CU-BA-SEM VI-HISTORY-VI

UNIT-12COURSE OF WORLD WAR II STRUCTURE 12.0 Learning Objectives 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Causes and Outbreak of World War 12.2.1 The War Begins 12.2 2 USA and USSR become Allies 12.3 Course of World War II 12.4 Summary 12.5 Keywords 12.6 Learning Activity 12.7 Unit End Questions 12.8 References 12.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Idendify causes for World War 11  Describe how World War I1 began and how USA and USSR became allies;  Know the Course of World War II 12.1 INTRODUCTION World War-I1 began in 1939 with German a~gression on Poland on September 1. Earlier, two erstwhile enemies namely Germany and Soviet Union had signed a non-aggression pact making way for Polish partition between two of them. All efforts to reach an understanding between the Soviet Union on the one hand and Britain and France on the other had proved fruitless. In fact, secret negotiations were being simultaneously carried on between the Soviet Union and Germany and also between Britain and Gennany. Britain and France took Soviet Union for granted and did not bother to conclude a military alliance with the latter. This paved the way for Soviet-German non-aggtession pact and German attack on Poland. A few months before the outbreak of World War 11, both Britain and France and given guarantees 201 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

to Poland assuring that in case of an aggression on it, they would provide her all possible assistance. When all attempts to avoid war and protect Poland had failed and Germany invaded Poland, Britain and France declared a war on Germany on September 3, 1939. Soon afterwards, many other countries too declared war on Germany. Japan had launched aggression against China, but did not declare war either on the Soviet Union or, for some time, on the USA, Italy remained neutral in the war for some time, but finally joined the war on the side.of Germany in June 1940. After Germany had won decisive victories against several countries in Europe, it waged a war against the Soviet Union also on June 22, 1941. This brought USSR into the Allied Camp. With the Japanese bombardment of Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941 the United States finally entered the war. The War was fought between the Allies (Britain, France, Soviet Union, USA and their friends) on the one side and the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) on the other. The War ended in the unconditional^ surrender of Italy, Germany and Japan in that order In this unit you will read about the circumstances under which World War I1 broke out and the factors responsible for the war. You will also read about the consequences of this most destructive war in the history of the world. Military activities and details of various battles are not our concern in this Unit. We will conclude the unit with a reference to the attempts made after the war for the conclusion of the peace treaties with the defeated powers. We will also discuss how some of the erstwhile big powers lost their power, and how the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the two Super Powers. 11.2 CAUSES AND OUTBREAK OF WORLD WAR I1 You have read about World War I1 that broke out in September 1939 after German attack on Poland, and consequent declaration of war by Britain and France against Germany. This gives the impression that the war was caused by the Polish dispute. This is partly true. Polish problem was indeed the immediate cause of the war, but there were many other reasons that created the situation in which war became unavoidable. Let us briefly discuss all the distant as well as immediate causes of the War. Treaty of Versailles An attempt was made in Paris Peace Conference, held after the First World War, in 1919 to establish an ideal world order based on justice, peace and disarmament. But, what finally emerged in the shape of treaty of Versailles was a dictated treaty of peace imposed upon Germany. The victor participants lacked sincerity of purpose. France was out to settle an old score-its 1871 defeat and humiliation at the hands of Germany. Normal courtesies expected by the representatives of a 202 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

sovereign country were not extended to Germany. The peace conference had begun in January 1919. The treaty of peace was drafted by Allies without any negotiation with the defeated Germany. On May 7, 1919 Germany was given the draft treaty for its suggestions to be given in writing within three weeks. The announcement of terms of the treaty resulted in a fierce outburst of resentment in Germany. Germany denied that it alone was responsible for the war. Germany raised many objections and suggested modifications but, except for one madification, all the objections were brushed aside and finally, Germany was made to sign the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. Germans called it a \"diktat\", and could not bear this insult and humiliation. Germany was deprived of all her overseas colonies, and even in Europe her size stood substantially reduced. Poland, France, Belgium had others gained at her cost. Her army and navy were severely curtailed. She was told not to have any air force. Germany was declared guilty of war crimes and made to promise to pay a massive amount of reparation to the victors. Treaty of Versailles mutilated and humiliated Germany. Twenty years later, it was the turn of Germany to take revenge. Hitler had came on the centre stage, led his proud people to avenge their humiliation and thus paved the way for the Stcond World War. Failure of Collective Security System Collective security system was a noteworthy ideal the world leaders had pledged at the end of the First World War. Providing security collectively to the victim of an international .aggression was its aim. Thus, Covcnant of the League of Nations provided that in case of an aggression, members of the League, by their collective action, would World War I1 : Causes and compel the aggressor to withdraw. This collective action could either he in the form of Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers) economic sanctions against the aggressor, or military support to the victim of aggression or both. During the inter-war years it was, however, proved that the League was an ineffective organisation in respect of a big power if the latter decided to wage of a war against, or annex, a small country. In 1931, Japan committed an aggression against China and by early 1932, managed to conquer Manchuria province of that country. Japan very cleverly kept on telling the League that her action in Manchuria was in self-defence i.e. (protecting life and property of the Japanese in Manchuria, and only a police action not aggression). Japan, a permanent member of the League, forged ahead to establish a puppet Manchukuo regime in Manchuria. When the League asked member nations not to recognise Manchukuo, Japan left the League but retained control on the conquered territory. Later, in 1935 Italy waged a war against Abyssinia, defeated her, and in May 1936 formally annexed that country into Italian Empire. The League tried to enforce collective security system, declared Italy an aggressor and clamped economic sanctions. All this was of no avail as no military action was taken against 203 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Italy who was also a big power and permanent member of the League Council. Similarly, no action was taken by a weak League of Nations against Germany when she repudiated the military clauses of the Versailles Treaty (1935) and the freely negotiated Locarno Pact remilitarised Rhineland (1936), when annexed Austria (1938) and dismembered Czechoslovakia (1938-39). Thus, failure of the collective security system turned out to be a major cause of the World War-11. Failure of Disarmament It was agreed at the Paris Peace Conference that world peace could be ensured only if nations reduced their armaments to a point consistent with their domestic safety or defence. That means all weapons of offensive nature were to be destroyed. The task of preparing a plan for reduction of armaments was entrusted to the League of Nations. The League appointed Temporary Mixed Commission in 1920 which however could not do any substantial work because France insisted on, security before disarmament. In 1925 Preparatory Commission was instituted. Due to divergent views of nations that mattered, it could not identify offensive weapons. Finally, without much preparatory work a Disarmament Conference met at Geneva in Februry 1932. Once against mutual distrust and suspicion led to the failure of Conference, after protracted negotiations. Germany had been disarmed by the Treaty of Versailles. Victor nations were to disarm later. They, however, never really wanted to disarm. Therefore, in October 1933 Germany declared that she was leaving both the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations. Later in 1935 Germany formally declared that she was no more bound by the military or disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. Other countries were already in possession of large quantities of armaments and big armed forces. German decision heralded a massive armament race which led to an armed conflict. The failure of disarmament became yet another major cause of Second World war. World Economic Crisis World economic crisis began in1929 with sudden stoppage of loans by the American financial houses to the European countries. Many of them, particularly Germany, were making rapid industrial progress mostly with the borrowed American money. The crisis had its sever impact during 1930-32. It adversely affected economies of most countries either directly or indirectly. Germany proved to be the worst affected coun'try where nearly 700,000 people were rendered jobless. It was forced to declare that it would not make any more payment of reparation. Out of the economic crisis of Germany emerged Nazi dictatorship of Adolf Hitler. He became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, but soon destroyed democracy and established his dictatorship. Meanwhile, even England had to take some harsh measures like abandoning the gold standard. Germarly, Japan and Italy took advantage of this economic crisis and 204 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

separately embarked upon aggressive designs. They set up their Fascist Bloc which become largely responsible for the Second World War. Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis On the eve of the First World War, Europe was divided into two hostile camps. The same process was once again repeated with the formation of an alliance of Germany, Japan and Italy. It was concluded through- the Anti-Comintern pact during 1936- 37. This combination of facist powers generally called Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was aimed at imperialist expansion. They glorified war, and openly denounced peaceful settlement of disputes. They bullied western countries and victimised weaker nations like China, Ausuia, Czechoslovakia, Albani and Poland. Their war-like acts and aggressions though noticed, yet went unpunished. Alarmed at the conduct of Axis powers, England and i France came closer to each other and an unsuccessful attempt was made at the 1 formation of an Anglo-French- Soviet Front. Although France and Soviet Union had an alliance, yet in their desire to appease Hitler, France and England ignored Soviet Union and when Stalin wanted a military pact between three non-Fascist powers they took it easy. Soviet Union became suspicious and suvrised the world by signing the nonaggression pact with Germany. This directly cleared the way for German attack on Poland which led to the outbreak of the Second World War. While Soviet Union also invaded Poland, England and France declared war on Germany. The Problem of National Minorities Peaca settlement after the First World War had resulted in the formation of new nationstates in Europe, with large national minorities left behind uncared for. President Wilson of the United States had advocated the principle of self-determination. But on account of various strategic considerations this principle could not be properly implemented. Thus, for example, large German minorities found themselves in the company of nonGermans in Poland and Czechoslovakia. There were Russian minorities in Poland and Rumania; and even after the Minority Treaties were concluded after the Paris Conference, about 750,000 Germans were under foreigp rule. Hitler exploited the situation and in the name of denial of rights to German minorities in ~zechosl6vakia and Poland, and prepared for aggression. He annexed Austria, destroyed and dismembered Czechoslovakia and finally invaded Poland. Thus, the problem of minorities became an important issue and a major excuse for the war. Appeasement by Britain and France Foreign Policy based on appeasement of Nazi-Fascist dictators turned out to be a major cause iof the Second World War. After the First World War there appeared a rift in the policies of Britain and France. Balance of power had always been the cornerstone of the British foreign policy. Britain feared that a very powerful France would disturb the balance of power in Europe. Hence, it helped Germany 205 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

against France in the inter-war years. Once Hitler came to power in Germany and Italy became an ally of the Nazi dictatar, Britain quickly moved closer to France who badly needed British assistance against a hostile Germany. After 1933, French foreign policy virtually became an extension of British foreign policy. Britain was worried about growing influence of Commbnism. Not only the Soviet Union had to be effectively challenged, but so-called populak Fronts in France and Spain had also to be destroyed. With this objective in view, Britain adopted the policy of appeasement towards Hitler and Mussolini. France soon followed suit. Appeasement was started by Baldwin but vigorously pursued by Neville Chamberlain in 1938. Anglo-French desire to help Mussolini during the Abyssinian War, while maintaining support of League efforts, their virtual surrender to Hitler at the Munich Conference, and their inability to protect weaker nations like Austria and Albania were clear evidence of Anglo-French weakness and this prepared the grdund for the War. German Attack on Poland The apparent and immediate cause of the war was German attack on Poland on September 1, 1939. Earlier, when all attempts at Anglo-French alliance with the Soviet Union had faileJ, Hitler entered into a non-aggression pact with Stalin. This was most unexpected, as for several years, only hatred had existed between Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia. Now, keen to partition off Poland between themselves, Germany and Soviet Uniori signed the pact not to wage war against each other. Yet, as events turned out, the pact was called by its critics as \"simple aggression pact against Poland\". In a World War I1 : Causes and secret pact, which emerged only in 1945, the two countries had resolved to divide Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers) Eastern Europe into their spheres on September 1, 1939. As you know, England and France and already assured Poland of their help in case of an invasion. They kept their word and declared war on Germany. While Germany invaded Poland in the west, Soviet troops moved into Poland from the east on September 17-18, 1939. Poland was divided between Germany and Soviet Union by the Soviet-German Frontier and Friendship treaty of 28 September 1939. Meanwhile, many other countries had also declared war I v on Germany, though these were symbolic declarations as even France and Britain were i still busy making preparations for war, while Poland was being destroyed. 12.2.1 The War Begins Poland, as we have seen above, became the immediate cause of the War. On March 23, I 1939 German troops had quietly occupied Memel (a German city under Lithuanian i sovereignty) after Hitler had asked Lithuania to surrender it. On the same day German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop called Polish Ambassador and dictated to him terms that 206 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Germany would like to impose upon Poland. He demanded !hat Danzig (which had already been Nazified) should be returned to Germany, and an east-west highway and rail-link across the Polish corridor may be allowed so that East Prussia could be directly linked with Germany. This virtually meant a corridor across a corridor. Hitler, however, was calculating repeat of another Munich mistake by Britain which did not take place. Prime Minister Chamberlain announced unequivocally British guarantees to Poland. Later, when Italy invaded and annexed Albania (7 April), Britain gave similar guarantees to Greece and Rumania. France followed Britain in announcing conscription. Hitler retaliated on the next day and repudiated the Polish-German non-aggression pact of 1934 and Anglo-German Naval Treaty of 1935. The Anti-Comintern Pact was signed by Germany and Japan in November 1936 and, a year later, Italy too joined. Thus, Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis represented three countries b determination to liquidate world communism. It was, in fact, an alliance against the I Soviet Union. By August 1939 Hitler was prepared to settle the Polish issue on his own terms. r However, he was on the lookout for a plausible pretext. He got the arms of (an otherwise determined) Britain diplomatically twisted when Hitler agreed to have direct negotiations with Poland on Danzign issue. Hitler asked Britain, through its Ambassador in Berlin on August 29, 1939 to arrange a Polish delegation, so as to reach Berlin the next day, fully empowered to negotiate and conclude agreement with the Germans. This was most unusual demand. Normally, international negotiations take a lot of time to begin. In any case, formal proposals are first sent through diplomatic means before inviting of foreign delegation. It is clear that Hitler had no desire for peaceful solution. Since a Polish delegation could not obviously arrive on August 30, Germany closed all doors for negotiation. This gave Hitler the much awaited pretext for the planned invasion of Poland. The war broke out early in the morning of September 1, 1939 when German troops invaded Poland. England and France declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939. On 18 September Soviet Union also invaded Poland, but neither Italy nor the United States entered the war for some time. Meanwhile England and other allies were already on war, yet attempts were still on for some solution. But Germany was determined for a full-fledged war. 12.2.2 USA and USSR become Allies When the war began, Germany and Italy were political allies, but Soviet-German Non Aggression Pact disappointed Mussolini. Italy did not enter the war till June 1940. Then, as France was on the verge of defeat and surrender, Italy joined the war on the side of Germany against France and the Allies. Soviet Union did not join the war, but was helping Germany by 207 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

invading Poland. She later attacked Finland and was expelled from the membership League of Nations. Stalin continued to trust Hitler until the Nazi dictator had defeated most European neighbours and attacked Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. Meanwhile, Stalin had coerced three Baltic Nations, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, to join the Soviet Union as its Union Republics. They lost their independence as Stalin told their leaders that if they refused to join USSR, they would be ruined by Germany. Soviet Union had also dictated terms to Rumania and recovered Bessarabia and '' Bukovina from it. Thus, by mid-1941 Soviet Union was busy collecting war gains .without being in the war. Hitler had secured French surrender in June 1940. But Hitler was not so lucky where Spain was concerned. General Franco keeps his country out of war. Since it was being fought by Hitler in association with Stalin, Spain remained neutral throughout the war. Public opinion in the United States was overwhelmingly opposed to being drawn into the war. In 1937, US Congress had passed the Neutrality Act which also prohibited sale of armaments in a future war. When the war actually broke out and Germany started bombing and destroying western democracies, Americans began weakening their neutrality stance. Cash and Carry Act was passed in November 1939, permitting countries at war to buy American weapons provided they paid cash and carried them in their own ships. When the war reached a crucial stage, Lend-Lease Act was passed in March 1941. It allowed the President to sell, exchange, end lease or otherwise dispose off any defence article. Thus, US began supplying armaments to friendly countries such as Britain and China. Three months later when Soviet Union was attacked by Germany she was also covered by the Lend-Lease Act. 'The Soviet-German Non- Aggression Pact signed in 1939 had been designed by Hitler to keep Soviet Union in the dark about his actual intentions. As soon as Germany had defeated her enemies on the European continent, it began preparing for invasion of the Soviet Union itself. But, Stalin remained convinced that Hitler would not attack Soviet Union. Everyone had warned Stalin of Nazi attack-Churchill, American Embassy and Stalin's o:.n men in Tokyo. But Stalin refused to listen till 22 June 1941 when Germany actually launb,.,d the attack on Soviet Union. Stalin was stunned at this and Soviet Union sought allied assistance. Britain accepted Soviet Union into the Allied camp. In July, London and Moscow signed a military pact. When Soviet Union was facing a devastating war, United States was forced to enter the war in December 1941, when Japan attacked its naval base in Pearl Harbour. American relations with Japan were never cordial. Japanese assets in America were already frozen. In August 1941 the United States had announced that any Japanese action against Thailand would cause her 208 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

grave concern. Unsuccessful attempts were made for a meeting between us President Roosevelt and Japanese Prime Minister Kono in September. In October Kono resigned and General Tojo became the Prime Minister of Japan. He openly encouraged conflict. In November, Britain had promised to declare war on Japan if United States became involved in a war with that country. Tension was building up rapidly and war appeared imminent. On 6 December 1941 President Roosevelt made a personal request to the Japanese Emperor for help in maintaining peace. Rather than peace, America got Japanese bombardment next day. On December 7, 1941 early in the morning large American navel fleet based at Pearl Harbour (Hawaii Islands) was heavily bombed by the Japanese. A few hours later, Japan declared war \"on the United Staes of America and the British Empire\". On December 11, both Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. The war thus became global. 12.2 COURSES OF WORLD WAR II The 12 Course of the Second World War are as listed below: 1. Out Break of Second World War 1939: It was on 1st September 1939, that Germany launched its invasion against Poland and on September 3, 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany. This led to the outbreak of the Second World War. Soon afterwards, a number of small nations joined the war, some on the Axis side whereas others on the Allied side. Germany, Italy, Japan, Rumania and some other states formed the Axis powers, and England, France, the U.S.A. China, and later on the U.S.S.R. joined hands to constitute the Allied powers in war. 2. German Attack over Poland: Within 15 days of attack on Poland, Hitler’s armies were successful in over-running Poland. When the Germans were smashing the pockets of Polish resistance, the Russians invaded Poland from the east and were successful in capturing some of its areas. The defeat and destruction of Poland was completed by the attack of two powerful neighbouring countries, and Poland got divided between Germany and Russia. 3. Initial Russian Role and Actions: In the autumn of 1939 (November 30, 1939), Russia attacked Finland and inflicted a defeat on it. In June 1940, Russia occupied and annexed Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. 4. The German Successes: 209 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In April 1940, Hitler attacked Denmark, Norway, Belgium and Holland in May 1940. All these countries were conquered by Germany. The leaders of Norway, Holland and Belgium fled their countries and formed governments in exile in London. 5. German Invasion of France: Next began the German invasion of France. The French failed to meet the invasion. Taking advantage of the helpless condition of France, Italy declared war on France. On June 10, 1940, the Fascist army crossed the Alpine frontier. Four days later, the Nazi troops entered Paris unopposed and the resistance of France collapsed completely. On June 22, France signed the armistice with Germany. As a result of defeat, France got divided into two parts: the occupied zone and the unoccupied zone. In the unoccupied zone, Marshal Peterin became the Prime Minister and it was he who concluded the armistice agreement with Germany and decided to cooperate with Hitler. This was unacceptable to the French nationalists. General de Gaulle, the leader of the nationalists, in his London broadcast on 23rd June, 1940, asserted the French determination to keep on fighting Germany. For this purpose, General de Gaulle set up the Free French Government in exile at London. 6. War in Europe: By the middle of 1940, almost the whole of Western Europe from the Arctic Sea to the Pyrenees came under the control of Germany. After the fall of France, Britain had to keep up the fight against axis powers particularly against Germany. In September 1940, the historic Battle of Britain was fought. In this historic battle, Germany failed to defeat Britain. Germany was forced to abandon its Operation Sea Lion and with it the hope to register a quick victory over Britain. The resulting possibility of a long-war compelled Germany to look for new areas for getting raw materials and industrial bases. In the next two years, Germany reduced Hungary and Romania to protectorates. In 1941, Hitler’s army received the right to enter Bulgaria. It got engaged in military operations against Yugoslavia and Greece and was soon in a position to register successes. The Axis power further increased when Crete came under its domination. As the course of war favoured Germany, Turkey came forward to conclude a non-aggression treaty with Germany in June 1941. 210 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

7. German Invasion of the U.S.S.R.: The most surprising and remarkable event of the Second World War came on June 22, 1941 when in complete disregard of the non-aggression pact with the U.S.S.R., Hitler launched an attack on the Soviet Union. In order to register quick gains, Hitler inducted 153 divisions of the German army into war with the U.S.S.R. Romania, Finland, Hungary and Italy also joined Germany in the invasion of the Soviet Union. In order to face the German attack, the U.S.S.R. concluded a treaty with Britain by which both sides agreed to jointly fight the war against Germany, and not to make peace without consulting each other. In order to cooperate with the Allies, the Soviet Union came forward to extend its support to Turkey, to recognise the Polish Government in exile at London, and to terminate the Russo- German Pact of 1939. In the Far East, the U.S.S.R. signed the neutrality pact with Japan. In the initial stages of the U.S.S.R.-German war, Nazi forces registered quick gains and by December 1941, the Germans were successful in over-running Ukraine, Donby and Crimea, and in capturing two million Soviet prisoners of war. They besieged Leningrad and came within the proximity of Moscow. But by the end of December 1941, the Soviet Red Army started hitting back. In the historic battle of Stalingrad, Russia registered a big victory. On February 2, 1943, German General Von Paulus surrendered and the German forces began to retreat. 8. The Italian campaigns in Africa and the Near East: Fascist Italy was governed by the desire to be a dominant power in South- East Europe, North Africa and Middle East. It annexed Albania on 7th April, 1939, and when Germany was busy in establishing its supremacy in Western Europe, Italy decided to pursue expansionism into Africa and Mediterranean region. In Africa, the Italian viceroys of Ethiopia invaded British Somaliland-in August 1940. In the same year, the Fascist army invaded Egypt. However, within two months of the Italian successes in Libya and Egypt, British army launched a counter attack and was successful in conquering the eastern part of Libya. But with the help of Germany, Italian army was in a position to capture the whole of Libya in April 1941. From November 1941, the British army, in cooperation with the American forces began fresh offensives against the Axis powers. Eritrea, Italian Somaliland and Abyssinia were occupied by the British forces. Italy lost its African empire by the end of 1941. In October 1942, Field Marshal Montgomery inflicted a big defeat on the Axis forces at El-Alamein. 211 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In November 1942, General Eisenhower launched the Anglo-American offensive against the Axis powers and produced fruitful results. In May 1943, the Axis forces in Africa surrendered. This victory enabled the Allies to concentrate on war in Europe. 9. The Defeat of Italy: Oil 10 July, 1943, the Allies invaded Italy and scored a victory. The Fascist regime collapsed and Mussolini was arrested on 25 July, 1943. The new Italian Prime Minister signed an armistice on 3 September, 1943. Thereupon, Hitler attacked Italy. The German forces were successful in capturing Rome and freeing Mussolini. However, the New Badoglio regime of Italy decided to declare a war against Germany on 13 October, 1942. The Allied forces increased their pressure against the German forces in Italy. Rome was liberated from Nazi control in June 1944, and the German forces in Italy were forced to surrender on 28 April, 1945. This ended the role of Italy in World War II. 10. The War in the Pacific and the U.S. involvement in the Second World War: In the initial years of the Second World War, the U.S.A. decided to maintain its traditional isolationalism. However, the U.S. Government and people had their full sympathies with the Allies. Immediately after the outbreak of the war, the U.S. Congress lifted the ban on the export of armaments from America under the policy of “cash and carry”. Later on, in March 1941, it empowered the U.S. government to help the warring states with armaments against the Axis powers by enacting the Lend-Lease Act. Further, the German attack against the U.S. naval and merchant vessels brought the U.S.A. very close to war with Germany. Towards the closing months of 1941, the U.S.A. started providing huge armaments for helping the Allies against Hitler. When on 7 December, 1941, Japan attacked the Pearl Harbour in Hawaii, the U.S.A. declared war upon Japan and the Axis Powers. The Second World War, which was till then mostly an European war, came to be transformed into a truly global war. Encouraged by her victories over China and Indo-China, and the success in its attack on Pearl Harbour, Japan decided to expand its control over the countries of Pacific and Indian Ocean. On 25 December, 1941, Japan occupied Hong-Kong, in January 1942, Philippines, in February 1942, Singapore and Malaya, in March 1942, Indonesia and in May 1942, Burma. It increased its power in the Indian Ocean by capturing Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 212 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

By June 1942, the tide began turning against Japan. Japan failed to meet effectively the attacks launched by the carrier- borne planes of the United States. By mid-1944, the U.S. bombers started attacking Japanese mainland. In October 1944, the U.S.A. was successful in liberating Philippines. 11. The Defeat of Germany: After the fall of Italy, the Allied forces started preparing for an attack on Germany through France. After a fierce battle, the Allied troops were successful in entering Paris on 25 August, 1944, and the German Army started retreating to German frontiers. After the recovery of France, the Allies attacked Germany from three sides—the Soviet Red Army from the East and the Allied forces from the side of Italy and France. Under pressure from three sides, the German defences broke down. By the summer of 1944, the Red Army captured most of the territories occupied by the Germans. Rumania, Finland and Bulgaria were liberated from the Nazi control, Yugoslavia was liberated by Tito’s Partisans and Warsaw fell to the Soviets in January 1945. On the Western front, the Anglo-American forces were getting more and more successes in their offensive against Germany. By August 1944, Germans were forced to withdraw from southern and central France. By September 1944, the allied forces started attacking Germans in their own land. By February 1945, the Allies were at the Rhine. On the Eastern side, the Red army was advancing fast into Germany. It went past Berlin, which was besieged, and reached the river Elbe where they linked up with the Americans, who had arrived there from the West. The Soviet and the American armies met at Torgan on 24 April, 1945. Hitler, committed suicide on 29 April, 1945, and Berlin surrendered on 2 May, 1945. Thus ended the German dream of world conquest and empire-building. On May 7, 1945, the German representatives signed the treaty of unconditional surrender. On May 8, the news or the Allied victory in Europe was announced. Only Japan was now left to be defeated. 12. The use of the Atomic Bomb by the USA and Defeat of Japan: In the spring of 1945, the Anglo- American forces were in a position to break up the Japanese strong hold in Pacific and South-East Asia, and Burma (now Myanmar) was liberated. The war planes then started heavy bombardment of Japanese cities. On 6 August, 1945 an atom bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima and it caused a huge loss of life and property. 213 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Japan was asked to surrender and when it refused to do so, another atom bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on 9 August, 1945. The very heavy loss suffered by the Japanese, forced them to surrender, unconditionally, which they did on 14 August, 1945. The Second World War came to an end with the surrender of Japan. End of Second World War 1945: Thus, in August 1945 the Second World War came to an end. After having suffered huge losses of life and resources in the Second World War, humankind decided to concentrate upon the task of preserving and strengthening peace and security as well as upon the urgent need of socio-economic reconstruction of the world. The victorious nations initiated the process of negotiating and signing peace treaty with defeated states, the United Nations Organisation was formed, and the process of coming out of the psyche of war got underway. Birth of Atomic weapons gave a new dimension to war and the human race felt it absolutely necessary to work for peace, reconstruction, security and development. Soon Post-war International System began taking shape. Unfortunately, it came to be a cold war international system. 12.3 SUMMARY  World War I1 broke out when Nazi Germany invaded Poland on 1st September, 1939. Two day, later, England and France declared war on Germany. Earlier two arch rivals, Germany and Soviet Union had concluded a Non-Aggression Pact.  Critics called it a pact to divide Poland between the two countries. Major causes of the Second World War were the Treaty of Versailles which ended the First World War, humiliated Germany and was regarded by Germans as a 'diktat', and unjust; failure of disarmament which was thought to be sure guarantee of avoiding war; the world economic crisis which encouraged military and aggressive actions in countries like Japan; the creation of Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis, an alliance of three fascist powers determined to destroy existing world order; problem of dissatisfaction of minorities; the policy of appeasement pursued by Britain and supported by France to win over the Fascist and Nazi dictators; and finally German attack on Poland that became the immediate cause of the war.  The begin with, a number of countries joined the war on the side of Britain and her allies, but America kept out of it till outstanding disputes led Japan to attack Pearl harbour which forced the United States entry into War as an Ally in December 1941. 214 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Soviet Union had invaded Poland and Finland and was expelled from League of Nations.  But, ignoring the Non-Aggression Pact, Germany attacked Soviet Union in June 1941. Soviet Union immediately aligned itself with Britain. Meanwhile, Italy had entered the War in June 1940 by declaring War on France and siding with Germany. The Axis suffered their first setback when Italy was attacked in 1943.  Mussolini was dismissed by the king and later Italy surrendered unconditionally, although for somtime Rome was occupied by Germans. Soviet Union was fighting against Germany to liberate Eastern Europe. After a second front was opened by UK and USA, Germany not only lost France but was forced to surrender in May 1.945. Japan continued to fight in the Pacific till two atom bombs were dropped by American in August 1945 forcing Japan to surrender.  Thus the War ended with the defeat of the three fascist powers; and victory of the Allies. Peace-making efforts after the war proved to be a very difficult task. The Allies had convened the Potsdam Conference (1945) for drawing up peace treaty with Germany. No peace treaty could be concluded with any of the defeated countries immediately after the war. But after prolonged diplomatic activities, peace treaties were concluded with Italy, Rumania, Hungary and Finland; and later with Austria and Japan. Germany remained occupied for several years and naturally no peace treaty could be concluded for several years.  The most significant outcome of the war was the partiti~n of Germany into four occupation zones. Later three Western Zones became one sovereign country, and in the east a Soviet-backed government was established. As east European countries were liberated by the Soviet army, they were given communist governments. The cold war began between two power blocs into which the world was divided.  The United States was lucky that no battle was fought on her territory and her civilian losses were negligible. It was the first country to develop and use the atom bomb. Soviet Union acquired this power five years later. As other big Powers had lost much of their capability, the US and USSR emerged as Super Powers and led the two power blocs. 12.4 KEYWORDS  Reparation: The fine imposed on defeated countries to compensate for the damage done to civilian population and property.  Sanctions: Coercive measures taken against an aggressor or a country defying international law; sanctions may be economic or military. 215 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Axis: Term used for three Fascist Powers viz. Germany, Italy and Japan who had come together on the eve of the Second World War.  Non-Aggression Pact: An agreement binding two countries not to wage war against each other for a specific period of time.  Cold War: A situation of acute tension between two power blocs; but no weapons were used against each other. 12.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Describe any two major causes of the Second World War. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. Sum up the out break of World War 11. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 12.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. How did the Nazi dictatorship ended in Germany 2. Trace the events leading to unconditional surrender of Japan. 3. Sum up the main consequences of World War 11 4. Mention briefly provisions of peace treaty concluded between victors and Italy in 1946. 5. Evaluate the provisions of peace treaty signed by Japan in 1952. Long Questions 1. Describe emergence of the United States as most powerful nation after the Second World War. 2. In what ways did the USSR challenge the US supremacy after 1945? 3. Analyse briefly the emergence of Super Powers after the Second World War. 216 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4. What changed the course of WW II? 5. Briefly discuss about the course of world war II. B. Multiple Choice Questions (i) In May, ............... the Government set-up the House of Lords Appoinment Commission to make recommendations on the appointment of non-political peers including people’s peers. (a) 2000 (b) 2001 (c) 2003 (d) 1999 (ii) The House of Commons is the ............... chamber of the British Parliament. (a) upper (b) lower (c) both (a) and (b) (d) None of these (iii) Duma was produced with a pro-government majority in the election of ............... . (a) 1999 (b) 2000 (c) 2001 (d) 2002 (iv) The British Government made a law to reduce the number of hereditary peers from 750 to 92 in. ............... . (a) November, 1999 (b) October 1998 (c) April 1989 (d) January 1999 217 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(v) The Parliament Act of ............... lays down that a money bill shall be initiated in the house of commons and the Lords must pass it within a period of one month. (a) 1912 (b) 2000 (c) 1915 (d) 1911. Answer 1. (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (a) (iv) (a) (v) (d) 12.7 REFERENCES Reference books  Langsam, W.C. and Mitchell, The World Since 1919, New York, The Macmillan Publishing Co.  Albrecht Carrie, A Diplomatic History of Europe, since the Congress of Vienna, New York, Marper and Row.  Johnson, Paul, A History of Modern World from 1917 to the 1980s, London, Weidenfield and Nicolson.  Dhar, S.N., International Relations and World Politics, Since 1919, New Delhi, Kalyani Publisher. UNIT-13 THE UNO 218 STRUCTURE 13.0 Learning Objectives 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Objectives, Principles and Organs of the United Nations CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

13.3 Role of the UN System in Achieving Peace and Socio-economic Development 13.4 Achievements and Failures of the United Nations 13.5 Summary 13.6 Keywords 13.7 Learning Activity 13.8 Unit End Questions 13.9 References 13.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  The objectives/ purposes, principles and the principal organs of the UN  Role of the UN in international politics  Its major achievements and failures  Need for democratization of UN System through reforms andFuture prospects of the UN 13.1 INTRODUCTION The United Nations (UN) was established on 24 October 1945. It is the only truly universal and global intergovernmental organization created to date. It was founded with 51 nations; UN now consists of 193 states as its members. The UN continues to be the only global international organization and actor that has an agenda encompassing the broadest range of governance issues. As the world’s only truly global organization, the UN has become the foremost forum to address issues that transcend national boundaries; and, which cannot be resolved by any one country acting alone – no matter, how mighty. It is a complex system that serves as the central site for multilateral diplomacy, with the UN’s General Assembly as the center stage. Three weeks of general debate at the opening of each annual session of General Assembly in the month of September draws foreign ministers and heads of state and government from small and large states to take advantage of the opportunity to address the nations of the world and to engage in intensive diplomacy. All these years, the UN has played a significant role in world affairs. Without it, the world we live in today would have been totally different. It has prevented breakout of another major war after the 2nd World War. 219 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Its role may not be highly satisfactory to every person in maintaining international peace and security, but its active role succeeded in cooling off tensions between Super Powers and other major Powers in the world, particularly during the period of Cold War. However, its role in creating human rights norms, undertaking humanitarian activities and tackling refugee problems, to name only few, are laudatory. It is not like a world government expected to solve all major problems in the world, and with power to enforce its orders. However, it does provide the means to help resolve international conflicts and formulate policies on matters affecting humanity. The UN is a forum where all countries meet to discuss, elaborate and extend international law in areas such as as human rights, international trade, freedom of navigation and uses of the seas, and the fight against terrorism. 13.2 OBJECTIVES, PRINCIPLES, AND ORGANS OF THE UNITED NATIONS As set forth in its Charter, the UN has four purposes:  To maintain international peace and security  To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples  To cooperate in solving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems and in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms and  To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining these common ends In other words, the UN is mandated to safeguard peace and security; “to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war”; to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights; to uphold respect for international law; and to promote social progress and better standards of life. UN’s original vision was built on four pillars; the first three – peace, development and human rights – have become increasingly intertwined and support a consistent and integrated framework of national and international priorities. The UN’s fourth founding pillar – sovereign independence – although largely achieved during the UN’s first two decades through decolonization, is now under scrutiny because of a concern for ‘reasonable limits’ on state sovereignty. The United Nations acts, to pursue its objectives, in accordance with the following principles.  It is based on the sovereign equality of all its members 220 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 All members are to fulfill in good faith their Charter obligations  They are to settle their international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering international peace and security and justice  They are to refrain from the threat or use of force against any other state  Neither they nor any member or the UN should interfere in domestic matters of any State To enable the UN to achieve its stated purposes and objectives the organization has been equipped with following six main organs. 13.2.1 General Assembly The GeneralAssembly, perhaps the closest approximation of a world parliament, is the main deliberative and legislative body. It is designed to utilize the timehonoured technique of resolving problems by free and frank discussions and as per the provisions of the customary international law. It is to function as the world’s permanent forum and a meeting place. It is created on the assumption that “war of words” is better than war fought with bombs and weapons. All the UN Members are represented in it; and each has one vote on the basis of sovereign equality. Decisions on ordinary matters are taken by simple majority. Important questions require two third of the votes. The Assembly has the right to discuss and make recommendations on all matters within the scope of the UN Charter. Its decisions are not binding on member States, but they carry the weight of law, ethics and world public opinion. Thus, it does not legislate like national parliament. But in the meeting rooms and corridors of the UN, representatives of almost all countries of the world – large and small, rich and poor, from diverse political and social systems – have a voice and vote in shaping the policies of the international community. 13.2.2 Security Council The Security Council is the organ to which the Charter gives primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. It can be convened at any time, even at midnight when peace is threatened. Member States are obligated to carry out its decisions. It has 15 members. Five of these – China, France, the Russian Federation, the UK, and the US – are permanent members, known as P5; they are also the nuclear weapons states. The other 10 221 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

are elected by the Assembly for a two year term. A decision cannot be taken if there is “no” or negative vote by a permanent member (known as “veto”) on substantive questions. In common parlance, veto is known in the UN Charter as “Great Power unanimity” rule. When a threat to peace is brought before the Council, it usually first asks the parties to reach agreement by peaceful means. The Council may undertake mediation or set forth principles for settlement. It may request the Secretary General to investigate and report on a situation. If fighting breaks out, the Council tries to secure a ceasefire. It may send peace-keeping units (observers or troops) to troubled areas, with the consent of the parties involved, to reduce tension and keep opposing forces apart. Unlike the General Assembly resolutions, its decisions are binding and it has the power to enforce its decisions by imposing economic sanctions and by ordering military action under the principle of “collective security”. 13.2.3 Economic and Social Council Absence or prevention of war does not automatically ensure a peaceful international system. To diminish the underlying causes of future conflicts that might lead to such threats to the peace or breach of peace, the founding fathers of the UN also provided mechanisms for economic and social progress and development and to promote higher standards of living. This job has been assigned to the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) - third main organ of UN. The ECOSOC has 54 members. It usually holds two-month long session each year. It coordinates the economic and social work of the UN and other specialized agencies and institutions – together known as the UN Family or simply as the UN System. It recommends and directs activities aimed at, among others, promoting economic growth of developing countries, administering development and humanitarian assistance projects, promoting the observance of human rights, ending discrimination against minorities, spreading the benefits of science and technology, and fostering world cooperation in areas such as better housing, family planning and crime prevention. Let us elaborate what constitutes the UN System. It consists of the UN, its 15 Specialized Agencies, and its various programmes. Following Specialized Agencies are part of the UN System: ILO (International Labour Organization), FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,) WHO (World Health Organization), IBRD (International Bank Reconstruction and Development – the World Bank), IMF (International Monetary Fund), ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization), IMO (International Maritime Organization), ITU (International Telecommunication Union), UPU (Universal Postal Union)WMO (World Meteorological Organization), WIPO (World 222 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Intellectual Property Organization), IFAD (International Fundfor Agricultural Development), UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization), UNWTO (World Tourism Organization). UN Programmes and Funds include, UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development), ITC (International Trade Centre), UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), UNCDF (United Nations Capital Development Fund), UNV (United Nations Volunteers), UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund) UNHABITAT (United Nations Human Settlements Programme), UNHCR (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund), UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), UNRWA (United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East) UN-Women (United Nations Entity for Gender Equality, and the Empowerment of Women), and WFP World Food Programme. It must be noted that the Specialized Agencies and UN Programmes and Funds work under ECOSOC and report to it. 12.2.4 The Trusteeship Council The Trusteeship Council was created to supervise the administration of 11 Trust Territories and to ensure that Governments responsible for their administration take adequate steps to prepare them for self-government and independence. It is gratifying to note that all these territories had attained independence by the end of 1994 and now this body has little work. 12.2.5 The International Court of Justice The International Court of Justice consists of 15 judges who are elected concurrently by the General Assembly and the Security Council. It resolves legal issues and interprets international treaties. 12.2.6 The Secretariat The Secretariat is the sixth main organ of the UN. It consists of a SecretaryGeneral and other staff and personnel who run the UN administration and carry out day-to-day work of the UN. Staff members are drawn from 193 members of UN. As international civil servants, they work for the UN as a whole, and pledge not to take or seek instructions from any government or outside authority. Calling upon some 41,000 staff members worldwide, the Secretariat services the other principal organs of the UN and administers the programmes and policies established by them. At its head is the Secretary-General, who is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. Till now the office of the Secretary-General has been occupied by nine incumbents: Trygve Lie (Norway), Dag 223 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Hammarskjold (Sweden), U. Thant (Myanmar), Kurt Waldheim (Austria), Javier Perez de Cuellar (Peru), Boutros Boutros Ghali (Egypt), Kofi Annan (Ghana), Ban Ki-moon (Republic of Korea) and Antonio Guterres (Greece). 13.3 ROLE OF THE UN SYSTEM IN ACHIEVING PEACE AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT In spite of the careful framing of the UN Charter, the UN was unable to solve many problems of the world due to the Cold War between the US and the former USSR. On the other hand, it played an important role in a number of international crises by arranging ceasefires and negotiations, and by providing peacekeeping forces. Its successes in non- political work care of refugees, protection of human rights, economic planning and attempts to deal with problems of world health, population and famine have been enormous. The Security Council of the UN is its principal organ to maintain international peace and security. The Council works on the principle of “collective security”. This concept treats the aggression of one state against the other States as an attack on all member States of the UN. It allows the Security Council to take action against the aggressor only when five of its permanent members (which are great Powers) the US, USSR, France, China and Britain are unanimous on such action. Any negative vote (veto) will prevent such action. Any veto will kill the concept of collective security. The Council was paralyzed many times by use of veto during the Cold War (1945- 1991). In order to secure some action in case of a veto by one of the P5 countries, the General Assembly (GA) (at the time of the Korean War in 1950) introduced the “Uniting for Peace” Resolution. This resolution stated that if the Security Council’s proposals were vetoed, the GA could meet within 24 hours and decide what action to take, even military intervention if necessary. In cases like this, a decision by the Assembly would only need a two-thirds majority. Again this new rule was not incorporated in the UN Charter, and the USSR, which exercised more vetoes than any P5 states, always maintained that a Security Council veto should take precedence over a GA decision. Nevertheless, the Assembly acted in this way many times, ignoring Russian protests. How successful has been the UN as a peacekeeping organization? Although it has had mixed success, it is probably fair to say that the UN has been more successful than the League of Nations in its peacekeeping efforts, especially in crises which did not directly involve the interests of the great powers, such as the civil war in the Congo (1960-64). On the other hand, it has often been ineffective 224 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

like the League in situations where the interests of one of the great powers – were involved (e.g., the 1956 Hungarian crisis and the 1968 Czech crisis). The best way to illustrate the UN’s varying degrees of success is to examine some of the major disputes (both during the Cold War and post-Cold War) in which it has been involved. A) Palestine (1947 – Till Present): The dispute between Jews and the Arabs in Palestine was brought before the UN in 1947. After an investigation, the UN decided to divide Palestine, setting up the Jewish state of Israel. This was one of the most controversial UN decisions, and it was not accepted the Arab states. The UN was unable to prevent three Arab-Israeli wars (1948- 49, 1967 and 1973) over the question of Palestine. However, it did useful work arranging ceasefires and providing supervisory forces, and caring for the Arab refugees. Due to strong US support to Israel and the disunity among Arab states, the UN has not been able to resolve the Palestine issue till date. B) The Korean War (1950-53): This was the only occasion on which the UN was able to take decisive action in a crisis directly involving the interests of one of the superpowers. When South Korea was invaded by communist North Korea in June 1950, the Security Council immediately passed a resolution condemning North Korea, and called on UN members to send help to South Korea. However, this was possible because the USSR was boycotting UNSC meeting in protest at the failure of allow PRC to join the UN. Although the Russian delegates returned soon (to cast its veto), it was too late for them to prevent action going ahead. Troops of 16 countries were able to repel the invasion and preserve the borders between the two Koreas along the 38th parallel. Though this was claimed by the West as a great success, it was in fact very much the American operation the vast majority of troops and the Commander-in-Chief, General MacArthur, were American, and the US government had already decided to intervene with force the day before the Security Council vote was taken. Only the absence of the Russians enabled the USA to turn it into a UN operation. When the USSR started vetoing further resolutions against North Korea, the General Assembly passed its famous resolution, “Uniting for Peace”, as discussed above. C) The Suez Crisis (1956): On the sudden nationalization of Suez Canal by President Nasser of Egypt in 1956, Egypt was attacked by Britain and France (which owned shares in Suez Canal Company) and Israel. When the Security Council resolution condemning use of force by Britain and France was vetoed, the General Assembly under “Uniting for Peace” resolution not only condemned the invasion (by majority of 64 to 5) but also called for a withdrawal of troops. In view of the weight of opinion against them, the aggressors agreed to withdraw, provided the UN ensured a reasonable settlement over the Canal and kept away the 225 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Arabs and Israelis from slaughtering each other. The UN General Assembly sent UN Peace Keeping forces (5000 peacekeeping soldiers) to Egypt to supervise ceasefire agreement. The Canadian diplomat, Lester Pearson, had invented the idea of Peacekeeping. He received Nobel Peace Prize later for his contribution to world peace. The UN was quite successful in maintaining peace in the region, though Russian and American pressure was also important in bringing about ceasefire. However, the UN was not so successful in the 1967 ArabIsraeli conflict. D) The Iran-Iraq War (1980-88): The UN was successful in bringing an end to the long-drawn-out war between Iran and Iraq. After years of attempting to mediate, the UN at last negotiated a ceasefire, though admittedly they were helped by the fact that both sides were close to exhaustion. E) The 1991 Gulf War: UN action on the war was impressive. When Saddam Hussain of Iraq sent his troops to invade and capture the tiny, but extremely rich, neighbouring state of Kuwait (August 1990), the UNSC wanted him to withdraw or face the consequences. When he refused, a large UN force was sent to Kuwait. In a short decisive campaign, Iraqi troops were driven out, suffering heavy losses, and Kuwait was liberated. However, the critics of the UN complained that Kuwait had received help only because the West needed her oil supplies. Other small states, like East Timor (which was taken over by Indonesia in 1975) did not receive help. Why the UN is not so successful in enforcing peace in the world? There are five reasons, given below. The lack of a permanent UN army Lack of unanimity among P5 Veto power of P5 Shortage of funds and Non-cooperation of member states Economic and Social Development Although most people associate the United Nations with the issues of peace and security, the vast majority of the organization’s resources are in fact devoted to advancing the Charter’spledge to “promote higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress and development”. United Nations development efforts have profoundly affected the lives and wellbeing of millions of people throughout the world. Guiding the UN endeavours is the conviction that lasting 226 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

international peace and security are possible only if the economic and social well-being of people everywhere is assured. Many of the economic and social transformations that have taken place globally since 1945 have been significantly affected in their direction and shape by the work of the United Nations. As the global centre for consensus-building, the UN has set priorities and goals for international cooperation to assist countries in their development efforts and to foster a supportive global economic environment. The UN has provided a platform for formulating and promoting key new developmental objectives on the international agenda through a series of global conferences. It has articulated the need for incorporating issues such as the advancement of women, human rights, sustainable development, environmental protection and good governance into the development paradigm. Over the years, the world view of development has changed. Today, countries agree that ‘sustainable development’ – development that promotes prosperity and economic opportunity, greater social wellbeing, and protection of environment – offers the best path forward for improving the lives of people everywhere. At their Millennium Summit in 2000, member states adopted the Millennium Declaration, which contained a set of wide- ranging goals for the future course of the UN. The Declaration was translated into a roadmap that included eight time-boundand measurable goals to be reached by 2015, known as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The MDGs aim to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality and the empowerment of women; reduce child mortality; improve maternal health; combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; ensure environmental sustainability; and develop a global partnership for development. In September 2015, world leaders adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the ‘2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’. The 2030 Agenda officially came into force on 1 January 2016, marking a new course for the UN towards ending poverty, protecting the planet and ensuring prosperity for all by 2030. Three other accords adopted in 2015 play critical roles in the global development agenda: the Addis Ababa Action Agenda on financing for development, the Paris Agreement on climate change and the Sendai Framework on disaster risk reduction. 13.4 ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES OF THE UN The United Nations was created to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, protect human rights, maintain international peace and security, and uphold international law. It history is marked with many successes, but also disappointments. We need to look at both 227 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

sides so that we can make the UN more effective in the future. This section lists some of its achievements and failures. 13.4.1 Achievements of the UN A) One of the greatest achievements of the UN is its role in the field of decolonization. It gave inspiration to millions of Africans and Asians, who were under colonial rule, to claim the right of self-determination and independence. When the UN was founded in 1945, 80 of the present UN members were colonies. The UN helped many of them, having 750 million people, to achieve independence. With this development the International Relations have been democratized. B) The UN has an impressive record of resolving many international conflicts. U.N. peacekeepers have, since 1945, undertaken over 60 field missions and negotiated 172 peaceful settlements that ended regional conflicts. Right now, peacekeepers are in 20 hot spots around the world trying to save lives and avert wars. C) One of the most significant achievements of the UN is the creation of a comprehensive body of human rights law – a universal and internationally protected code to which all nations can subscribe and all people aspire. It has defined a broad range of internationally accepted rights, including civil, political, economic, cultural and social rights. It has International Bill of Human Rights (consisting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, and the two International Covenants on civil and political, economic, social and cultural rights, 1966). Besides the International Bill of Rights, it has adopted nearly 80 human rights treaties or declarations. It has also established mechanisms to promote and protect these rights and to assist states in carrying out their responsibilities. D) More international law has been created through the UN in last seven decades than in the entire previous history of humankind. It has made major contributions towards expanding the rule of law among nations through the codification of international law. E) Today the UN provides food and assistance to 80 million people in 80 countries, supplies vaccine to millions of children and helps save 3 million lives a year, and assists and protects 67.7 million people fleeing war, famine and persecution. It fights extreme poverty, helping improve the lives of more than one billion people. It supports maternal health, helping over 1 million women a month overcome pregnancy risks. F) It works with 195 nations to keep the global temperature rise below 2°C/ 3.6 F. G) UN keeps peace with 104, 000 peacekeepers in 14 operations around the world. H) It tackles the global water crisis affecting over 2 billion people worldwide. I) It coordinates US $24.7 billion appeal for the humanitarian needs of 145 million people. J) It uses diplomacy to prevent conflict; assists some 50 countries a year with their elections. K) UN’s success can be gauged from the fact 228 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

that 12 Nobel Peace Prize have been awarded to it, its specialized agencies, programmes and staff. This included an award in 1988 to the UN Peacekeeping Forces in 2001 to the UN and its secretary-general, Kofi Annan. In 2020, Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to World Food Program, a UN special agency that fights hunger around the world. L) The UN has made progress with its eight Millennium Development Goals, which has been followed by 17 Sustainable Development Goals to enhance social, environmental and economic progress by 2030. M) Along similar lines, the UN’s International Court of Justice has resolved major international disputes, but the UN’s veto powers have limited its effectiveness at critical times. 13.4.2 Shortcomings of the UN The UN is not without shortcomings. Following UN failures should be noted. A) In 1970, when the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was signed by 190 nations, all five superpowers owned nuclear weapons. Later, despite the NPT and Partial Test Ban Treaty, several countries – North Korea, Israel, Pakistan, and India – developed nuclear weapons. This revealed the UN’s inability to enforce regulations on offending nations as well as promote the goal of universal nuclear disarmament. B) The International Criminal Court, established in 2002, has prosecuted several war criminals – but it has been criticized for prosecuting only African leaders while Western powers too have committed war crimes. C) Dag Hammarskjold, Secretary-General from 1953-1961, said that the “UN was not created to take mankind to heaven, but to save humanity from hell.” The UN has solved many violent conflicts, prevented wars, and saved millions of lives but it also faced disappointments. D) In Rwanda, over 800,000 were massacred in 100 days. In 1995, Bosnian Serb forces overran the “safe zone” of Srebrenica and massacred 8,000 Muslim men and boys. In Darfur, an estimated 300,000 Sudanese civilians were killed. In Nigeria, Boko Haram has killed over 13,000 people. E) A recent report by “Body Count” revealed that “in addition to one million deaths in Iraq, an estimated 220,000 people have been killed in Afghanistan and 80,000 in Pakistan as a result of US foreign policy”. F) In recent years, Israel attacked homes, schools, hospitals, and U.N. shelters in Gaza killing 2,200 Palestinians. Condemning that action, Navi Pillay, former UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, said that “Israel was deliberately defying international law in its military offensive in Gaza and that world powers should hold it accountable for possible war crimes.” The UN Security Council (SC) has failed as the United States vetoes any action against Israel. G) The Arab Spring in the Middle East caused thousands of deaths and regime changes in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Yemen. Libya is 229 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

devastated with over 40,000 deaths, and the civil war in Syria has killed over 220,000 people. These wars have displaced over 50 million people. Now, ISIS has infiltrated these countries causing gruesome killings, human rights abuses, and war crimes, at an unprecedented rate. These catastrophic events might have been prevented if the Member States of the UN had the ability to resolutely act in a timely manner. But the UN is not a world government, and it does not have a standing army of peace-keepers ready for deployment. And, it is the Member States that make decisions at the UN. These setbacks clearly reflect the shortcomings of the UN Security Council, and its veto powers that allow some members’ own interests to be placed ahead of the need to end a raging conflict. Navi Pillay, addressing the Security Council, said that “short-term geopolitical considerations and national interest, narrowly defined, have repeatedly taken precedence over intolerable human suffering and grave breaches of – and long-term threats to – international peace and security.” H) During the last 75 years, geopolitics has changed drastically that call for reform of the UN – to meet global needs and challenges of the 21st century. I) Member States accuse the Security Council of being arrogant, secretive and undemocratic but the veto powers resist change. Meanwhile, violations of the UN Charter by powerful countries continue to erode the effectiveness of the United Nations. 13.5 SUMMARY  History has proved that the UN has become an irreplaceable part of international relations and international community. It has been playing a significant, sometimes historic, role in world politics.  Its modest achievements listed in the Unit are testimony to it. It is a fact that, as mandated by its Charter, the UN has prevented another World War. The UN has made impressive and unprecedented progress in all aspects of human development, bringing great benefits to millions of people around the world. Our convoluted world needs the UN.  The Security Council must be reformed and strengthened to enable the UN as a whole to confront and resolve complex challenges of our world. Former US President Obama has said, the UN is imperfect, but it is also indispensable.  UN’s contribution to ideas, analysis, and policy making in the economic and social arena is one of its most important achievements. UN’s thinking and ideas in these arenas have had a major positive impact in many countries. Success and failures of 230 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

the UN reflect the strengths and weaknesses of commitment and support from both the member states of the UN and the staff members.  Let us conclude our discussion by quoting Jussi M Hanhimaki (The United Nations: A Very Short Introduction) who wrote: In the end, the UN cannot and should not be expected to offer solutions to all of the world’s ills. It does much good humanitarian work and often provides ways of easing tension and solving crises.  It often enables people stuck in poverty to improve their lot. The UN is hardly perfect. But it remains an indispensable organization even as its behavior and effectiveness – much like that of individual countries – is in constant need of improvement. 13.6 KEYWORDS  Direct Democracy: It is a form of democracy in which people vote on policy initiatives directly, as opposed to a representative democracy in which people vote for representatives who then vote on policy initiatives.  Bi-cameralism: It is the practice of having two legislatives or parliamentary chambers compromise bills  The Secretariat: The Secretariat is the sixth main organ of the UN.  Security Council: The Security Council is the organ to which the Charter gives primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. 13.7 LEARNING ACTIVIT 1. Why the United Nations has been established by the international community? ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 2. Why the UN has been less successful in promoting international peace? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 13.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS 231 A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1. Explain International Court of Justice 2. Discuss the Achievements of the UN A 3. Write a note on Economic and Social Council 4. Economic and Social Council 5. Role of the UN in international politics Long Questions 1. Briefly discuss History and development of UNO. 2. Discuss the Principles and membership 3. What is the meaning of Security Council 4. Discuss Economic and Social Council 5. Write a note on Trusteeship Council B. Multiple Choice Questions (i) The prime minister is the link between the parliament and the ............... . (a) Judiciary (b) Chief Minister (c) President (d) Ministers (ii) The American Congress adopted a resolution in ............... which took the form of 25th constitutional amendment two years later. (a) 1955 (b) 1965 (c) 1950 (d) 1960 (iii) The impeacement proceedings were made against Nixon in ............... . (a) 1974 (b) 1985 232 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(c) 1971 (d) 1973 (iv) The functions and powers of the American President may be under ............... . (a) executive and legislative (b) financial (c) judicial and emergency (d) All of these (v) The constitutions empowers the ............... to send messages to the two houses of the parliament. (a) Prime minister (b) President (c) Governor (d) Chief minister Answers: 1. (i) (d) (ii) (b) (iii) (a) (iv) (d) (v) (b) 13.9 REFERENCES References  Bailey, Sydney D. (1989). The United Nations: A Short Political Guide, 2nd edition.  London: Macmillan.  Baehr, Peter R. and Gordenker, Leon. (2005). The United Nations: Reality and Ideal, 4th edition. London: Palgrave Macmillan.  Hanhimaki, Jussi M. (2008). The United Nations — A Very Short Introduction.  New Delhi: Oxford University Press.  Karns, Margret, Mingst, Karen A. & Kendell, W. Stiles. (2016). International  Organizations: The Politics and Process of Global Governance, 3rd edition. New  Delhi: Viva Books. 233 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Mingst, Karen A., Karns, Margret. (2012). The United Nations in the 21st Century,  4th edition. Boulder, Col.: Westview Press.  Moore, John Allphin & Pubantz, Jerry. (2006). The New United Nations – International Organization in the twenty-First Century. New Delhi: Pearson Education.  Roberts Adam and Kingslay, Benedict (eds.). (1988). United Nations, Divided  World: The UN’s Roles in International Relations. Oxford: Clarendon Press.  Thakur, Ramesh (ed.). (1998). Past Imperfect, Future Uncertain: The United  Nations at Fifty. London: Macmillan.  “The United Nations at 70”, Special Issue, UN Chronicle, 2015, available at: https://unchronicle.un.org/issue/united-nations-70 234 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT-14THE COLD WAR STRUCTRUE 14.0 Learning Objective 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Meaning of the Cold War 14.3 Origins of the Cold War 14.4 Phases of the Cold War 14.4.1 Beginning and Rising Hostilities 14.4.2 Détente 14.4.3 Rebirth and End 14.5 Summary 14.6 Keywords 14.7 Learning Activity 14.8 Unit End Questions 14.9 References 14.0LEARING OBJECTIVE After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Understand the meaning of the Cold War  Know the origins of the Cold War and  Identify the phases and landmarks of the Cold War 14.1 INTRODUCTION The Cold War was more than a rivalry between two superpowers. The period of this war, that is the years between 1945 and 1990, also contained a history of international politics of a different kind. The Cold War period saw the evolution of a world order where diplomacy and negotiation in their various forms were established. It added a very different dimension to military build-up – arms race, military blocs, proxy wars etc. The simultaneity of the existence of the United Nations is perhaps a very important dimension to the evolution of the Cold War as the world did not witness another world war. It is said that today’s contemporary 235 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

world is poles apart and very dynamic from what it was before 1945. How this dynamism did come to our world? To appreciate that dynamism, this Unit brings to you a brief summary of the significant events that unfolded in different phases between 1945 and 1990. 14.2 MEANING OF THE COLD WAR Isn’t it perplexing to say that a certain war was described as ‘Cold’? War is always ‘hot’ fought with weapons by armies to gain some designated strategic goals. But it being ‘Cold’ is something that calls for some thinking and explanation. What we know is that the Cold War continued for more than four decades between 1945 and 1990. The War touched the entire world, actually divided several countries and also prompted them to join hands with others to form political and military blocs. A feature of Cold War was thus bloc politics – two blocs, led by the two super powers viz. United States of America and the erstwhile Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR, or Soviet Union). In the process, tens of millions of people suffered in very different ways, including violent death, persecution and disappearance. Economic development was disrupted and in cases denied resulting in the misery and hunger for millions of poor people in different parts of the world. Millions suffered and hundreds of thousands were killed in ‘communist’ and ‘anti-communist’ rebellions, uprisings, repression, civil wars and interventions throughout Africa, Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean besides East Europe, Balkans and other parts of the world. Despite having these sufferings on record, interestingly, we continue to call this 45-year war as the Cold War! And interestingly, not once American and Soviet armies fought face to face in a battlefield. All this definitely calls for little thinking on the dimensions of its meaning. When one refers to this war as the Cold War, the aim is to convey that it was fought under an ideological cover. The war saw intense competition between two mutually hostile political ideologies and worldviews. These were ‘capitalism’ and ‘socialism’. Both these terms have wide ranging expressions of two different variants of socio-economic, political and cultural organisations. In plain terms, therefore, capitalism stood up for liberal democracy and free market economy whereas socialism sought to champion state ownership, workers rights and egalitarian system. The United States provided leadership to the capitalist world and the Soviet Union. This intense ideological competitiveness gave rise to bloc rivalry. Bloc rivalry was a signpost of the 45- year Cold War. When the Soviets, for example, initiated the Molotov Plan in 1947 for its Eastern European allies to aid them and rebuild their ailing economies, the Americans 236 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

responded with the multi-billion dollar Marshall Plan (or, the European Recovery Programme) in 1948 for the postWorld War II sick economies of the Western Europe. The Marshall Plan was in force only for four years, the Molotov Plan remained till the last breath of the USSR with a new name since 1949 known as the Council for Mutual Economic Assistant (COMECON). Similarly, when the American side of the war founded an intergovernmental military alliance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) in 1949, the Soviet side had rivaled them with signing the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance (the Warsaw Pact) in 1955. These ideological underpinnings and bloc rivalry impressed the observers of the war to qualify it as ‘Cold’ as it did not involve direct military confrontations between the warring camps. This has led many to characterize the Cold War as ‘nonmilitary’ conflict. More nuanced meanings, however, of the Cold War sits between its ideological cover and the so-called non-military conflict. Some described Cold War a collection of ‘low-intensity’ conflicts. Of course, the two sides fought several ‘proxy’ wars in Africa, Asia and Latin America – which was yet another feature of the Cold War. 14.3 ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR There are two main explanations for the origin of the Cold War. These two can simply be termed as (i) geopolitical and (ii) ideological. A) Geopolitical Explanation: Some historians trace the origins of the Cold War to the Soviet socialist revolution of 1917 and the European military intervention in Russia in 1918 to scuttle the first socialist state in the world. Other scholars see the origins of the Cold War to the military pacts and their violations between the European great powers immediately prior to and in the course of the Second World War. But the Cold War is widely believed to have begun in 1945; this was the time when the Soviets and the Americans had started seeing themselves as two most powerful nations in the West. This perception was at the core that also nurtured the expansionist aspirations that were believed as incompatible among the Soviets and the Americans in terms of their own power and capability. The view that understands the Cold War from the angle of power, capability, expansionist aspirations etc is called the ‘geopolitical explanation’ to the origin of the Cold War. This is also a post-World War II view to the origin of the Cold War. It assumes that at the end of the war in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union were the only two superpowers along with important powers like the United Kingdom and France – which had militarily weakened. It is said that though the Americans and the Soviets had allied in the World War II to defeat the Axis Powers, there was lack of trust between the two. Moreover, 237 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

both were aspiring to achieve dominance in Europe and their aspirations were matched by their power and capability. B) Ideological Explanation: The ‘geopolitical explanation’, however, does not tell the reasons for the lack of trust between the United States and the Soviet Union. This gap is filled by the ‘ideological explanation’ that goes back to the Russian Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. The Bolshevik Revolution was inspired by communism – the ideology espoused by the 19th century philosopher, Karl Marx. Success of a workers’ revolution in Russia under the leadership of the Vladimir Lenin was looked at with suspicion and hostility by the capitalist classes in Europe and the US. Foremost, the success of the socialist revolution sent a powerful and historically important message to the workers, peasantry and all other exploited classes and subjugated and colonized people. The message was: it is possible to overthrow capitalism and its attendant colonialism and imperialism and liberate the exploited and oppressed classes and people. Soviet revolution greatly inspired people in the colonies including in India; many began talking of liberating their nations from the colonial rule and establish an egalitarian socialist order. Likewise, Soviet revolution galvanized the workers in Europe especially in Germany, Britain, France and Italy where the communist and socialist parties became politically active and radical in anticipation of a workers revolution. Communist and socialist parties were formed in the 1920s in several Latin America countries, and in the European colonies in Asia and Africa; for instance, Communist Party of India was formed in 1925 to organize the peasantry and the working class. The imperial powers of Europe and the US looked at this with great hostility. Secondly, the Soviet Revolution offered a different paradigm of looking at international system and building a new international system that would be based on the solidarity and cooperation among liberated peoples of the world. Russia was part of the Allied forces during the First World War but withdrew from the War after the Revolution and abandoned all secret military pacts and understandings for territorial expansion which it had signed with Britain and other European powers. Promoting new norms of IR was not acceptable to great powers which were used to war, military alliances, spheres of influence and overseas colonies. As Soviet Union withdrew from the First World War, European imperial powers requested the US to military intervene in Russia. Russian revolution had aroused great enthusiasm and hope among colonial people. This was dangerous and unacceptable for colonial masters. American expeditionary forces and those of other Allied countries thus intervened in Soviet Union in 1918; the intervention lasted several years. An ideological justification was given for this Allied military intervention. It was said that the Bolshevik Revolution was antagonistic to the “values of freedom” that the Americans claimed their own and that the Russian Revolution 238 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

was a danger to freedom and democracy everywhere. Socialism was dubbed as totalitarianism which negated democracy and human rights. The ideological antagonism and political hostility remained with the post1945 superpowers and contributed to widen the lack of trust between the two. The 1946 ‘iron curtain’ speech of former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and the Americans dropping the atom bomb on Japan increased the ideological rivalry between the two superpowers. The origin of the Cold War was pre-1945 in the ideological sense and thus its vestiges are thought to remain in the post-1990 world. Speaking in the US, and joined in by the American President Harry Truman, Churchill declared: “From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent.” Churchill’s ‘iron curtain’ speech is considered one of the opening shots in the Cold War. Churchill also spoke of “communist fifth columns” that, he said, were operating throughout western and southern Europe. He talked of the threat of communism to the European colonies in Asia and Africa which were fighting for their freedom and emancipation. Finally, Churchill asked the US to lead the free world against the threat posed by communism to the world. The die was cast. US, led the West, determined for half a century to ‘contain’ and ‘roll-back’ communism from the entire world; and this determination became the essence of Cold War-related interventions and wars. 14.4 PHASES OF THE COLD WAR It is difficult to neatly identify the phases of the Cold War, though the war had rising and falling tides of conflict. Yet a period of relaxation of the tensions between the warring blocs is generally perceived and that allows seeing the Cold War having phases with rising or declining tensions until it ends in the late 1980s. We can study the Cold War in the following three phases. 14.4.1 Beginning and Rising Hostilities The conferences that were held in Crimea’s Yalta and in German city of Potsdam in 1945 could not provide an effective framework to deal with the post-war situations that had developed in Germany and in Eastern European states that were occupied by German forces. Germany was divided into four occupation zones each under control of Britain, France, the Soviet Union and the United States. These four powers were main participants in the Yalta and Potsdam conferences. The United States, on the other hand, had detonated a nuclear device without the knowledge of its war allies, particularly the Soviet Union, and had dropped two of them on Japan in 1945. It was an unprecedented display of the American 239 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

power that led to its recognition as a “superpower” and decreased its trustworthiness in the eyes of the Soviets. Meanwhile, the US economy was expanding very fast and had overtaken the combined economic strength of all the war-affected European states. The rate of industrialisation of the post-1917 Soviet economy too was impressive. The weight of the American and Soviet military and economic strengths were now being decisively felt in the Western and East European countries respectively. Each of the superpowers eventually provided leadership to the blocs that emerged on geopolitical and ideological grounds. The United Nations Security Council (1945) further provided a worldstage to these powers to take on each other and play the card of the Cold War. The American President Harry Truman enunciated the so-called “Truman Doctrine” in 1947. It was an American strategy to ‘contain communism’. It denounced the communist system as oppressive and warned against its possible subversive campaigns. Truman’s words were signaling the American intention to resist the spread of communist system anywhere in the world and that was exactly what happened in the following years and decades. When the Soviet Union’s Molotov Plan came into light in 1947, the United States rivalled it with the Marshall Plan in 1948. Marshall Plan was a product of the Truman Doctrine. As stated before, Soviet’s Molotov Plan had aimed at its Eastern European allies. Their economies were ailing and thus required reconstruction. America’s multi-billion Marshall Plan, on the other side, had a similar scheme for the post-war sick economies of the West European states. But ultimately, both these plans were the superpower strategies to contain each other and influence their own areas of ascendancy. These fish trap-like plans had left no trace of ambiguity of the breakout of geopolitical and ideological bloc rivalry that later on came to be known as the Cold War. When the Soviet Union acquired nuclear capability in 1949, America had invited its European allies the same year and founded an intergovernmental military alliance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). The birth of NATO invited similar military response from the other bloc. The Soviet response was signing of the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance (the Warsa Pact) in 1955 with its East European allies. Meanwhile, the Chinese communist revolution was complete in 1949, and a violent civil war had started in Korea around 1950. By this time, Korea was already divided into two separate zones (North and South) because the Japanese soldiers had surrendered to the Soviets in the North and to the Americans in the South during the Second World War. These developments had brought the bloc rivalry to Asia with high intensity of conflict and human suffering. The worst was yet to come with what is popularly 240 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. Cuba had seen a successful revolution in 1959. Among the things that followed the revolution were i) huge loss to the American private investors whose money was oiling the Cuban sugar industry; ii) America’s failed invasion at Bay of Pigs, Cuba; iii) Fidel Castro declaring the Cuban Revolution as socialist and Cuba as a Soviet ally to secure Soviet military support against the United States; and iv) reversal of Cuban sugar exports from the American market to the Soviet market. These developments provided great opportunity for the Soviet Union to increase its strategic weight against the United States and thus installed nuclear missiles in Cuba for the latter’s security. This Caribbean island, Cuba, is located barely 90 miles from the United States. The then American President Kennedy said that he would take whatever steps were necessary to protect American security and he ordered blockade of Cuba and demanded removal of the nuclear missiles. The two superpowers and the world had moved close to a nuclear war. 14.4.2 Détente Diplomatic conscience, however, prevailed over the Cuban Missile Crisis and the crisis had ended with removal of Soviet missiles from Cuba and America promising not to invade the island nation. This peaceful end of the Cuban Missile Crisis probably made the world to realise the potential cost of bipolar military hostilities, and thus began a phase in the Cold War known as “détente”. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Politics, détente refers to the periods of reduced tension in relations between the United States and the Soviet Union and was closely associated with the process of arms control. The main period of détente ran from the Partial Treat Ban Treaty (PTBT) in 1963 to the late 1970s. The Cuban Crisis hastened the PTBT agreement that was being negotiated since 1955. It was signed by Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union and agreed to limit the nuclear armaments to a bare minimum. PTBT had banned nuclear tests in the atmosphere, on the ground and under water. It, however, did not ban the underground testing. Talks to ban the underground testing could succeed only in 1996 under the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). But these powers had agreed to ban nuclear testing in the space in 1967 and also the entire Latin American region was declared nuclear weapons free zone under the Treaty of Tlatelolco. Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union again signed a Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1968 and promised not to transfer such weapons to others. Other developments that had helped relax the Cold War hostility were (i) establishment of a hotline link between the leaders of Washington and Moscow; (ii) the two German states viz. Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) were recognised by the 241 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

superpowers and each was given membership of the United Nations; (iii) West Germany i.e. the FRG normalized relations with East European states and the Soviet Union; (iv) America and the Soviet Union signed the first Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) agreement in 1972; and (v) the famous Helsinki Summit was held in 1975; and it was regarded as having buried the Cold War and symbolized the culmination of détente in Europe. A brief description of the Helsinki summit and its various declarations helped the spirit of détente that characterized the decade of 1970s for a shortwhile. Helsinki Accords: The Helsinki declaration was an act to revive the sagging spirit of detente between the Soviet Union and the United States and its allies. In 1975, the United States, Soviet Union, all members of NATO and the Warsaw pact signed the Helsinki Final Act during the meeting of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), held in Helsinki, Finland. Détente, literally a lessening of tension between the two super powers, was the policy fashioned out by US President Richard Nixon and his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. As noted, there were significant gains under détente as several confidence building measures (CBMs) and arms reduction agreements were signed by the two Cold War adversaries. Important among other developments was the Nixon’s historic visit to Moscow also. By mid- 1975, the spirit of détente was apparently low. Nixon had resigned as America’s president and US had withdrawn from Vietnam resulting in the victory of the communist North over South Vietnam. Progress on arms reduction talks with the Soviets had come to a standstill. In July 1975, the Soviet Union and the United States attempted to reinvigorate the policy of detente by calling the CSCE in Helsinki. On August 1, the attendees signed the Helsinki Final Act. The act established the CSCE as an ongoing consultative organization, and set out a number of issues for future discussion. These included economic and trade issues, arms reduction, and the protection of human rights.The Helsinki Accords are a series of formal but nonbinding agreements that were signed in August 1975. The Helsinki Accords dealt with three main issues of cooperation, security and human rights. Under the Helsinki Accords the nations of the East and West agreed to forge cultural links aimed at bringing the USA and the USSR closer together. It was agreed that the parties would recognize the borders of Eastern Europe that were established at the end of Second World War and in return the USSR promised to uphold basic human rights that included allowing people in the Eastern Bloc the right to move across borders. In brief, Helsinki Accords were an attempt to improve diplomatic and political relations between the two antagonistic blocs. The participating states reaffirmed their commitment to peace, security and justice and the continuing development of friendly relations and co-operation. The 35 countries who signed the Helsinki Agreement 242 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

agreed to the following principles: (i) sovereign equality and respect for the rights inherent in sovereignty; (ii) refraining from the threat or use of force; (iii) inviolability of frontiers; (iv) territorial integrity of states; (v) peaceful settlement of disputes; (vi) nonintervention in internal affairs; (vii) respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief; (viii) equal rights and self-determination of peoples; (ix) cooperation among states; (x) and fulfillment in good faith of obligations under international law. Helsinki Accords was viewed as a significant step towards reducing Cold War tensions. But the Helsinki spirit was weak and the revival of détente proved short lived. US President Gerald Ford criticized Soviet Union for its domestic human rights violations and crushing of dissidence. Soviets called the American criticism as interference in its domestic affairs. US President Jimmy Carter had made human rights the cornerstone of his foreign policy and attacked the Soviet Union for curbing the dissidents; this further added to the erosion of détente and the Helsinki spirit. The famous Soviet dissident Alexander Solzhenitsyn denounced the Accords as “the betrayal of Eastern Europe”. By mid-1978, the CSCE had ceased to function in any important sense. US President Ronald Reagan (1980-88) considered détente and Helsinki as appeasement and decided to confront the Soviet Union directly. Reagan ‘revived’ the Cold War and engaged the Soviet Union in Afghanistan by training and arming the Afghan and foreign fighters – the Mujahideen. Reagan described Helsinki Accords as having given “the American seal of approval for the Soviet empire in Eastern Europe.” Détente came to an end and the Helsinki spirit died with the revival of Cold War by Reagan administration. CSCE was revived by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev only in the 1980s, and served as a foundation for his policy of closer and friendlier relations with the United States. 8.4.3 Rebirth and End Détente was in effect for around one and a half decades. Many had thus believed that the Cold War had ceased to exist. But that belief was defied when a communist regime came to power in Afghanistan and the country soon plunged into civil war with deep involvement of the United States and the Soviet Union rivaling each other in the land of this South Asian nation. Afghanistan had a monarchy which was abolished by Mohammed Daud Khan in 1973 and he himself became the President of the newly founded Republic. Daud saw a possible threat from its neighour Pakistan. Pakistan was continuously receiving military assistance from the United States, and therefore Afghanistan sought weapons from the Soviet Union to balance Pakistan. The Soviet weapons did arrive in Afghanistan and it was interpreted as 243 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

strengthening Daud’s hand and also the Afghan communists who had helped Daud ascending the presidential office in Kabul. The situation soon went out of control when Daud was ousted in 1978 and his supporters were sent in exile. Riots broke out in Afghanistan with worsening economic condition. Meanwhile, the American ambassador was killed in a riot- like situation. The following year, Hafizullah Amin became President of Afghanistan who, though a veteran Communist, was not liked by the Soviets. Thus, over 90,000 Soviets troops entered Afghanistan in 1979 as they had thought that this country may swing to the American side under Amin. With Soviet support, Babrak Karmal was made President after Amin’s execution. This new regime in Afghanistan was opposed by a section of Afghan population who had seen onslaught on their religious rights as the government was encouraging secular practices in daily life. This was termed as “anti-Islamic” and promotion of “Western culture” in Afghanistan. These developments in Afghanistan was termed by the United States as deliberate acts of the Soviet Union to promote communist ideology, and that let to reemergence or revival of the Cold War in a significant way. The United States responded to these developments with its proxies in Afghanistan - the mujahedeen groups who launched a war on the communist regime of Babrak Karmal and the Soviet troops there. Soviet Union suffered heavy military losses at the hands of the US-armed mujahideen groups. Besides, by late 1980s, Soviet Union had begun unraveling under the pressure of prestroika and glasnost reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev. Soviet troops began withdrawing from Afghanistan in mid 1988 and finally left the country on 15 February 1989 without victory under the framework worked out between US, USSR, and the governments of Afghanistan and Pakistan. The other developments that were seen adding to the rebirth of the Cold War were: i) imposition of martial law in Poland by the Soviets in 1981 to quell “prodemocracy protests” and its American opposition; ii) the Soviet Union shooting down a South Korean “spy” airliner in 1983 and thus breaking off the SovietAmerican arms talks; and iii) American invasion of Grenada, a Caribbean country, in 1983 among others. This geopolitical and ideological battle, however, was ended by the late 1980s. Once the Soviets had pulled out troops from Afghanistan, the bipolar tension reduced. The Americans and the Soviets agreed to dismantle a whole category of nuclear weapons in 1987. They reached an agreement to that effect. It was called the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. News of positive developments in favour of easing the tensions started coming from Cuba, Vietnam, Cambodia, Angola etc. while Germany was united. But it was widely believed that the policies pursued by the Soviet leadership of that time were primarily responsible for the end of the Cold War. The essence of those policies pursued by the Soviet Union was understood 244 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

by the two highlighted terms of perestroika and glasnost. The meaning of perestroika was understood as economic “restructuring” in the sense of removing economic bottlenecks, inefficiency and raising production and productivity. Glasnost (opening) called for some minimal political liberalization in the Soviet political system. It called for openness in public policy-making and scrutiny. But the fact of the matter was that both the policies of perestroika and glasnost could not help the Soviets much, and the Soviet Union had ceased to exist in 1991. End of Cold War: When Mikhail Gorbachev came to power, relations between Soviet Union and US began to improve. Gorbachev initiated glasnost and perestroika to provide some small political ‘opening’ (glasnost) at home and to bolster the faltering economy (perestroika). Cold War began winding down. At a summit in Reykjavik, Iceland, in October 1986, Gorbachev proposed Reagan a 50 per cent reduction in the nuclear arsenals of each side. Nothing came out of it; as Reagan was interested in building his ‘star war’ programme. However, on December 8, 1987, the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty was signed in Washington, eliminating an entire class of nuclear weapons. The INF Treaty was the first arms control pact to require an actual reduction in nuclear arsenals rather than merely restricting their proliferation.As the decade came to an end, much of the Eastern Bloc began to fall apart. Country after country walked back on communism; and the Soviet Union did nothing in response. The so-called ‘iron curtain’ was finally crumbling. On November 10, 1989, German people divided for decades physically tore down the Berlin Wall – one of the most famous symbols of the Cold War. Before the 1989 would end, leaders of every Eastern European nation except Bulgaria had been ousted by popular uprisings. By late 1991, Soviet Union itself dissolved into its component republics under a mix of factors – economic pressure, war in Afghanistan and breaking away of its East European allies. In a sense, Soviet socialist experiment crumbled under its own weight. It was the defeat of socialism at the political, if not the ideological level, but did it mark the triumph of capitalism and liberal democracy? US emerged as the sole super power and took great credit for ending the Cold War. Triumphalism prevailed in US – a sense in American destiny and its infallibility. Francis Fukuyama declared the end of Cold War as the ‘end of history’. Human societies will no further evolve in economic and political terms. Free market capitalism and liberal democracy were seen as the final forms of economic and political systems to live in. Bipolarity ended and the US became the sole superpower in the international relations. 14.5 SUMMARY 245 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 War is a violent incident. Yet the Cold War, fought between the blocs led by the United States and the Soviet Union between 1945 and 1990 was called the Cold War because of its dimensions that included ideological cover, bloc rivalry, nonmilitary confrontation, arms race, space race etc.  The two sides fought many ‘proxy’ wars in different parts of the world through their allied regimes and political groups. Calling the Cold War a collection of “low- intensity” conflicts seems to come closer to its real nature. Prevalence of those conflicts and their origin over a period of time are best explained from geopolitical and ideological viewpoints.  There are three main identifiable phases of the Cold War. The period from 1945 to 1962 saw its beginning and then increasing hostilities. Thereafter, the Cuban Missile Crisis brought relaxation in the bipolar tensions. This relaxation was called détente and lasted from 1962 to mid-1970s.  Defying the belief that the Cold War had ended, it was reawakened in late 1970s when the Soviet troops entered Afghanistan in support of a communist regime and the Americans had responded to it in a manner proverbial to the pre-détente rivalry.  Reagan revived arms race as he sought to spend on Strategic Defence Initiative – the so-called ‘star war’ programme. The Cold War, however, ended in 1989 when the Soviets had pulled out their troops from Afghanistan and positive news started coming also from other parts of the world. The Soviet Union’s policies of perestroika and glasnost were believed to be in the centre of changes in late 1980s. In no time the Soviet Union had disintegrated and the Cold War was declared dead. 14.6 KEY WORDS  Allied Powers: The states who came together the fight the Fascist Axis powers. The major allied powers were the USA, USSR, Britain, France and China. There were fifty states in this groups.  Axis powers: The fascist powers-Germany, Italy and Japan-constituted the  Bloc in which a very few smaller states joined.  Glasnost: Open politics and multi-party democracy. It is a Russian word.  Cold War: Meaning, Patterns and Dimensions Perestroika : It is the Russian term which denotes market economy. It has given greater role to market forces in the Russian economy which had hitherto been planned or controlled economy. 246 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Starwars: It is a system to prevent nuclear war by providing the technological inputs and means to knock incoming missiles out of the air before they hit their targets. 14.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What do you mean by the term of Cold War? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. Critically discuss the circumstances leading to the beginning of the Cold War. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 14.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Write short notes on : a) German Crisis b) Truman Doctrine c) The Marshall Plan d) NATO 2. Critically discuss how the Cold War spread over the Far East. 3. Mention the factors responsible for the relaxation of the Cold War. 4. What are the incidents responsible for the beginning of the new or second Cold War? 5. Disscuss the pattern and dimensions of the Cold War. Long Questions 247 1. Account for the causes of the Cold War. 2. What are the characteristics of the post Cold War world? 3. What is the ideological explanation for the origin of the Cold War? 4. Discuss the Truman Doctrine. 5. Discuss the PHASES OF THE COLD WAR CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

B. Multiple Choice Questions 248 (i) The disintegration of the Red Embire (USSR) in ............... . (a) 1991 (b) 1989 (c) 1992 (d) 1993 (ii) Modern state is regarded as a sovereign entity, according to ............... . (a) Hobbes (b) Austin (c) Hegel (d) All of these (iii) Presently trans-national state is a body of ............... . (a) 21 states (b) 22 states (c) 25 states (d) None of these (iv) A trans-national state is known for having a ............... . (a) Divided sovereignty (b) Sole centre of pover (c) United power (d) None of these (v) MFN stands for ............... . (a) Most favourite nation (b) Multi favoured nations (c) Most favoured nation (d) None of these. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Answers: (i) (a) (ii) (d) (iii) (c) (iv) (a) (v) (c) 14.7 REFERENCES  Baylis, John et al. (eds.). (2015). The Globalisation of World Politics. New Delhi, OUP. Davis, Simon and Joseph Smith. (2015). The A to Z of the Cold War. New York:Scarecrow.  Friedman, Norman. (2007). The Fifty-Year War: Conflict and Strategy in the  Cold War. New York: U.S. Naval Institute Press.  Gaddis, John Lewis. (1997). We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History.  Oxford: Oxford University Press.  Gaddis, John Lewis. (2005). The Cold War: A New History. New Delhi: Penguin Press.  Halliday, Fred.(2001). Cold War. The Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World.Oxford: Oxford University Press.  Immerman, Richard H. and Petra Goedde. (eds.) (2013). The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War. Oxford: OUP.  LaFeber, Walter (1993). America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945– 1992.McGrawHill.  Leffler, Melvyn P. and Odd Arne Westad. (eds.) (2016). The Cambridge History of the Cold War (3 vol.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  McMahon, Robert. (2003). The Cold War: A Very Short Introduction. (Oxford: Oxford University Press.  Service, Robert. (2018). The End of the Cold War: 1985–1991. London: Macmillan.  Sorensen, G. and Robert H. Jackson.(2016). Introduction to International Relations. New Delhi, OUP.  Tucker, Spencer. (ed.) (2008). Encyclopedia of the Cold War: A Political, Social, and Military History (5 vol.), California: ABC CLIO Corporate.  Walker, Martin. (1995). The Cold War: A History, British perspective. New York: Henry Holt. 249 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Westad, Odd Arne. (2017). The Cold War: A World History. New York: Basic Books. 250 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)