote. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 49 Rule 10. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact: Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry. Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe isn't actually here, so we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to express things that are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. The subjunctive mood pairs singular subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs. Examples: I wish it were Friday. She requested that he raise his hand. In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were, which we usually think of as a plural verb, is used with the singular it. (Technically, it is the singular subject of the object clause in the subjunctive mood: it were Friday.) Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example, where a request is being expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct. Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used in formal speech and writing. www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

PARAGRAPH WRITING 50 Paragraphs are comprised of sentences, but not random sentences. A paragraph is a group of sentences organized around a central topic. In fact, the cardinal rule of paragraph writing is to focus on one idea. A solidly written paragraph takes its readers on a clear path, without detours. Master the paragraph, and you’ll be on your way to writing “gold-star” essays, term papers, and stories. A basic paragraph structure usually consists of five sentences: the topic sentence, three supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. But the secrets to paragraph writing lay in four essential elements, which when used correctly, can make a okay paragraph into a great paragraph. 1. Unity in a paragraph begins with the topic sentence. Every paragraph has one single, controlling idea that is expressed in its topic sentence, which is typically the first sentence of the paragraph. A paragraph is unified around this main idea, with the supporting sentences providing detail and discussion. In order to write a good topic sentence, think about your theme and all the points you want to make. Decide which point drives the rest, and then write it as your topic sentence www.cuidol.in Unit-10(MAE 605) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL