Cognitive Psychology_Draft 2

Learned skills such as riding a bike are stored in the putamen; instinctive actions such as grooming are stored in the caudate nucleus; and the cerebellum is involved with timing and coordination of body skills. Thus, without the medial temporal lobe (the structure that includes the hippocampus), a person is still able to form new procedural memories (such as playing the piano, for example), but cannot remember the events during which they happened or were learned. Perhaps the most famous study demonstrating the separation of the declarative and procedural memories is that of a patient known as “H.M.”, who had parts of his medial temporal lobe, hippocampus and amygdala removed in 1953 to cure his intractable epilepsy. After the surgery, H.M. could still form new procedural memories and short-term memories, but long-lasting declarative memories could no longer be formed. The nature of the exact brain surgery he underwent, and the types of amnesia he experienced, allowed a good understanding of how particular areas of the brain are linked to specific processes in memory formation. In particular, his ability to recall memories from well before his surgery, but his inability to create new long-term memories, suggests that encoding and retrieval of long-term memory information is mediated by distinct systems within the medial temporal lobe, particularly the hippocampus. The fact that he was able to learn hand-eye coordination skills such as mirror drawing, despite having absolutely no memory of having learned or practiced the task before, also suggested the existence different types of long-term memory, which are now known as declarative and procedural memories There is convincing evidence, notably by studying amnesic patients and the effect of priming, to suggest that implicit memory is largely distinct from explicit memory and operates through a different process in the brain. Studies of the effects of amnesia have shown that it is quite possible to have an intact implicit memory despite a severely impaired explicit memory. Priming is the effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a subsequent stimulus, so that, for instance, if a person reads a list of words including the word “concert”, and is later asked to complete a word starting with “con”, there is a higher probability that they will answer “concert” than, say, “contact”, “connect”, etc. Studies from amnesic patients indicate that priming is controlled by a brain system separate from the medial temporal system that supports explicit memory. 6.3.5. Episodic & Semantic Memory Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory represents our memory of experiences and specific events in time in a serial form, from which we can reconstruct the actual events that took place at any given point in our lives. It is the memory of autobiographical events (times, places, associated emotions and other contextual knowledge) that can be explicitly stated. Individuals tend to see themselves as actors in these events, and the emotional charge and the entire context surrounding an event is usually part of the memory, not just the bare facts of the event itself. 101 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Semantic memory, on the other hand, is a more structured record of facts, meanings, concepts and knowledge about the external world that we have acquired. It refers to general factual knowledge, shared with others and independent of personal experience and of the spatial/temporal context in which it was acquired. Semantic memories may once have had a personal context, but now stand alone as simple knowledge. It therefore includes such things as types of food, capital cities, social customs, functions of objects, vocabulary, understanding of mathematics, etc. Much of semantic memory is abstract and relational and is associated with the meaning of verbal symbols. The semantic memory is generally derived from the episodic memory, in that we learn new facts or concepts from our experiences, and the episodic memory is considered to support and underpin semantic memory. A gradual transition from episodic to semantic memory can take place, in which episodic memory reduces its sensitivity and association to events, so that the information can be generalized as semantic memory. Both episodic memory and semantic memory require a similar encoding process. However, semantic memory mainly activates the frontal and temporal cortexes, whereas episodic memory activity is concentrated in the hippocampus, at least initially. Once processed in the hippocampus, episodic memories are then consolidated and stored in the neocortex. The memories of the different elements of an event are distributed in the various visual, olfactory and auditory areas of the brain, but they are all connected by the hippocampus to form an episode, rather than remaining a collection of separate memories. For example, memories of people’s faces, the taste of the wine, the music that was playing, etc., might all be part of the memory of a dinner with friends. By repeatedly reactivating or “playing back” this particular activity pattern in the various regions of the cortex, they become so strongly linked with one another that they no longer need the hippocampus to act as their link, and the memory of the music that was playing that night, for example, can act as an index entry, and may be enough to bring back the entire scene of the dinner party. Our spatial memory appears to be much more confined to the hippocampus, particularly the right hippocampus, which seems to be able to create a mental map of space, thanks to certain cells called \"place cells\". Episodic memory does also trigger activity in the temporal lobe, but mainly to ensure that these personal memories are not mistaken for real life. This difference in the neurological processing of episodic and semantic memory is illustrated by cases of anterograde amnesia cases (a good example being a case known as “C.L.”) in which episodic memory is almost completely lost while semantic memory is retained. A further category of declarative memory, referred to as autobiographical memory, is sometimes distinguished, although really it is just one area of episodic memory. Autobiographical memory refers to a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual’s own life, often based on a combination of episodic memory (subjective 102 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at times and places) and semantic memory (general knowledge and facts about the world). One specific type of autobiographical memory is known as a \"flashbulb memory\", a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid “snapshot” of a moment or circumstances in which surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard, famous examples being the assassination of John Kennedy, the terrorist bombings on 9/11, etc. Such memories are believed by some to be highly resistant to forgetting, possibly due to the strong emotions that are typically associated with them. However, several studies also suggest that flashbulb memories are not especially accurate, despite apparently being experienced with great vividness and confidence. 6.3.6. Retrospective & Prospective Memory An important alternative classification of long-term memory used by some researchers is based on the temporal direction of the memories. Retrospective memory is where the content to be remembered (people, words, events, etc.) is in the past, i.e. the recollection of past episodes. It includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory, and declarative memory in general, although it can be either explicit or implicit. Prospective memory is where the content is to be remembered in the future and may be defined as “remembering to remember” or remembering to perform an intended action. It may be either event-based or time-based, often triggered by a cue, such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue) or remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue). Clearly, though, retrospective and prospective memory are not entirely independent entities, and certain aspects of retrospective memory are usually required for prospective memory. Thus, there have been case studies where an impaired retrospective memory has caused a definite impact on prospective memory. However, there have also been studies where patients with an impaired prospective memory had an intact retrospective memory, suggesting that to some extent the two types of memory involve separate processes. 6.4. MODELS OF MEMORY Researchers have developed several models to describe how our memory works. The traditional “three-store model” is not the only way to conceptualize memory. The following sections first present what we know about memory in terms of the three-store model. Then we examine the levels-of-processing model and consider an integrative model of working memory. Subsequently, we will explore some more conceptualizations of memory systems and lastly get to know a connectionist model. 103 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6.4.1. The Traditional Model of Memory In the mid-1960s, based on the data available at the time, researchers proposed model of memory distinguishing two structures of memory first proposed by William James (1890, 1970): primary memory, which holds temporary information currently in use, and secondary memory, which holds information permanently orate least for a very long time (Waugh & Norman, 1965). Three years later, Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) proposed an alternative model that conceptualized memory in terms of three memory stores:  a sensory store, capable of storing relatively limited amounts of information for very brief periods;  a short-term store, capable of storing information for somewhat longer periods but of relatively limited capacity as well; and  a long-term store, of very large capacity, capable of storing information for very long periods, perhaps even indefinitely The model differentiates among structures for holding information, termed stores, and the information stored in the structures, termed memory. Today, cognitive psychologists commonly describe the three stores as sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Also, Atkinson and Shiffrin were not suggesting that the three stores are distinct physiological structures. Rather, the stores are hypothetical constructs— concepts that are not themselves directly measurable or observable but that serve as mental models for understanding how a psychological phenomenon works. Figure 3.2shows a simple information-processing model of these stores (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971). This Atkinson-Shiffrin model emphasizes the passive storage areas in which memories are stored; but it also alludes to some control processes that govern the transfer of information from one store to another. In the following sections, we take a closer look at the sensory store, the short-term store, and the long-term store. Figure 6.2.: Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Memory Model. 104 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sensory Store The sensory store is the initial repository of much information that eventually enters the short- and long-term stores. Strong (although not undisputed; see Haber, 1983) evidence argues in favour of the existence of an iconic store. The iconic store is a discrete visual sensory register that holds information for very short periods. Its name derives from the fact that information is stored in the form of icons. These in turn are visual images that represent something. Icons usually resemble whatever is being represented. If you have ever “written” your name with a lighted sparkler (or stick of incense) against a dark background, you have experienced the persistence of a visual memory. You briefly “see” your name, although the sparkler leaves no physical trace. This visual persistence is an example of the type of information held in the iconic store. Sperling’s Discovery The initial discovery regarding the existence of the iconic store came from a doctoral dissertation by a graduate student at Harvard University named George Sperling (1960). He addressed the question of how much information we can encode in a single, brief glance at a set of stimuli. Sperling flashed an array of letters and numbers on a screen for a mere 50 milliseconds (thousandths of a second). Participants were asked to report the identity and location of as many of the symbols as they could recall. Sperling could be sure that participants got only one glance because previous research had shown that 0.050 seconds is long enough for only a single glance at the presented stimulus. Sperling found that when participants were asked to report on what they saw, they remembered only about four symbols. The finding confirmed an earlier one made by Bridgend in 1933. The number of symbols recalled was pretty much the same, without regard to how many symbols had been in the visual display. Some of Sperling’s participants mentioned that they had seen all the stimuli clearly. But while reporting what they saw, they forgot the other stimuli. Sperling then conceived an ingenious idea for how to measure what the participants saw. The procedure used by Bridgend and in the first set of studies by Sperling is a whole-report procedure. In this procedure, participants report every symbol they have seen. Sperling then introduced a partial-report procedure. Here, participants need to report only part of what they see. Sperling found a way to obtain a sample of his participants’ knowledge. He then extrapolated from this sample to estimate their total knowledge. His logic was like that of school examinations, which also are used as samples of an individual’s total knowledge of course material. Sperling presented symbols in three rows of four symbols each. Figure 5.3 shows a display like one that Sperling’s participants might have seen. Sperling informed participants that they would have to recall only a single row of the display. The row to be recalled was signalled by a tone of high, medium, or low pitch. The pitches corresponded to the need to recall the top, middle, or bottom row, respectively. To estimate the duration of iconic memory, Sperling manipulated the interval between the display and the tone. The range of the interval was from 0.10 seconds before the onset of the 105 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

display to 1.0 second after the offset of the display. The partial-report procedure dramatically changed how much participants could recall. Sperling then multiplied the number of symbols recalled with this procedure by three. The reason was that participants had to recall only one third of the information presented but did not know beforehand which of the three lines they would be asked to report. Using this partial-report procedure, Sperling found that participants had available roughly 9 of the 12 symbols if they were cued immediately before or immediately after the appearance of the display. However, when they were cued one second later, their recall was down to 4 or 5 of the 12 items. This level of recall was about the same as that obtained through the whole- report procedure. These data suggest that the iconic store can hold about 9 items. They also suggest that information in this store decays very rapidly (Figure 5.4). Indeed, the advantage of the partial-report procedure is reduced drastically by 0.3 seconds of delay. It essentially is obliterated by 1 second of delay for onset of the tone. Figure 6.3.: Display from a Visual-Recall Task. 106 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Figure 6.4.: Results of Sperling’s Experiment. Sperling’s results suggest that information fades rapidly from iconic storage. Why are we subjectively unaware of such a fading phenomenon? First, we rarely are subjected to stimuli such as the ones in his experiment. They appeared for only 50 milliseconds and then disappeared before participants needed to recall them. Second and more important, however, we are unable to distinguish what we see in iconic memory from what we see in the environment. What we see in iconic memory is what we take to be in the environment. Participants in Sperling’s experiment generally reported that they could still see the display up to 150 milliseconds after it had been terminated. Elegant as it was, Sperling’s use of the partial-report procedure was imperfect. It still suffered, at least to some small extent, from the problem inherent in the full report procedure: Participants had to report multiple symbols. They may have experienced fading of memory during the report. Indeed, a distinct possibility of output interference exists. In this case, the production of output interferes with the phenomenon being studied. That is, verbally reporting multiple symbols may interfere with reports of iconic memory. Subsequent Refinement In subsequent work, participants were shown displays of two rows of eight randomly chosen letters for a duration of 50 milliseconds (Averbuch & Coriell, 1961). In this investigation, a small mark appeared just above one of the positions where a letter had appeared (or was about to appear). Its appearance was at varying time intervals before or after presentation of the letters. In this research, then, participants needed to report only a single letter at a time. The procedure thus minimized output interference. These investigators found that when the mark appeared immediately before or after the stimulus display, participants 107 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

could report accurately on about 75% of the trials. Thus, they seemed to be holding about 12 items (75% of 16) in sensory memory. Sperling’s estimate of the capacity of iconic memory, therefore, may have been conservative. The evidence in this study suggests that when output interference is greatly reduced, the estimates of the capacity of iconic memory may greatly increase. Iconic memory may comprise as many as 12 items. A second experiment (Averbach & Coriell, 1961) revealed an additional important characteristic of iconic memory: It can be erased. The erasable nature of iconic memory makes our visual sensations more sensible. We would be in serious trouble if everything we saw in our visual environment persisted for too long. For example, if we are scanning the environment at a rapid pace, we need the visual information to disappear quickly so that our memory does not get overloaded. The investigators found that when a stimulus was presented after a target letter in the same position that the target letter had occupied, it could erase the visual icon (Averbach & Coriell, 1961). This interference is called backward visual masking. Backward visual masking is mental erasure of a stimulus caused by the placement of one stimulus where another one had appeared previously. If the mask stimulus is presented in the same location as a letter and within 100 milliseconds of the presentation of the letter, the mask is superimposed on the letter. For example, F followed by L would be E. At longer intervals between the target and the mask, the mask erases the original stimulus. For example, only the L would remain if F and then L had been presented. At still longer intervals between the target and the mask, the mask no longer interferes. This non-interference is presumably because the target information already has been transferred to more durable memory storage. To summarize, visual information appears to enter our memory system through an iconic store. This store holds visual information for very short periods. In the normal course of events, this information may be transferred to another store. Or it may be erased. Erasure occurs if other information is superimposed on it before there is sufficient time for the transfer of the information to another memory store. Erasure or movement into another store also occurs with auditory information that is in echoic memory. Short-Term Memory Most of us have little or no introspective access to our sensory memory stores. Nevertheless, we all have access to our short-term memory store. It holds memories for a few seconds and occasionally up to a couple of minutes. For example, can you remember the name of the researcher who discovered the iconic store? What about the names of the researchers who subsequently refined this work? If you can recall those names, you used some memory- control processes for doing so. According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, the short-term store does more than hold onto a few items. It also has some control processes available that regulate the flow of information to and from the long-term store, where we may hold information for longer periods. Typically, material remains in the short-term store for about 108 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed to retain it. Information is stored acoustically (by the way it sounds) rather than visually (by the way it looks). How many items of information can we hold in short-term memory at any one time? In general, our immediate (short-term) memory capacity for a wide range of items appears to be about seven items, plus or minus two (Miller, 1956). An item can be something simple, such as a digit, or something more complex, such as a word. If we chunk together a string of, say, 20 letters or numbers into 7 meaningful items, we can remember them. We could not, however, remember 20 items and repeat them immediately. For example, most of us cannot hold in short-term memory this string of 21 numbers: 101001000100001000100. However, if we chunk this string of numbers into larger units, such as 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000, 1,000, and 100. We probably will be able to reproduce easily the 21 numerals as 6 items (Miller, 1956). Other factors also influence the capacity for temporary storage in memory. For example, the number of syllables we pronounce with each item affects the number of items we can recall. When each item has a larger number of syllables, we can recall fewer items (Hulme et al., 2006). In addition, any delay or interference can cause our seven-item capacity to drop to about three items. In general, the capacity limit may be closer to three to five than it is to seven (Cowan, 2001). Most studies have used verbal stimuli to test the capacity of the short-term store, but people can also hold visual information in short-term memory. For example, they can hold information about shapes as well as their colours and orientations. What is the capacity of the short-term store of visual information? Is it less, the same, or perhaps greater? A team of investigators set out to discover the capacity of the short-term store for visual information (Luck & Vogel, 1997; Vogel, Woodman, & Luck, 2001). They presented experimental participants with two visual displays. The displays were presented in sequence. The stimuli were of three types: coloured squares, black lines at varying orientations, and coloured lines at different orientations. Thus, the third kind of stimulus combined the features of the first two. The kind of stimulus was the same in each of the two displays. For example, if the first display contained coloured squares, so did the second. The two displays could be either the same or different from each other. If they were different, then it was by only one feature. The participants needed to indicate whether the two displays were the same or different. The investigators found that participants could hold roughly four items in memory, which were within the estimates suggested by Cowan (2001). The results were the same whether just individual features were varied (i.e., coloured squares, black lines at varying orientation) or pairs of features were varied (i.e., coloured lines at different orientations). Thus, storage seems to depend on numbers of objects rather than numbers of features. This work contained a possible confound (i.e., other responsible factors that cannot be easily disentangled from the supposed causal factor). In the stimuli with coloured lines at different orientations, the added feature was at the same spatial location as the original one. That is, 109 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

colour and orientation were, with respect to the same object, in the same place in the display. A further study thus was done to separate the effects of spatial location from number of objects (Lee & Chun, 2001). In this research, stimuli comprising boxes and lines could be either at separate locations or at overlapping locations. The overlapping locations thus separated the objects from the fixed locations. The research would enable one to determine whether people can remember four objects, as suggested in the previous work, or four spatial locations. The results were the same as in the earlier research. Participants still could remember four objects, regardless of spatial locations. Therefore, memory was for objects, not spatial locations. Further, using American Sign Language, researchers have found that short-term memory can hold approximately four items for signed letters. This finding is consistent with earlier work on visual-spatial short-term memory. The finding makes sense, given the visual nature of these items. Long-Term Memory We constantly use short-term memory throughout our daily activities. When most of us talk about memory, however, we usually are talking about long-term memory. Here we keep memories that stay with us over extended periods, perhaps indefinitely. All of us rely heavily on our long-term memory. We hold in it information we need to get us by in our day-to-day lives—people’s names, where we keep things, how we schedule ourselves on different days, and so on. How much information can we hold in long-term memory? How long does the information last? The question of storage capacity can be disposed of quickly because the answer is simple. We do not know. Nor do we know how we would find out. We can design experiments to tax the limits of short-term memory, but we do not know how to test the limits of long-term memory and thereby find out its capacity. Some theorists have suggested that the capacity of long-term memory is infinite, at least in practical terms (Barack, 2000; Brady, 2008). It turns out that the question of how long information lasts in long-term memory is not easily answerable. At present, we have no proof even that there is an absolute outer limit to how long information can be stored. What is stored in the brain? Wilder Penfield addressed this question while performing operations on the brains of conscious patients afflicted with epilepsy. He used electrical stimulation of various parts of the cerebral cortex to locate the origins of each patient’s problem. During such stimulation, Penfield (1955, 1969) found that patients sometimes would appear to recall memories from their childhoods. These memories may not have been called to mind for many, many years. (Note that the patients could be stimulated to recall episodes such as events from their childhood, not facts such as the names of U.S. presidents.) These data suggested to Penfield that long-term memories might be permanent. 110 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Some researchers have disputed Penfield’s interpretations (e.g., Loftus & Loftus, 1980). For example, they have noted the small number of such reports in relation to the hundreds of patients on whom Penfield operated. In addition, we cannot be certain that the patients were recalling these events. They may have been inventing them. Other researchers, using empirical techniques on older participants, found contradictory evidence. Some researchers tested participants’ memory for names and photographs of their high- school classmates (Bahrick, Bahrick, & Wittlinger, 1975). Even after 25 years, there was little forgetting of some aspects of memory. Participants tended to recognize names as belonging to classmates rather than to outsiders. Recognition memory for matching names to graduation photos was quite high. As you might expect, recall of names showed a higher rate of forgetting. The term premature refers to the very long-term storage of information, such as knowledge of a foreign language (Bahrick, 1984a, 1984b; Bahrick et al., 1993) and of mathematics (Bahrick & Hall, 1991). Schmidt and colleagues (2000) studied the premature effect for names of streets near one’s childhood homes. Indeed, the author just returned to his childhood home of more than 40 years ago and perfectly remembered the names of the nearby streets. These findings indicate that premature can occur even for information that you have passively learned. Some researchers have suggested that permastore is a separate memory system. Others, such as Neisser (1999), have argued that one long-term memory system can account for both. There is to date no resolution of the issue. In any case, research on the immense capacity of long-term memory has motivated researchers, instructors, and teachers to come up with new methods to help students memorize what they learn. Students do have great memory capacity, and ideally, they should leave school with both the ability to think critically and a good knowledge base about which to think. To this end, new and motivating techniques are constantly being developed and include on-line quizzes that students can take to test their knowledge, or the use of clickers (remote control devices that allow students to communicate with their teacher in front via a computer system) with which students can answer multiple-choice questions during class and can give feedback to the teacher (Miller, 2009). 6.4.2. The Levels-of-Processing Model A radical departure from the three-stores model of memory is the levels of-processing framework, which postulates that memory does not comprise three or even any specific number of separate stores, but rather varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding. In other words, there are theoretically an infinite number of levels of processing (LOP) at which items can be encoded through elaboration—or successively deeper understanding of material to be learned. There are no distinct boundaries between one level and the next. The emphasis in this model is on processing as the key to storage. The level at 111 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

which information is stored will depend, in large part, on how it is encoded. Moreover, the deeper the level of processing, the higher, in general, is the probability that an item may be retrieved. A set of experiments seems to support the LOP view (Craik & Tulving, 1975). Participants received a list of words. A question preceded each word. Questions were varied to encourage item elaboration on three various levels of processing. In progressive order of depth, they were physical, phonological, and semantic. Samples of the words and the questions are shown in Figure 6.5. The results of the research were clear: The deeper the level of processing encouraged by the question, the higher the level of recall achieved. Comparable results emerged independently in Russia). The levels-of-processing framework can also be applied to nonverbal stimuli. Melinda Burgess and George Weaver (2003) showed participants photos of faces and asked them questions about the persons of the photo to induce either deep or shallow processing. Faces that were deeply processed were better recognized on a subsequent test than those that were studied at a lower level of processing. A level-of-processing (or depth-of-processing) benefit can be seen for a variety of populations, including in people with schizophrenia. People suffering from schizophrenia often suffer from memory impairments because they do not process words semantically. Deeper processing helps them improve their memory (Ragland et al., 2003). Figure 6.5.: Levels of processing framework Despite much supporting evidence, the LOP framework has its critics. For one thing, some researchers suggest that the levels may involve a circular definition. On this view, the levels are defined as deeper because the information is retained better. But the information is viewed as being retained better because the levels are deeper. In addition, some researchers noted some paradoxes in retention. For example, under some circumstances, strategies that use rhymes have produced better retention than those using just semantic rehearsal. That means, focusing on superficial sounds and not underlying meanings can result in better retention than focusing on repetition of underlying meanings. Considering these criticisms and some contrary findings, the LOP model has been revised. The sequence of the levels of encoding may not be as important as was thought before. Two 112 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

other variables may be of more importance: the way people process (elaborate) the encoding of an item (e.g., phonological or semantic), and the way the item is retrieved later. The better the match between the type of elaboration of the encoding and the type of task required for retrieval, the better the retrieval results. 6.4.3. An Integrative Model: Working Memory The working-memory model is probably the most widely used and accepted model today. Psychologists who use it view short-term and long-term memory from a unique perspective. Table 6.1 shows the contrasts between the Atkinson-Shiffrin model and an alternative perspective. Note the semantic distinctions in how memory components are labelled, the differences in metaphorical representation, and the differences in emphasis for each view. The key feature of the alternative view is the role of working memory. Working memory holds only the most recently activated, or conscious, portion of long-term memory, and it moves these activated elements into and out of brief, temporary memory storage. The Components of Working Memory Alan Baddeley has suggested an integrative model of memory. It synthesizes the working-memory model with the LOP framework. Essentially, he views the LOP framework as an extension of, rather than as a replacement for, the working-memory model. Baddeley originally suggested that working memory comprises five elements: the visuospatial sketchpad, the phonological loop, the central executive, subsidiary “slave systems,” and the episodic buffer. The first element, the visuospatial sketchpad, briefly holds some visual images. 113 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Table 6.1.: Traditional versus Non-traditional Views of Memory Figure 6.6.: Working Memory 114 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The phonological loop briefly holds inner speech for verbal comprehension and for acoustic rehearsal. We use the phonological loop for several everyday tasks, including sounding out new and difficult words and solving word problems. There are two critical components of this loop. One is phonological storage, which holds information in memory. The other is subvocal rehearsal, which is used to put the information into memory in the first place. The role of subvocal rehearsal can be seen in the following example. Try to memorize the following list of words while repeating the number five to yourself continuously: Tree, pencil, marshmallow, lamp, sunglasses, computer, chocolate, noise, clock, snow, river, square, store. The third element is a central executive, which both coordinates attentional activities and governs responses. The central executive is critical to working memory because it is the gating mechanism that decides what information to process further and how to process this information. It decides what resources to allocate to memory and related tasks, and how to allocate them. It is also involved in higher-order reasoning and comprehension and is central to human intelligence. The fourth element is several other “subsidiary slave systems” that perform other cognitive or perceptual tasks (Baddeley, 1989, p. 36). The fifth component is the episodic buffer. The episodic buffer is a limited-capacity system that is capable of binding information from the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop as well as from long-term memory into a unitary episodic representation. This component integrates information from various parts of working memory—that is, visual-spatial and phonological—so that they make sense to us. This incorporation allows us to solve problems and re-evaluate previous experiences with more recent knowledge. We can conceptualize the differing emphases with contrasting metaphors. For example, we can compare the three-store view to a warehouse in which information is passively stored. The sensory store serves as the loading dock. The short-term store comprises the area surrounding the loading dock. Here, information is stored temporarily until it is moved to or from the correct location in the warehouse (long-term store). A metaphor for the working-memory model might be a multimedia production house. It continuously generates and manipulates images and sounds. It also coordinates the integration of sights and sounds into meaningful arrangements. Once images, sounds, and other information are stored, they are still available for reformatting and reintegration in novel ways, as new demands and additional information become available. 6.5. MNEMONICS AND MEMORY CUES Have you ever had to memorize a list of words or an equation for a test at school? Sometimes it can be difficult to remember long lists of words. This is where memory techniques can help. Any memory technique that can help somebody remember information is called a 115 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

mnemonic (pronounced nuh-MAH-nick). Mnemonics can use systems of rhymes, acronyms, diagrams, or many other techniques to help you remember names, dates, facts, figures, and more. Here are a few examples of mnemonics: The term mnemonic is derived from Greek. It is based on the word mnemonikos which means \"of memory.\" This word refers back to mnema, which means \"remembrance.\" Mnemonics can make little sense and still work. Perhaps it is because a strange or funny mnemonic may stay in your mind better. In this human behaviour science fair project, you will test how well mnemonics can help memory. You will gather at least six of your friends and separate them into two groups. One group will be the control group and the other will be the experimental group. The purpose of a control group is to act as a constant and to highlight any effects the variables in an experiment may have on the experimental group. You will ask each member of the control group to memorize a list without using a mnemonic, then test them by asking them to repeat the list back. Next, you will ask each member of the experimental group to memorize the same list of words, but using a mnemonic. Does the mnemonic help them remember the list better than the control group, who did not use a mnemonic? Many researchers study human memory and how the brain holds memory. This science fair project allows you to study a very interesting area of science—the human mind. 1. Using Keyword Mnemonics Studying a second (or third or fourth) language? Multiple research studies have demonstrated that using the keyword mnemonic method improves learning and recall, especially in the area of foreign language. Here's how the keyword method works. First, you choose a keyword that somehow cues you to think of the foreign word. Then, you imagine that keyword connected with the meaning of the word you're trying to learn. For example, if you're trying to learn the Spanish word for cat, which is gato, first think of a gate and then imagine the cat sitting on top of the gate. Even though the \"a\" sound in gato is short and the \"a\" sound in gate is long, the beginnings are similar. Thus, the visualization and association should trigger the recall of the correct word. 2. Chunking as a Mnemonic Strategy Chunking information is a mnemonic strategy that works by organizing information into more easily learned groups, phrases, words or numbers. For example, memorizing the following number: 47895328463, will likely take a fair amount of effort. However, if it is chunked like this: 4789 532 8463, it becomes easier to remember. Interestingly, chunking is one of several mnemonic strategies that has been studied in people with mild Alzheimer's disease. Results from these studies concluded that chunking can be helpful in improving verbal working memory in the early stages of dementia. 116 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. Musical Mnemonics One way to successfully encode the information into your brain is to use music. A well- known example is the \"A-B-C\" song, but there's no end to what you can learn when it's set to music. You can learn the countries of Africa, science cycles, memory verses, math equations and more. If you search online, you'll find that there are some songs already created specifically to help teach certain information, and for others, you'll have to make up your own. And no, you don't have to be able to carry a tune or write the music out correctly for this mnemonic method to work. Music is also an effective tool for people with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Not only can the words of songs be remembered from their childhood even when other language ability is almost gone, but they can also learn new information more effectively if it's taught through music. 4. Letter and Word Mnemonic Strategies Acronyms and acrostics are typically the most familiar type of mnemonic strategies. Acronyms use a simple formula of a letter to represent each word or phrase that needs to be remembered. For example, think of the NBA, which stands for the National Basketball Association. Or, if you're trying to memorize four different types of dementia, you might use this acronym: FLAV, which would represent frontotemporal, Lewy body, Alzheimer's, and vascular. Notice that I ordered the list in such a way to more easily form a \"word,\" which you would not do if the list you need to memorize is ordered. An acrostic uses the same concept as the acronym except that instead of forming a new \"word,\" it generates a sentence that helps you remember the information. An often-used acrostic in math class is: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally. This acrostic mnemonic represents the order of operations in algebra and stands for parentheses, exponents, multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction.4 5. Rhymes as Mnemonic Strategies The ability to memorize and remember nursery rhymes is often due in part to repetition and in part to rhyming. Rhyming words can be used as a mnemonic to help us learn and recall information. Sometimes, you can rearrange words or substitute a different word with the same meaning to make them rhyme. 117 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Take the familiar spelling rule: \"i\" before \"e,\" except after \"c,\" or in sounding like \"ay\" as in \"neighbour\" or \"weigh.\" This phrase sticks in our memories because we've heard it multiple times but also because of the rhyming within it. 6. Making Connections as a Mnemonic Method One mnemonic strategy that helps encode new information is to connect it with something else that you already are familiar with or know. This gives it meaning and makes it easier to remember. Making connections is a type of elaborative rehearsal and can be applied to almost any subject or type of information. For example, imagine that you are just introduced to someone named Jeffery. Rather than mentally zipping past his name, pay attention and think about how you can remember it. Perhaps you notice that Jeffery is very energetic, so you can imagine him jumping around his work and connect Jeffrey with jumping. The next time you see him. you'll think, \"There's 'Jumping Jeffery' and you can say hello by name.\" (Don't forget to leave the word \"jumping\" off his name when you greet him.) 7. Method of Loci Mnemonic Strategy The method of loci (pronounced low-sigh) is arguably the earliest identified mnemonic in history. It is first attributed to Simonides of Ceos, a Greek poet, in 477 BC. It's also one of the most researched mnemonics, demonstrating strong success across a wide spectrum of academic subjects and life situations. How does it work? In the method of loci, the learner visualizes a room or a familiar path through a building and mentally associates facts or information with specific locations or objects along the way. In order to recall what he's learned, he re-visualizes moving through that room or along that path and each stop along the way triggers another piece of information. This method is also called the journey method, creating a \"memory palace\" or the mental walk strategy. Research ranging from medical students learning about diabetes to college students remembering grocery lists show significant improvements when the method of loci is used.6 8. Peg Method Mnemonics The peg method is an especially useful mnemonic for remembering sequenced information. If first requires that you memorize the following list in help you order the facts:  one = bun  two = shoe  three= tree  four = door  five = hive  six = sticks 118 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 seven = heaven  eight = gate  nine = vine  ten = hen After you have memorized this list, look over the new information that you are trying to learn. Then, connect the first word to \"bun,\" the second word to \"shoe,\" the third word to \"tree,\" etc. The goal is to make a memorable connection with each new piece of information you need to memorize. For example, let's imagine you need to learn the scientific classification system - Kingdom; Phylum or Division; Class; Order; Family; Genus; Species. Using the peg system, you'll first think of a kingdom placed on a hamburger bun. Then, you'll imagine the mathematical division sign inside a shoe. Next, you'll picture a classroom perched on a tree branch. And so on. This method allows you to be able to recall both the specific piece of information as well as the correct order in which it needs to be placed. 9. The Mnemonic Linking System (Stories or Images) The mnemonic linking method (also called \"chaining\") consists of developing a story or image that connects together pieces of information you need to remember. Each item leads you to recall the next item. For example, imagine that you need to remember to bring the following things with you to school in the morning: homework papers, glasses, gym shoes, wallet, lunch money, and keys. Using the linking system, you can think of the following short story to help you: Jack's homework papers put on their glasses and gym shoes and ran over to his wallet where his hungry keys were eating his lunch money. If you add interesting details or humour, it often makes the information easier to remember. 6.6. SUMMARY  Memory is internal storage areas in the computer system. The term memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of chips, and the word storage is used for memory that exists on tapes or disks.  Moreover, the term memory is usually used as shorthand for physical memory, which refers to the actual chips capable of holding data. Some computers also use virtual memory, which expands physical memory onto a hard disk. 119 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Memory is vital to experiences; it is the retention of information over time for influencing future action. If we could not remember past events, we could not learn or develop language, relationships, or personal identity.  Memory makes us who we are. If we couldn’t recall the who, what, where, and when of our everyday lives, we would struggle to learn additional information, form lasting relationships, or even function in most daily situations. Memory allows the brain to encode, store, and retrieve information in three basic forms.  Memory is the ability to take in information, store it, and recall it at a later time. In psychology, memory is broken into three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval.  There are four main types of memory: sensory memory, working memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.  To start, we process stimuli instantaneously with our sensory memory; that information is typically held in the brain for less than one second, which may help explain why most people report that when shown an object quickly, they feel like they take in more details than they're able to recall later.  Next, the information is transferred to our short-term memory (also known as working memory), which allows us to mull things over in the present and hold valuable information in our minds. Finally, we store past events and patterns learned over time in our long-term memory, also known as episodic or semantic memory.  Memory makes a fundamental contribution to our everyday mental experience.  Mnemonic devices are techniques a person can use to help them improve their ability to remember something. In other words, it's a memory technique to help your brain better encode and recall important information.  Mnemonic devices are very old, with some dating back to ancient Greek times. Virtually everybody uses them, even if they don’t know their name. It’s simply a way of memorizing information so that it “sticks” within our brain longer and can be recalled more easily in the future.  Some of the mnemonic devices are imagery and visualization, acronyms and acrostics, rhymes, chunking, etc. 6.7. KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS  Amnesia- Memory disorder. Different types of amnesia are distinguished. A major distinction in amnesia has been established between specific and nonspecific amnesia. 120 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6.8. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. With the help of flow chart explain the different type of memory. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. With diagram explain the traditional model of memory. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 6.9. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. Describe the concept memory in your own words and explain the processes of encoding, storage and retrieval with respect to memory. 2. Human memory is not a singular entity but we have different types of storage systems which cognitive psychologists refer to as memory. Justify this statement 3. Atkinson and Schifrin have described memory as units of storage where information gats stored for different amounts of time. Elaborate on the model of memory as described by Atkinson and Schifrin. 4. Apart from sensory, short term and long term memory, psychologists have also introduced the concept of working memory. Describe the meaning and nature of working memory and explain where it fits into the memory model. 5. We use different shortcuts to enable us store information for a long time and retrieve it easily when we need. Explain these techniques and describe some of the examples of these techniques. B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. Which of the following is correctly arranged? (a) Encoding-Retrieval-Storage (b) Encoding-Storage-Retrieval (c) Storage-Encoding-Retrieval (d) Retrieval-Storage-Encoding 2. Which memory is a result of instrumental/ motor learning process? 121 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(a) Semantic (b) Sensory (c) Episodic (d) Procedural 3. Words learned under water are recalled _____________ (a) Better on land than under water (b) Better above land than on land (c) Better above land than under water (d) Better under water than on land 4. The sub-type of sensory memory related to the receipt of auditory information from the environment is _____ memory. (a) Echoic (b) Sensory (c) Procedural (d) Explicit 5. The sensory register mainly uses either _____ for vision, which lasts about one second, or _____ for sound, which lasts about four seconds. (a)sensorial memory, echoic memory (b)iconic memory, sensorial memory (c)iconic memory, echoic memory (d)echoic memory, intermittent memory Answer 2 (d) 3(d) 4 (a) 5 (c) 1 (b) 6.10. REFERENCES  Kellogg, R. T. (2003). Cognitive Psychology (2nd ed.). California, USA.: Sage Publications 122 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Neisser, U. (2014). Cognitive Psychology (Classic ed.). New York: Psychology Press  Eysenck, M. W. and Keane, M. T. (2015) Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook (7th ed.). New York: Psychology Press  Galotti, K.M. (2008), Cognitive Psychology: In and out of the Laboratory. Delhi: Thomson.  Sternberg, R. J. & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive psychology (6th ed.). USA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.  Groome, D. (2014). An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology: Processes and Disorders. (3rd ed.). New York: Psychology Press.  Mazur, J.E. (1986), Learning and Behaviors. (6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.  Galotti, K.M. (1999), Cognitive Psychology: In and Outside Laboratory. Mumbai: Thomson Asia.  Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Über das Gedächtnis: Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie  William, J. (1890). The principles of psychology, Vol I, (pp. 402-458). New York, NY, US: Henry Holt and Co, xii, 697 pp.  William, J. (1970). Essays in Pragmatism. New York: Hafner Press.  Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3), 268–294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.268  Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). Mem Cogn 47, 561–574 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-019-00896-7  Burgess, M. C. R. and Weaver, G. E. (2003). Interest and Attention in Facial Recognition. 96 (2). https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.2003.96.2.467 123 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 7 THINKING Structure 7.0 Learning Objectives 7.1. Introduction 7.2. Thinking 7.3. Meaning and Definition of Thinking 7.4. Characteristics of Thinking 7.5. Types of Thinking 7.5.1. Autistic Thinking 7.5.2. Controlled Thinking 7.6. Tools of Thinking 7.7. Theories of thinking 7.7.1. Piaget’s Theory 7.7.2. Sullivan’s Concept of Modes of thinking 7.7.3. Bruner’s Theory 7.7.4. Psychoanalytical Theory of Thinking 7.7.5. Theories of thinking: Points of Consensus 7.8. Summary 7.9. Key Words/ Abbreviations 7.10. Learning Activity 7.11. Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 7.12. References 7.0. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After this unit, you will be able to,  Explain the concept of thinking  Describe the different types of thinking  Explore the various types of thinking  Critically evaluate the tools of thinking  Outline the theories of thinking 7.1. INTRODUCTION The Psychology of Thinking provides an overview of the latest psychological accounts of the thinking process. Broken down into three main themes it explores how and why people think, reason, make decisions, form concepts, solve problems, and how experts think. Thinking is an incredibly complex process and a most difficult concept in Psychology to define or explain. Thinking refers to a pattern of behaviour which we make use of internal 124 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

representations (Symbols, Signs etc.) of the things and events for the solution of some specific purposeful problems. Reasoning plays a significant role in adjusting to one’s environment. It not only controls one’s cognitive activities, but also the total behaviours and personality is affected by the proper or improper development of one’s reasoning ability. it is also an implicit act and involves problem solving behaviour. Everybody in this world is faced to some problems are the others there needs and motive that are to be satisfied. For this purpose, definite goals or aims are set. To realize them one experience obstacles and interference it creates a problem for him needs serious attention and deliberate effort on his part to overcome the obstacles or interference in the attainment of the objectives. 7.2. THINKING Think for a moment: how many times and in what ways you are using the word ‘think’ in your day-to-day conversations. Sometimes probably, you use it as a synonym to remember (I can’t think of her name), pay attention (think about it) or convey uncertainty (I think today my friend will visit me). ‘Think’ has a wide range of meanings which cover several psychological processes. However, in psychology, thinking is a core subject area with an independent existence and a meaning of its own. In this chapter, we will discuss thinking as a mental activity directed at solving a problem, making inferences, judging certain facts, and deciding and choosing between options. Further, the nature and characteristics of creative thinking, what it involves and how it can be developed will also be discussed. Have you ever seen a small child building a tower with blocks or sand? The child would build a tower, dismantle it, make another one and so on and so forth. While doing this, the child sometimes talks to herself or himself. The speech would primarily include the steps s/he is following or want to follow (“not this”, “a little small”, “a tree at the back”), evaluation of the design (“nice”). You also might have experienced talking to yourself while solving a problem. Why do we talk while we think? What is the relationship between language and thought? In this chapter, we shall also be discussing the development of language and the relationship between language and thought. 7.3. MEANING AND DEFINITION OF THINKING Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment. For example, while seeing a painting, you are not simply focusing on the colour of the painting or the lines and strokes, rather you are going beyond the given text in interpreting its meaning and you are trying to relate the information to your existing knowledge. Understanding of the painting involves creation of new meaning that is added to your knowledge. Thinking, 125 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

therefore, is a higher mental process through which we manipulate and analyses the acquired or existing information. Such manipulation and analysis occur by means of abstracting, reasoning, imagining, problem solving, judging, and decision-making Thinking is mostly organized, and goal directed. All day-to-day activities, ranging from cooking to solving a math problem have a goal. One desires to reach the goal by planning, recalling the steps that one has already followed in the past if the task is familiar or inferring strategies if the task is new. Thinking is an internal mental process, which can be inferred from overt behaviour. If you see a chess player engrossed in thinking for several minutes before making a move, you cannot observe what he is thinking. You can simply infer what he was thinking or what strategies he was trying to evaluate, from his next move 7.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF THINKING:  It is one of the most important aspects of one’s cognitive behaviour.  It depends on both – perception and memory.  Thinking is a mental process which starts with a problem and concludes with its solution.  It involves trial and error; analysis and synthesis; foresight and hindsight.  It is a symbolic behaviour.  It is a cognitive activity.  It is always directed to achieve some purpose.  It is different from day-dreaming and imagination.  It is a problem-solving behaviour.  Thinking is a symbolic activity. (e.g.: engineers use mental symbols to design the plan for buildings)  There is mental exploration instead of motor exploration. 7.5. TYPES OF THINKING: There are two types of thinking: 7.5.1. Autistic thinking This is otherwise called free-floating thinking. This is more common among children. It is away from reality. There are no restrictions of reality or of time and space. It is not goal oriented or problem oriented. Generally, such thinking will be highly private, and the individual may use symbols with very personal meanings. Individual’s personal wants are involved in this kind of thinking and he tries to fulfil them. Autistic thinking will be in many forms: 126 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

a. Fantasy: It is otherwise called day dreaming, i.e. dreaming in an awaken state. It is like building castles in the air. In such dreaming we imagine things or situations as we want, not as they are. That is how we will be able to fulfil those wants which cannot be fulfilled. Even the impossible things become possible. For example, a cattle boy grazing cattle in a field may dream as though he is travelling in an aero plane. A young adult may dream to become a famous hero, etc. The individual may find some pleasure or relief from tension temporarily by fantasy. But too much of day dreaming may make him incapable of facing reality. b. Dreaming: Sigmund Freud has stated that the dreams are wish fulfilments. Our desires which are not fulfilled appear in the form of dreams and get fulfilled. There are no restrictions for ideas appearing in the dreams. They may appear directly or in disguise form. c. Imagination: Imagination is a mental activity in which we make use of images. In the process of imagination, we will not be having sense perception. We will not be in touch with reality; we will have only mental images. Hence, we may go wrong in our thinking. d. Reverie: This is also like fantasy. In fantasy we will have some ideas and goals, but in reverie, there will be no ideas at all. Mind will be floating freely and any and everything may come to mind and go away. 7.5.2 Controlled thinking: It is otherwise called directed thinking. It is aimed at solving problems or creating something new. Here we regulate the process of thinking. Our thoughts will be in touch with reality and the thinking will be goal directed. Forms of Controlled Thinking: Reasoning: This is also a kind of thinking. It is defined as a “process of arriving at a new judgement based on one or more judgments as premises”. In reasoning there will be checking, and rechecking of the conclusions arrived at, based on certain facts or data. Reasoning is of two types: a. Inductive reasoning: In this kind of reasoning there is a shift from individual to the universal; in the sense that, generalization is made based on a series of individual experiences regarding a thing. So, the 127 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

conclusion drawn is wider than premises. For example, we arrive at a conclusion that all politicians are selfish after seeing many politicians. b. Deductive reasoning: In deductive reasoning we shift from universal to the and the conclusion drawn is narrower than the premises. For example, all actresses are beautiful. So, the actress that I see also must be beautiful. Generally, in reasoning logical principles are applied to our thinking. It will be most directed towards getting at certain conclusions and inferences. 7.6. TOOLS OF THINKING Thinking makes use of percept, images, and concepts. You perceive a mass of black clouds while going out for a walk. The percept of it sets you thinking of an imminent shower of rain which may drench you, and your arm yourself with an umbrella. Here a percept is a tool of your thinking. A sensory image, visual or auditory, is often a tool of thinking. Very often a verbal image is a tool of thinking. A memory image also is a tool of thinking. The memory image of your dilapidated house sets you thinking of its repairs in the rainy season. We carry on thinking with the aid of language. Are camels herbivorous animals? This question sets you thinking of “All cloven-footed animals are herbivorous; all camels are cloven-footed; therefore, all camels are herbivorous.” You have three concepts of camels, cloven-footed animals, herbivorous. You connect the first concept with the third through the medium of the second, which serves as the-middle term. Here concepts arc the tools of your thinking. Mathematical reasoning is carried on with the aid of symbols and signs what stand for abstract concepts. There are signs of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc. Thus reasoning passes from the concrete to the abstract. List of Tools of Thinking  Concepts  Propositions  Images  Languages  Signs Let us see each of them in detail,  Concepts 128 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Thinking always takes place by using the concepts in the mind. Without concepts there cannot be thinking, because everything around us is recorded in the brain in the form of concepts. These are the categories of objects, events, or ideas with common properties. If you recognize a conceptit will help you to generalize and relate to a particular category of events or objects and think logically inthat direction.For example, Diwali, dassera Christmas short term memory as, Eid are all festivals where the common property is peoplecelebrate, exchange gits etc.  Propositions Declarative statements that are either true or false. Declarative statement means a sentence that declaresa fact which may be correct or incorrect but cannot be both.For example: The book is expensive. This statement can be true for people who cannot afford it and falsefor the people who can.  Images Image is a mental picture formed in the mind in the absence of stimulus. This takes place when we try to remember the experience of stimulus. We are able to think on the basis of these images. They are the pictorial representation of an information. When we hear or read a description of an event orobject we start imagining it and create a picture or representation of that event or object from theinformation we have gathered.For example I am going to Goa for 2 days. I need to book a hotel room to stay. Here, I have to make adecision where to book. So, I check few options and like 2 hotels say A and B. The offers on both thewebsites are very attractive. However, website A only has information on the room features but hotel B'swebsite has information on the room features as well as images which are pictorial representation of thementioned room features. Hence, I exactly know how my room in hotel B look like and therefore choose to book a room in Hotel B. This is how an image can help you in making decisions.  Languages A method of human communication that conveys a message. Body Language too may convey thefeelings and attitude of a person which will help us to think in a particular direction. Language provideswords for objects or events which help us think with clarity. For example, when I say that the colour of my school uniform is light blue rather than just blue you will havea clear picture in your head about which colour, I am talking about. This is how language helps us to thinkclearly.  Signs an Symbols Symbols like national flag, national animal, logo of a game or organisation, etc, are symbols of certain things. We use these symbols while thinking. It is a combination of words, sounds, symbols, body language or context which constitute a meaning. Itcreates a visual language that helps us to understand something.For example while driving on the highway if a person 129 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

is waving his hand or thumb you know it is a sign ofasking for lift. Hence signs help to think and interpret a situation. 7.7 THEORIES OF THINKING The process of the development of thinking has been studied by psychologists and a number of theories have been advanced. The theories are: 1. Piaget’s Theory 2. Sullivan’s Concept of Modes of Thinking 3. Bruner’s Theory 4. Psychoanalytic Theory of Thinking. 7.7.1. Piaget’s Theory: The Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget, using his own children as subjects, devised ingenious and simple experiments and showed how cognitive thought development takes place. He explained behavior in terms of the individual’s actions and reactions in adapting to his environment. Unlike animals and birds, human beings have very few instinctive responses and have to constantly evolve new ways and means to deal with the environment. A lamb or chick, few hours after birth, knows how to run away from danger or differentiate between things which are edible and non-edible. In contrast, the new-born human infant often does not know what to eat and what not to eat, let alone being able to recognize danger and is not even capable of recognizing the mother. But three or four years later, the lamb or the chick grows up to be a goat or hen and reaches a stage where it can produce milk or eggs. The child, though not fully capable of taking care of itself, nevertheless reaches a stage where he can run, talk, learn to read and so on. When faced with a danger like a bully in the playground or a stray dog barking and coming towards it, the child may choose to react in any way – run away (like a lamb), hide behind another human being, scream and cry rooted to the same spot or attack by throwing mud or stones. This ability to think of alternatives distinguishes man from many other animals. The lamb is born with many strong practical instincts while the infant with few. But in the course of development, the human child learns a variety of strategies for solving problems that give a far greater flexibility than the lamb. This is man’s unique capacity for adaptation. Piaget first became interested in human adaptation when he watched his own children playing. He noticed that the way they approached environmental problems changed dramatically at different ages. He wondered whether it was their coordination which improved or whether older children think differently from their younger brothers and sisters. Piaget became a keen child-watcher; he played with them, asked questions about their activities, observed them silently for hours together when they were playing alone and with 130 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

others. He also devised games that would show how they were thinking. Gradually, he understood that there is a pattern. He realized that all children go through a series of stages as they grew. The stages identified and described by Piaget are the sensory-motor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operations stage, and the stage of formal operations. a. The Sensory-Motor Stage: The new-born infant sucks anything which is put into his mouth, grasps anything put into his hands, and gazes at whatever crosses his line of vision. You may have seen small children putting everything into their mouth, their own hands, fingers toes, toys and other objects which are within their grasp. They do not realize that only some objects can be sucked and others not. Similarly, a baby may grasp a rattle, shake it, put it into the mouth, drop it and so on. However, the infant at some point realizes that the noise he has been hearing comes from the rattle. He begins to shake everything he gets hold of trying to reproduce the rattling sound. Gradually he begins to realize that some things make a noise and others do not. In this way, the infant begins to organize his experiences by fitting them into categories. Piaget calls these categories schemata. They may be considered as simple frameworks which provide a basis for intentional and adaptive problem-solving behavior in later life. The child also learns that the objects in the real world, including people, have an existence of their own, independent of its perception of them. This awareness is not present in early infancy. Piaget describes the following experiment with his eight-month old daughter Jacqueline. “Jacqueline takes possession of my watch which I offer her while holding the chain in my hand. She examines the watch with great interest, feels it, turns it once, says “apff, etc.… If before her eyes, I hide the watch behind my hand, behind the quilt, etc. she does not react and forgets everything immediately.” However, after a few months, i.e. at the end of the sensory-motor period, Jacqueline became quite capable of finding the watch if it was hidden behind the quilt or hand. This shows that she learnt that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. We often come across a toddler playing with a ball or watching insects when they move under a chair or a cot. The child begins to search and look for them, because he or she realizes that the ball or insect exists though concealed. This indicates that the child has developed a sense of object permanence or object constancy. This awareness is crucial to cognitive development, for it enables the child to begin to see some regularity in the way things happen. The perception of regularities is absolutely essential because if every time he encounters a ball or an ant he experiences it as a new stimulus he will never be able to learn to associate the ball or an ant as an external object and that his actions affect them. 131 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Thus, by the end of the sensory-motor stage, the child acquires a kind of ‘motor intelligence’ through direct interaction with his environment. The child knows that his or her actions will have an effect on things outside him or her. b. Pre-Operational Stage: The second stage in thought development runs from about two to seven years of age. The child in this stage is action-oriented. His understanding and thought processes are based on physical and perceptual experiences. The child begins to use symbols or representations of events, and form images about everything he encounters. The most obvious example of representation is the use of words or language and it is at this stage that the child begins to use words to stand for objects. For example, the child is able to talk about things that are not physically present, about lions, tigers, ghosts, etc., though he has not seen them. Children play a variety of imaginary games where a chair becomes a train or bus, dolls become babies, leaves and flowers become food and so on. They are not fully capable of making a distinction between themselves and the outside world. They assume that objects have feelings. When playing with dolls, they think that dolls cry, smile and behave like real babies. They consider their own psychological processes, such as dreams, to be real and concrete events. Piaget found that children at this stage tend to focus their attention on a single aspect of an object or an event that attracts their attention, ignoring all other aspects. This was demonstrated in the following famous experiment. Children were asked to fill two identical” containers with beads. When they had finished, Piaget poured the beads from one container into a tall thin glass and asked them if one had more beads than the other. Invariably, the children said ‘yes’, even though they realized he had not added or taken away any beads. This illogical response arises because children can only think about one aspect or dimension at a time, i.e. height or width. Piaget calls this single-mindedness. Piaget found that thinking during this stage is rigid and ‘irreversible’. J.L. Phillips gives an interesting example of irreversibility. He asked a four-year old boy if he had a brother; the child replied ‘yes’. He then asked the brother’s name; the answer was ‘Jim’. ‘Does Jim have a brother?’ The child responded with a definite ‘no’. This illustrates that the child could not reverse the principle underlying the same concept, i.e. of having a brother. Another feature identified in the above illustration is the child’s inability to think of himself as somebody else’s brother. This inability to put himself in Jim’s position and see himself as a brother is an example of ego-centricism. 132 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Another interesting aspect of pre-operational thinking identified by Piaget is the concept of conservation. In the pre-operational period, the child does not know how to ‘intellectually conserve’. In his experiment, four marbles were arranged in the following pattern in front of the child: The child steadfastly maintained that the rearrangement contained more marbles. Piaget explained that at this point the child is struck by the visual-spatial evidence at that moment rather than by the knowledge that these are the same four marbles in new positions. The child cannot realize and maintain the fact that the same number of marbles could occupy more space. Piaget terms this, as an inability to ‘conserve’ the idea of number. The child also has difficulty conserving other qualities of stimuli such as volume, mass, etc. The concept of conservation of volume was demonstrated in a simple experiment using containers of different shapes and water. Transparent glass containers A, B, C and D, as shown in Fig. 11.2, were placed in front of a child. The containers B and C had identical quantity of water. The experimenter poured water from the container B into A. When the child was asked whether the amount of water contained in A is the same as in C, the child unhesitatingly pointed towards container A (the taller one) and said that it contains more water. Similarly, when the water from C was poured into D and the child was asked whether the quantity of water in A and D is equal, the answer was that the quantity of water in A is more. The above experiment demonstrates what Piaget would call an inability to conserve. The child’s idea or estimation of the quantity of water was influenced by the size, height, shape and other characteristics of the containers. The child’s estimation of the quantity of water showed a lack of stability and definiteness and appeared to depend on the characteristics of the containers. c. Concrete Operations Stage: During this stage, which usually occurs between 7 and 11 years, the child acquires basic notions of time, space, number, etc. and also a flexibility which was lacking in the pre- operational stage. The child, during this stage, learns to retrace his thoughts, correct himself, start working right from the beginning if necessary, consider more than one dimension at a time and to look at a single object or problem in different ways. Three logical operations characterize thinking at this stage: combining, reversing and forming associations. These operations can be illustrated with a simple example. Ask children of different ages, say below seven years and above seven years “Supposing, you are given this coin (showing a one rupee coin) to buy chocolates. If the shop owner gives you two chocolates in exchange for this coin (one rupee coin), how many chocolates would you get in exchange for these four coins (showing four coins of twenty 133 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

five paise)”. Children under seven may come out with responses like four chocolates or eight chocolates and so on. However, children above seven, in the concrete operations stage, will be able to distinguish and combine all the small coins (twenty five) into a superclass of hundred paise or one rupee. They will also be able to conserve this process of adding four twenty five-paise coins into a single coin or reduce single one rupee coins to four twenty five-paise coins. They are also capable of associating a twenty five-paise coin with other coins like two ten- paise coins and one five-paisa coin. Children at this stage, although quite logical in their approach to problems, can only think in terms of concrete things they can handle or imagine handling. But an adult is capable of thinking in abstract terms to formulate tentative suggestions or hypotheses and accept or reject them without testing them empirically. This ability is said to develop in the next stage. d. Formal Operations Stage: A remarkable ability is acquired in this fourth and final stage, which occurs between 11 and 15 years of age. To demonstrate the development of abstract thinking Piaget conducted a simple experiment. He gave an opportunity to the children to discover for themselves Archimedes principle of floating bodies. Children in the concrete and formal operations stage were given a variety of objects and were asked to separate them into two groups: things that would float and things that would not. The objects included cubes of different weights, matches, sheets of paper, a lid, pebbles and so on. Piaget then let the children test their selections in a tub of water and asked them to explain why some things floated and others sank. The younger children were not very good at classifying the objects and when questioned, gave different reasons. The nail sank because it was too heavy; the needle because it was made of iron; the lid floated because it had edges and so on. The older children seemed to know what would float. When asked to explain their choices they began to make comparisons and cross-comparisons, gradually coming to the conclusion that neither weight nor size alone determined whether an object would float; rather it was the relationship between these two dimensions. Thus, they were able to approximate Archimedes principle (objects float if their density is less than that of replaced water). The fact that these children searched for a rule or a principle is what makes this stage of development superior and significant. Younger children find reasons by testing their ideas in the real world. They are concrete and specific. While children at the formal operations stage and beyond go further than testing the, ‘here and now’; they try to consider possibilities as well as realities and develop concepts. Thus, we see that at the final stage, the individual is able to arrive at generalizations, and real thought processes begin to develop. Piaget’s developmental theory essentially concentrates 134 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

on the structural and formal characteristics of thinking. He believes that his scheme of the development of thinking is universal. Piaget introduces a number of concepts like adaptation, accommodation, assimilation, centering, decentering, etc. It is not necessary to go into these concepts here. 7.7.2. Sullivan’s Concept of Modes of Thinking: Yet, another approach to the development of thinking comes from the views of H.S. Sullivan who was a leading psychoanalyst. Sullivan postulates three basic modes. The first and the earliest one is called the prototaxic mode. This stage operates in the first year of an individual’s life and during this stage one has no awareness of oneself or one’s ego. Thought process is mostly in the form of a feeling or apprehension. Thought, therefore, does not have a definite structure and is vague. The next is the parataxic mode. During this stage the global or undifferentiated response gives way to specific elementary thought images and contents. Logical operations do not occur yet. According to Sullivan the autistic state of communication reflects a parataxic mode. Thought process is still confused and vague and almost comparable to the prelogical stage described by Piaget. The final stage which is known as the syntaxic mode represents the development of logical thought processes, enabling the integration and organization of symbols. It is at this stage that thought becomes clear with the possibility of logical operations. This stage would correspond to the stage of formal operations described by Piaget. A distinction, however, may be made in that, while Piaget’s theory was specifically a theory of thinking, Sullivan does not deal with thinking exclusively. His concept of modes is more or less a view of cognitive organization in general, a process by which the individual perceives and experiences the environment, which necessarily includes thinking. 7.7.3. Bruner’s Theory: Yet, another approach to the development of thinking was outlined by Jerome S. Bruner, who like Piaget, observed the process of cognitive development or development of thinking. Bruner also postulated certain stages. The stages formulated by him are enactive, iconic, and symbolic representations which are considered more or less comparable to Piaget’s preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational stages. However, Bruner differed from Piaget in focusing on the representations the child uses in thinking rather than on the operations or manipulations which take place in the process. Bruner uses Piaget’s experiments to explain his point of view of cognitive development which is briefly described below: a. Enactive Representation Stage: 135 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

A child at this stage adopts the most basic or primitive ways of converting immediate experience into a mental model. This mode of conversion is usually non-verbal and is based on action or movement. Thus, a child’s representations of objects and events in terms of appropriate motor responses or ‘acting out’ are known as enactive representation. Bruner cites Piaget’s experiment to explain this stage. “A baby drops a rattle through the bars of its crib. It stops for a moment, brings its hand up to its face, and looks at its hand. Puzzled, it lets its arms fall and shakes the hands as if the rattle were still there; no sound. It investigates its hand again.” Bruner suggests that in this situation, the child is representing the rattle when it shakes its hand, that is the rattle means shaking its hand-and hearing a noise. Gestures are enactive representations. For instance thumbs up means victory; index finger on your lips means silence, and so on. b. Iconic Representation: An icon or an image or a pictorial representation is considered to be the method of converting immediate experience into cognitive models using sensory images. This stage was explained by extending Piaget’s study which was described in the previous stage. The child a few months later when it drops the rattle tries to look over the edge of its crib. When an adult picks it up or if the child is unable to see it, the child may- start screaming and crying. According to Bruner, this sense of loss indicates that the child has an image of the rattle in its mind and that it now distinguishes between shaking his hand and the rattle. This type of ‘picturing’ things to oneself is called iconic representations thinking. c. Symbolic Representation: As the child grows, it reaches a stage where its cognitions are not always dependent on motor activities or images and pictures. Its cognitive process begins to function in terms of symbols. The symbols do not depend on images or concrete appearances. For example, the word ‘giri’ neither looks nor sounds like a female child. Similarly, the number eight does not resemble the quantity eight. Consider a simple arithmetic problem. A boy has four mangoes and he buys two more. How many does he have? A child of five or six years may solve the problem by drawing four and two mangoes and counting them, while an older child may write the numbers, four and two, and adds them up without imagining the mangoes. 7.7.4. Psychoanalytic Theory of Thinking: It would have been surprising if an all-embracing theory like Freudian psychoanalysis did not make its contribution, though indirectly, to our understanding of the process of thinking. The Freudian theory of development with its concept of different stages like oral, anal, phallic and genital, drew several conclusions for the understanding of thinking. 136 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

According to Freud, the early period of infancy is characterized by what is called narcissistic thinking, wherein the thought process contains a high tint of wish fulfillment. Freud refers to certain terms like omnipotence of the wish and the omnipotence of thought or word. The stage of omnipotence of the wish is characterized by the fact that this stage thought is highly colored by instinctual impulses, a total absence of distinction between reality and non- reality. The next stage shows what he calls omnipotence of thought. Here thinking becomes symbolic and verbalized but still remains highly egocentric. It is only at a later stage that thinking becomes objective and a distinction emerges between the inner self and the outer world. Thought comes more and more under the influence of perception and is emancipated from the stranglehold of instinctual impulses. During the latency period, the thinking process expands and according to Anna Freud, there is an enrichment of fantasy and abstract thinking. Thought, according to Freud, is an integral part of the total function of living and the nature of the thought process reflects the overall developmental stage of life itself. In simple terms, thinking is one of the mechanisms of living and plays a vital role in the overall process of- adjusting short term memory Freud says that there is a thin dividing line between reality and fantasy. If this is true, then, thinking is to fantasy what living is to reality. 7.7.5. Theories of Thinking – Points of Consensus: In the above paragraphs an attempt has been made, perhaps in slightly extravagant detail, to present different explanations of the nature and development of thinking. No doubt these different approaches differ among themselves but certain points of consensus seem to emerge. These may be summarized as follows: (a) Basically all theories agree that in the earlier stages thought is essentially sensory-motor in character and is bound by immediate sensory experiences. (b) At the second level a distinction emerges between sensory experience and thought, due to the development of the capacity to form images and later, thought gets separated from sensory experience. (c) At the third level the capacity to use symbols, words and ideas emerges along with the expanded capacity for forming imagery. Thought is both concrete and abstract and is still influenced by inner processes – it is egocentric. (d) At the final level thought becomes an independent process, relatively free of concrete experience, capable of interpreting and organizing the same and goes beyond the ‘here and now’. (e) Abstract thinking emerges. 137 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

It may be seen that most of the theorists agree on these general features. Individuals differ with regard to the rate at which this process of development occurs and also the extent to which they go through to the last of these stages. Some individuals tend to remain at the egocentric or concrete levels while others go beyond. It is also possible that some individuals, after reaching a certain stage, can be thrown back to an earlier level of thinking when confronted with severe psychological crisis. Thus there can be a process of regression in thinking. Autistic children provide evidence where thinking has not proceeded beyond the most elementary level, whereas psychotic patients provide clear evidence of a regressive process. It may further be pointed out that the process of development of thinking is very much influenced by all the factors which influence development in general. The process of socialization, education, personal experiences, etc., all influence the development of thinking. In brief, the process of thinking develops along with the person. 7.8. SUMMARY  Thought or thinking is a mental process which allows beings to model the world, and so to deal with it effectively according to their goals, plans, ends and desires. Words referring to similar concepts and processes include cognition, sentience, consciousness, idea, and imagination.  Thinking is a complex mental process through which we manipulate information (either acquired or stored). It is an internal process that can be inferred from behaviour. Thinking  involves mental representations that are either mental images or concepts.  Thought (also called thinking) is the mental process in which beings form psychological associations and models of the world.  Thinking is manipulating information, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions. Thought, the act of thinking produces more thoughts.  Thinking is a higher cognitive function and the analysis of thinking processes is part of cognitive psychology.  Automatic and controlled processes (ACP) are the two categories of cognitive processing.  Autistic thinking is a type of mental activity in which focus is directed inward and the thinking is subjective (as opposed to objective). Autistic thinking is comprised of inner thoughts and individual reality. Daydreaming and fantasies are common elements of autistic thinking. 138 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Controlled processes are defined as a process that is under the flexible, intentional control of the individual that he or she is consciously aware of, and that are effortful and constrained by the amount of attentional resources available at the moment.  The five tools of thinking are concepts, propositions, images, languages and signs.  Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and called them (1) sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3) concrete operational thinking, and (4) formal operational thinking. Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately.  Sullivan was known primarily for his theory of interpersonal relations. His interpersonal theory emphasizes the importance of various developmental stages—infancy, childhood, the juvenile era, preadolescence, early adolescence, late adolescence, and adulthood.  Bruner proposes that learners construct their own knowledge and do this by organizing and categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believed that the most effective way to develop a coding system is to discover it rather than being told by the teacher.  The primary assumption of psychoanalysis is the belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e., make the unconscious conscious.Thinking becomes a major agency in the pursuit of this goal because in a limited way thought provides discharge of tension. 7.9. KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS  Thinking- Thinking is the mental process in which beings form psychological associations and models of the world. Thinking is manipulating information, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions. 7.10. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Explain in detail the different types of thinking. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. What are the different theories of thinking? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 139 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

7.11. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. We encounter numerous thoughts in a single day. What is the process of thinking according to cognitive psychologists? 2. Sometimes we engage in free floating streaming of thoughts which is also known as acoustic thinking. Explain the different types of acoustic thinking? 3. Controlled thinking is directed and goal oriented. Enlist the types of controlled thinking we engage in. 4. Elaborate on Piaget’s views on the process of thinking and his theory of thinking. 5. Elaborate on Jerome S. Bruner’s views on the process of thinking and his theory of cognitive development. 6. Explain some of the commonly used tools used in the process of thinking. B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. Emphasizing what comes to mind firstor most readily/quickly is known as_________. (a)Heuristic (b)Critical Thinking (c)Intuitive Thought (d)Confirmation Bias 2. _______________ is also called as free floating thinking (a) Controlled Thinking (b)Critical Thinking (c) Acoustic Thought (d) Systematic Bias 3. Imagination is form of thinking that uses _____________________ 140 (a) Dream (b) Images (c) Memory (d) All of these CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4. __________________ is a form of acoustic thinking (a) Controlled Thinking (b)Critical Thinking (c) Acoustic Thought (d) Fantasy thinking 5. Piaget’s theory of development of thinking has _____________ stages (a) 8 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 6 Answer 1 (a) 2 (c) 3 (b) 4 (d) 5 (b) 7.12. REFERENCES  Kellogg, R. T. (2003). Cognitive Psychology (2nd ed.). California, USA.: Sage Publications  Neisser, U. (2014). Cognitive Psychology (Classic ed.). New York: Psychology Press  Eysenck, M. W. and Keane, M. T. (2015) Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook (7th ed.). New York: Psychology Press  Galotti, K.M. (2008), Cognitive Psychology: In and out of the Laboratory. Delhi: Thomson.  Sternberg, R. J. & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive psychology (6th ed.). USA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.  Groome, D. (2014). An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology: Processes and Disorders. (3rd ed.). New York: Psychology Press.  Mazur, J.E. (1986), Learning and Behaviors. (6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.  Galotti, K.M. (1999), Cognitive Psychology: In and Outside Laboratory. Mumbai: Thomson Asia. 141 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 8 PROBLEM SOLVING Structure 8.0 Learning Objectives 8.1. Introduction 8.2. Problem Solving: Meaning and Definition 8.3. The Problem-Solving Cycle 8.4. Types of Problems 8.5. Problem Solving Methods 8.5.1. Trial and error 8.5.2. Difference method 8.5.3. Means-end analysis 8.6. Problem-Solving Strategies 8.6.1. Algorithms 8.6.2. Heuristics 8.6.3. Trial and error 8.6.4. Insight 8.7. Factors affecting in Problem-Solving 8.8. Summary 8.9. Key Words/ Abbreviations 8.10. Learning Activity 8.11. Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 8.12. References 8.0. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After thins unit, you will be able to,  Explain the concept of problem solving  Describe the different types of problem solving  Explore the various types of problem solving  Critically evaluate the methods and strategies of problem solving  Outline the factors affecting of problem solving 8.1. INTRODUCTION An expert has invested countless hours into his field ofstudy—be it playing a musical instrument, doing academicresearch, or playing chess. Does having this expertisealways pay off? Research suggests that sometimeshaving less knowledge—being a novice—actually givesyou an edge! 142 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In one experiment, researchers had expertand novice chess players briefly view a display of a chessboardwith the chess pieces on it, and the players thenhad to recall the positions of the chess pieces on theboard. As you might expect, the experts performed quitea bit better than the novices. However, the setup of thechess pieces on the board was then changed in a waythat it did not make sense in terms of the actual game ofchess. Suddenly, experts lost their advantage and performedno better, or even worse, than did the. We will explore possible reasons for this effectlater in this chapter in the section on expertise. Frensch and Sternberg (1989) found that when astrategic change was made in the rules for bridge, expertswere hurt more than novices, presumably because the expertshad become entrenched and somewhat stuck withthe conventional set of rules. 8.2. PROBLEM SOLVING: MEANING AND DEFINITION People face problems every day—usually, multiple problems throughout the day. Sometimes these problems are straightforward: To double a recipe for pizza dough, for example, all that is required is that each ingredient in the recipe be doubled. Sometimes, however, the problems we encounter are more complex. For example, say you have a work deadline, and you must mail a printed copy of a report to your supervisor by the end of the business day. The report is time-sensitive and must be sent overnight. You finished the report last night, but your printer will not work today. What should you do? First, you need to identify the problem and then apply a strategy for solving the problem. Problem solving is the process of articulating solutions to problems. Problems have two critical attributes. First, a problem is an unknown in some context. That is, there is a situation in which there is something that is unknown (the difference between a goal state and a current state). Those situations vary from algorithmic math problems to vexing and complex social problems, such as violence in society. Second, finding or solving for the unknown must have some social, cultural, or intellectual value. That is, someone believes that it is worth finding the unknown. If no one perceives an unknown or a need to determine an unknown, there is no perceived problem. Finding the unknown is the process of problem solving. Problem solving as a process also has two critical attributes. First, problem solving requires the construction of a mental representation of the problem situation from that which was presented. This mental representation describes the problem solver’s understanding of the problem along with the ability to identify what kind of problem it is. It also informs the problem solver as to what needs to be further investigated in order to depict a better picture of the problem, in order to devise a most viable solution to the problem. This mental representation of the problem is also known as problem space The study of human and animal problem solving processes has provided much insight toward the understanding of our conscious experience and led to advancements in computer science 143 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

and artificial intelligence. Essentially much of cognitive science today represents studies of how we consciously and unconsciously make decisions and solve problems. For instance, when encountered with a large amount of information, how do we go about making decisions about the most efficient way of sorting and analyzing all the information in order to find what you are looking for as in visual search paradigms in cognitive psychology. Or in a situation where a piece of machinery is not working properly, how do we go about organizing how to address the issue and understand what the cause of the problem might be. How do we sort the procedures that will be needed and focus attention on what is important in order to solve problems efficiently. Within this section we will discuss some of these issues and examine processes related to human, animal and computer problem solving. 8.3. THE PROBLEM-SOLVING CYCLE The problem-solving cycle includes: problem identification, problem definition, strategyformulation, organization of information, allocation of resources, monitoring, andevaluation Figure 8.1: Problem Solving Cycle In considering the steps, remember also the importance of flexibility in followingthe various steps of the cycle. Successful problem solving may involve occasionallytolerating some ambiguity regarding how best to proceed. Rarely can we solveproblems by following any one optimal sequence of problem-solving steps. We maygo back and forth through the steps. We can change their order, or even skip or addsteps when it seems appropriate. Following is a description of each part of theproblem-solving cycle. 1. Identifying the Problem: While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless. 144 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2. Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the problem so that it can be solved. 3. Forming a Strategy: The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique preferences. 4. Organizing Information: Before coming up with a solution, we need to first organize the available information. What do we know about the problem? What do we not know? The more information that is available, the better prepared we will be to come up with an accurate solution. 5. Allocating Resources: Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time, and other resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your available resources into coming up with a solution. 6. Monitoring Progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies. 7. Evaluating the Results: After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of treatment. It is important to remember that there are many different problem-solving processes with different steps and this is just one example. Problem-solving in real-world situations requires a great deal of resourcefulness, flexibility, resilience, and continuous interaction with the environment. 8.4. TYPES OF PROBLEMS Problems can be categorized according to whether they have clear paths to a solution. Educational psychology has broken down problems in two different ways. The first way is to make a distinction between well-defined and poorly-defined problems. A well-defined problem is one that has a clear goal or solution, and problem solving strategies are easily developed. In contrast, a poorly-defined problem is the opposite. It's one that is unclear, abstract, or confusing, and that does not have a clear problem solving strategy. For example, imagine that you are in school. If your teacher gives you a quiz that asks you to list the first ten U.S. Presidents in order and name one important historical fact about each, 145 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

that would be a well-defined problem. The instructions and expected outcome is clear, and you can use a simple memory recall strategy to come up with the correct answer. However, if your teacher gives you a quiz that instead asks you, 'think about some history, then draw a picture and be sure to wash your hands,' you're not really sure what to do. What does the teacher expect of you? This is a poorly-defined problem, because you don't know how to reach a solution or answer. The second way that educational psychology has broken down different types of problems is by making a distinction between routine and non-routine problems. Just like the name indicates, a routine problem is one that is typical and has a simple solution. In contrast, a non- routine problem is more abstract or subjective and requires a strategy to solve. Routine problems are what most people do in school: memorizing simple facts, how to do addition and subtraction, how to spell words, and so on. However, in more advanced years or in more advanced subjects in school, teachers might present students with non-routine problems that require critical thinking skills and subjective solutions. For example, the ethics of social issues such as the death penalty, or the role of civil rights in laws, or themes in famous literature, might be considered non-routine problems. Non-routine problems require more complicated or creative problem solving strategies. Let's talk about problem solving strategies now and go over several possible options. 8.5. PROBLEM SOLVING METHODS Problem solving methods are the steps we use to find solutions to problems and issues. Humans are naturally quite good at problem solving, and we often use sophisticated methods that we don't even know we're using to try to get to the answer. Learning about the methods will enable you to recognize the approaches you already use and identify other approaches that could be useful for you. Then, you will have several tools to help you strategize solutions to difficult problems. 8.5.1. Trial and Error Trial and error is a way of solving problems through repeated attempts, trying something different every time until you are successful. Although this approach sounds random, problem solving through trial and error is efficient only when you can base your attempts on some prior knowledge and information. For example, a programmer using a new language knows that quotes should surround pieces of text but is unsure whether that language uses single quotes or double quotes. Rather than look it up, it will be quicker just to try both (which would be the trial), since there are only two possibilities. If single quotes are incorrect (which would be an error), then the programmer will try again with double quotes. 146 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

But, if you have no knowledge of how programming languages work at all, then you're out of luck. No amount of playing around with random bits of text is likely to get you to a working computer program. So when there are many, even unlimited, options, other problem-solving methods are sometimes best. 8.5.2. Difference Reduction Difference reduction requires you to break down a large task into smaller steps. The first thing you do is ask yourself what step will take you from where you are to as close as possible to the final goal. You take that step and repeat the process until you finally reach the goal. For example, if you need to get from the street to the inside of your home, you might have to: 1. Unlock the gate 2. Swing open the gate 3. Walk to the house 4. Unlock the house 5. Open the door 6. Enter your home Sometimes difference reduction is not the quickest way to get to your goal - sometimes you have to take one step backwards to take a step forwards. For example, the step that will get you closest to being inside your home might be to walk to the door. But if you're locked out of the house, you might first need to visit the neighbor for the spare key. 8.5.3. Means-Ends Analysis With means-ends analysis you compare your current situation and the situation you want to arrive at, identify the most significant difference between those two situations, and then create a sub-goal to remove that difference. If you want to work as a doctor, the most significant difference between where you are and where you want to be is having a job as a doctor - that's what would have to be different in your life to make that happen. Gradually, you'll come to the conclusion that you don't yet have the knowledge or the degree necessary, but the biggest difference in your actual life is the job. Means-ends analysis is easier to explain using examples. Let's say that your house is messy. Your goal is for it to be tidy. Here are the steps you would go through to complete a means- ends analysis:  Step 1: What's the biggest difference between these two situations? Nothing is where it should be.  Step 2: What would change this? Moving objects to where they belong, throwing them away, or hiding them so they are no longer in view. 147 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Step 3: You decide to move the objects to where they belong. But not everything has particular place that it belongs, like the nice vase your mother just bought you. So you create a new sub-goal: you want each object in your house to have a place it belongs.  Step 4: What's the biggest difference between these two situations? There isn't enough storage space for everything.  Step 5: What would cause there to be enough storage space? Reorganizing things to make a space for each object, buying a storage box or cupboard, or moving house.  Step 6: You decide to buy a new storage box. But you don't have any money, so you create a new sub-goal: you want to have some money.  Step 7: Now, what's the biggest difference between these two situations? And on and on the process continues. While this sounds complicated, means-end analysis is something you do all the time quickly, without realizing it. 8.6. PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES 8.6.1. Algorithms: The step-by-step procedure involved in figuring out the correct answer to any problem is called algorithm. The step by step procedure involved in solving a mathematical problem using math formula is a perfect example of a problem-solving algorithm. Algorithm is the strategy that results in accurate answer; however, it’s not always practical. The strategy is highly time consuming, and involves taking lots of steps. For instance, attempting to open a door lock using algorithm to find out the possible number combinations would take a really long time. An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce a correct solution. A mathematical formula is a good example of a problem-solving algorithm. While an algorithm guarantees an accurate answer, it is not always the best approach to problem-solving. This strategy is not practical for many situations because it can be so time-consuming. For example, if you were trying to figure out all of the possible number combinations to a lock using an algorithm, it would take a very long time! 8.6.2. Heuristics: A heuristic is a mental rule-of-thumb strategy that may or may not work in certain situations. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not always guarantee a correct solution. However, using this problem-solving strategy does allow people to simplify complex problems and reduce the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set. Heuristics refers to mental strategy based on rule-of thumb. There is no guarantee that it will always work out to produce the best solution. However, the rule of thumb strategy does help to simplify complex problems by narrowing the possible solutions. It makes it easier to reach the correct solution using other strategies. 148 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Heuristic strategy of problem solving can also be referred to as the mental shortcut. For instance, you need to reach the other part of the city in a limited amount of time. You’ll obviously seek for the shortest route and means of transportation. The rule of thumb allows you to make up your mind about the fastest route depending on your past commutes. You might choose subway instead of hiring a cab. 8.6.3. Trial and Error: A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of different solutions and ruling out those that do not work. This approach can be a good option if you have a very limited number of options available. If there are many different choices, you are better off narrowing down the possible options using another problem-solving technique before attempting trial-and-error. Trial and error strategy is the approach that deals with trying a number of different solutions and ruling out the ones that do not work. Approaching this strategy as the first method in an attempt to solve any problem can be highly time-consuming. So, it’s best to use this strategy as a follow up to figure out the best possible solution, after you have narrowed down the possible number of solution using other techniques. For instance, you’re trying to open a lock. Trying to enter every possible combination directly onto the lock for Trial-and-Error method can be highly time-consuming. Instead, if you’ve narrowed down the possible combinations to 20, you’ll have a much easier time solving the particular problem. 8.6.4. Insight: In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight. According to researchers, insight can occur because you realize that the problem is actually similar to something that you have dealt with in the past, but in most cases, the underlying mental processes that lead to insight happen outside of awareness. Insight is something that just occurs suddenly. Researchers suggest that insight can occur if you’ve dealt with similar problems in the past. For instance, Knowing that you’ve solved a particular algebra question in the past will make it much easier for you to solve the similar questions at present. However, it’s not always necessary that the mental processes be related with past problems. In fact, most cases of mental processes leading to insight happen outside of consciousness. 8.7. FACTORS AFFECTING IN PROBLEM-SOLVING Of course, problem-solving is not a flawless process. There are a number of different obstacles that can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. Researchers have described a number of these mental obstacles, which include functional fixedness, irrelevant information, and assumptions. 149 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Functional Fixedness: This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the different options that might be available to find a solution.  Irrelevant or Misleading Information: When you are trying to solve a problem, it is important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions. When a problem is very complex, the easier it becomes to focus on misleading or irrelevant information.  Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people often make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions.  Mental Set: Another common problem-solving obstacle is known as a mental set, which is the tendency people have to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can often work as a heuristic, making it a useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find effective solutions. 8.8. SUMMARY  Problem solving involves mentally working to overcome obstacles that stand in the way of reaching a goal. The key steps of problem solving are problem identification, problem definition and representation, strategy construction, organization of information, allocation of resources, monitoring, and evaluation.  In everyday experiences, these steps may be implemented very flexibly. Various steps may be repeated, may occur out of sequence, or may be implemented interactively.  Although well-structured problems may have clear paths to solution, the route to solution still may be difficult to follow. Some well-structured problems can be solved using algorithms. They may be tedious to implement but are likely to lead to an accurate solution if applicable to a given problem.  Computers are likely to use algorithmic problem-solving strategies. Humans are more likely to use rather informal heuristics (e.g., means–ends analysis, working forward, working backward, and generate and test) for solving problems.  When ill-structured problems are solved, the choice of an appropriate problem representation powerfully influences the ease of reaching an accurate solution.  Additionally, in solving ill-structured problems, people may need to use more than a heuristic or an algorithmic strategy; insight may be required.  Many ill-structured problems cannot be solved without the benefit of insight. There are several alternative views of how insightful problem solving takes place. 150 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)