BTT109 CU-BSC-TTM-SEM-II-Tourism product(Draft 2)-converted-converted

4. The Pyramids of…………, situated in the immediate vicinity of the southwestern suburbs of Cairo are the undisputable top attractions in Egypt. a. Giza b. Pize c. Anfr d. None of these 5. Although badly ruined, few sites in Egypt are more impressive than………. It is the largest ancient religious site ever built, and represents the combined achievement of many generations of Egyptian builders. a. Karnak b. Curieuse Island Day Trip c. La Digue Island d. Ile Aux Cerfs Answers 1.a 2.a 3.a 4.a 5.a 9.14 SUGGESTED READINGS • Bahadur, Gaiutra (2014). Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture. The University of Chicago. ISBN 978-0-226-21138-1. • Moree, Perry J. (1998). A Concise History of Dutch Mauritius, 1598–1710: A Fruitful and Healthy Land. Routledge. • Vink, Markus (2003). \"'The World's Oldest Trade': Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in 201 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century\". Journal of World History. 14 (2): 131– 177. doi:10.1353/jwh.2003.0026. • \"Egyptian Organization for Human Rights\". En.eohr.org. Archived from the original on 27 August 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2010. • \"Law No. 94 of 2003 Promulgating the National Council for Human Rights\". Nchregypt.org. 16 February 2010. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2013. 202 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 10: AUSTRALIA – I 203 Structure 10.0. Learning objectives 10.1. Introductions 10.2. Geology and geography 10.3. Demography 10.3.1 Religion 10.3.2 Languages 10.3.3 Immigration 10.4. Country and capital 10.5. Culture 10.5.1 Sports 10.6. Summary 10.7. Keywords 10.8. Learning activity 10.9. Unit end questions 10.10. Suggested readings 10.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit, you will be able: • Outline major attraction of Australia along with its demographics • State the cultural aspects of Australia CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Describe lifestyle of Australians. 10.1 INTRODUCTION The continent of Australia, sometimes known in technical contexts by the names Sahul, Australinea, or Meganesia to distinguish it from the country of Australia, consists of the landmasses which sit on Australia's continental plate. The name \"Sahul\" takes its name from the Sahul Shelf, which is part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent. The continent includes mainland Australia, Tasmania, and the island of New Guinea, which consists of Papua New Guinea and Western New Guinea (a province of Indonesia). Situated in the geographical region of Oceania, Australia is the smallest of the seven traditional continents. The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 18,000 to 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying arid to semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. 10.2 GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY Situated in the geographical region of Oceania, Australia is the smallest continent in land area. The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 18,000 to 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying arid to semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. With a total land area of 8.56 million square kilometers (3,310,000 sq mi), the Australian 204 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

continent is the smallest, and second-lowest human inhabited (after Antarctica) continent on Earth. The continental shelf connecting the islands, half of which is less than 50 metres (160 ft) deep, covers some 2.5 million square kilometers (970,000 sq mi), including the Sahul Shelf and Bass Strait. As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, and comprises most of the continent, it is sometimes informally referred to as an island continent, surrounded by oceans. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism. The continent primarily sits on the Indo-Australian Plate. Because of its central location on its tectonic plate Australia doesn't have any active volcanic regions, the only continent with this distinction. The lands were joined with Antarctica as part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana until the plate began to drift north about 96 million years ago. For most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a continuous landmass. When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the Aru Islands, and the Australian mainland. A northern arc consisting of the New Guinea Highlands, the Raja Ampat Islands, and Halmahera was uplifted by the northward migration of Australia and subduction of the Pacific Plate. The Outer Banda Arc was accreted along the northwestern edge the continent; it includes the islands of Timor, Tanimbar, and Seram. Papua New Guinea has several volcanoes, as it is situated along the Pacific Ring of Fire. Volcanic eruptions are not rare, and the area is prone to earthquakes and tsunamis because of this. Mount Wilhelm in Papua New Guinea is the second highest mountain in the continent, and at 4,884 metres (16,024 ft) above sea level, Puncak Jaya is the highest mountain. The Australian continent, being part of the Indo-Australian Plate (more specifically, the Australian Plate), is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a 205 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

relatively stable geological history. New Zealand is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of Zealandia. New Zealand and Australia are both part of the Oceanian sub-region known as Australasia, with New Guinea being in Melanesia. Papua New Guinea, a country within the continent, is one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse countries in the world. It is also one of the most rural, as only 18 percent of its people live in urban centres. West Papua, a province of Indonesia, is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. Australia, the largest landmass in the continent, is highly urbanized, and has the world's 14th-largest economy with the second-highest human development index globally. Australia also has the world's 9th largest immigrant population 10.3 DEMOGRAPHY 10.3.1 Religion Christianity is the predominant religion in the continent, although large proportions of Australians belong to no religion. Other religions in the region include Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, which are prominent minority religions in Australia. Traditional religions are often animist, found in New Guinea. Islam is prevalent in the Indonesian New Guinea. Many Papuans combine their Christian faith with traditional indigenous beliefs and practices. 10.3.2 Languages \"Aboriginal Australian languages\", including the large Pama–Nyungan family, \"Papuan languages\" of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, including the large Trans–New Guinea family, and \"Tasmanian languages\" are generic terms for the native languages of the continent other than those of Austronesian family. Predominant languages include English in Australia, Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea, and Indonesian (Malay) in Indonesian New Guinea. Immigration to Australia have brought overseas languages such as Italian, Greek, Arabic, Filipino, Mandarin, Vietnamese and Spanish, among others. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as Maisin. Tok Pisin is an English creole language spoken in Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other country, with over 820 indigenous languages, representing 206 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

12% of the world's total, but most have fewer than 1,000 speakers. 10.3.3 Immigration Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a multicultural country. Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken with about 40 percent of residents speaking a language other than English at home. Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among others. Melbourne is also fairly multicultural, having the largest Greek-speaking population outside of Europe, and the second largest Asian population in Australia after Sydney 10.4 COUNTRY AND CAPITALS Nationality Country Capital Languages plates Australia Canberra English AUS FJI Fiji Suva Fijian, Hindustani, English WBI Kiribati Tarawa English*, I-Kiribati MLI Marshall Islands Majuro English, Marshallese MCN Micronesia Palikir English, Chukese, Pohnpeian, Yapase, Kosrean NU Nauru Yaren Nauruan*, English 207 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

NZ New Zealand Wellington English*, Maori PLU PNA Palau Koror Palauan, English CAA Papua New Port English, Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu SIS Guinea Moresby Samoa Apia Samoan, English Solomon Islands Honiara English, Solomon Pijin WTO Tonga Nuku'alofa Tongan, English TVU Tuvalu Funafuti Tuvaluan, English GVU Vanuatu Port Vila Bislama, English, French 10.5 CULTURE Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic Western culture, with some Indigenous influences.The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture. Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema. Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations. The Australian Museum in Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest and largest museums in the continent, as well as in Oceania. Sydney's New Year's Eve celebrations are the largest in the continent. It is estimated that more than 7000 different cultural groups exist in Papua New Guinea, and most groups have their own language. Because of this diversity, in which they take pride, many different styles of cultural expression have emerged; each group has created its own 208 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

expressive forms in art, performance art, weaponry, costumes and architecture. Papua New Guinea is one of the few cultures in Oceania to practice the tradition of bride price. In particular, Papua New Guinea is world-famous for carved wooden sculpture: masks, canoes, story-boards. Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best-known forms being rock art and bark painting. Evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia can be traced back at least 30,000 years.Examples of ancient Aboriginal rock artworks can be found throughout the continent – notably in national parks such as those of the UNESCO listed sites at Uluru and Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory, but also within protected parks in urban areas such as at Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Sydney. Aboriginal culture includes a number of practices and ceremonies centered on a belief in the Dreamtime. Reverence for the land and oral traditions are emphasized. 10.5.1 Sports Popular sports in Papua New Guinea include various codes of football (rugby league, rugby union, soccer, and Australian rules football), cricket, volleyball, softball, netball, and basketball. Other Olympic sports are also gaining popularity, such as boxing and weightlifting. Rugby league is the most popular sport in Papua New Guinea (especially in the highlands), which also unofficially holds the title as the national sport. The most popular sport in Australia is cricket, the most popular sport among Australian women is netball, while Australian rules football is the most popular sport in terms of spectatorship and television ratings. Australia has hosted two Summer Olympic Games: Melbourne 1956 and Sydney 2000. Australia has also hosted five editions of the Commonwealth Games (Sydney 1938, Perth 1962, Brisbane 1982, Melbourne 2006, and Gold Coast 2018). In 2006 Australia joined the Asian Football Confederation and qualified for the 2010 and 2014 World Cups as an Asian entrant. 10.6 SUMMARY The continent of Australia, sometimes known in technical contexts by the names Sahul (/səˈhuːl/), Australinea, or Meganesia to distinguish it from the country of Australia, consists 209 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

of the landmasses which sit on Australia's continental plate. The name \"Sahul\" takes its name from the Sahul Shelf, which is part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent. The continent includes mainland Australia, Tasmania, and the island of New Guinea, which consists of Papua New Guinea and Western New Guinea (a province of Indonesia). Situated in the geographical region of Oceania, Australia is the smallest of the seven traditional continents. 10.7 KEYWORDS • Bass Strait: is a sea strait separating Tasmania from the Australian mainland, specifically the state of Victoria. • Oceania: is a geographic region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. • Plate tectonics is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of seven large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of Earth's lithosphere • Bureaucracy: An organisation typified by formal processes, standardisation, hierarchic procedures, and written communication • Business plan: an action plan that entrepreneurs draw up for the purpose of starting a business; a guide to running one's business 10.8 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Compare and contrast countries demographically. 2. List out the five largest countries in this continent and Compare their culture. 10.9 UNIT END QUESTION 210 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. Explain, how many countries are there in Australia continent? 2. Explain geology of continent 3. Explain geography of continent 4. List out of the few lines on demographic impact on country 5. Explain, what is cultural impact on Continent? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. This includes mainland Australia, Tasmania, and the island of New Guinea, which comprises Papua New Guinea and Western New Guinea (a province of Indonesia) a. Asia b. Australia c. Europe d. Britain 2. The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. a. Asia b. Australia c. Europe d. Britain 211 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. A northern arc consisting of the New Guinea Highlands, the Raja Ampat Islands, and Halmahera was uplifted by the northward migration of Australia and subduction of the……………. a. Pacific Plate b. Artic plate c. Antarctic plate d. Indian ocean plate. 4. Before the...............s, the single Pleistocene landmass was called Australasia, derived from the Latin australis, meaning \"southern\", although this word is most often used for a wider region that includes lands like New Zealand that are not on the same continental shelf. a. 1970 b. 1971 c. 1980 d. 1988 5. ………………. is a geographic region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. a. Plateau b. Mountain c. Oceania d. Sea 212 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Answers 1.b 2.a 3.a 4.a 5. c 10.10 SUGGESTED LEARNINGS • \"Is Australia a Country or a Continent? – Country Digest\". Country Digest. 7 September 2016. Retrieved 20 June 2018. • \"What Did Australia Look Like When the First People Arrived?\". • Carmack, R.M. (2013). Anthropology and Global History: From Tribes to the Modern World-System. AltaMira Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-7591-2390-8. Retrieved 6 August 2020. • Cochrane, Ethan E.; Hunt, Terry L. (8 August 2018). The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199925070 – via Google Books. • O'Connor, S.; Veth, P.M.; Spriggs, M. (2007). The Archaeology of the Aru Islands, Eastern Indonesia. Terra Australis. ANU e Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-921313-04-2. Retrieved • Powell, J.M. (1988). An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-25619-4 • Robinson, G.M., Loughran, R.J., and Tranter, P.J. (2000). Australia and New Zealand: Economy, Society and Environment. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-340-72033-6 paperback, ISBN 0-340-72032-8 hardback. • Brett, Judith (2019). From Secret Ballot to Democracy Sausage: How Australia Got Compulsory Voting. Text Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-925603-84-2. 213 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 11: AUSTRALIA- COUNTRY 214 Structure 11.0. Learning objectives 11.1. Introduction 11.2. People 11.2.1 Ethnic groups 11.2.2 The Chinese 11.2.3 The Italians 11.3. Cultural life 11.3.1 Daily life and social customs 11.3.2 Performing arts 11.4. Major attractions 11.5. Whitsunday Islands 11.5.1 Kakadu National Park 11.5.2 Uluru/Ayers Rock 11.5.3 Great Barrier Reef 11.5.4 Sydney Opera House 11.6. Summary 11.7. Keywords 11.8. Learning activity 11.9. Unit end questions CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

11.10. Suggested readings 11.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit, you will be able to: • Outline the cultural aspects of Countries • Outline the knowledge of their people and major attraction 11.1 INTRODUCTION Australia, the smallest continent and one of the largest countries on Earth, lying between the Pacific and Indian oceans in the Southern Hemisphere. Australia’s capital is Canberra, located in the southeast between the larger and more important economic and cultural centres of Sydney and Melbourne. The Australian mainland extends from west to east for nearly 2,500 miles (4,000 km) and from Cape York Peninsula in the northeast to Wilsons Promontory in the southeast for nearly 2,000 miles (3,200 km). To the south, Australian jurisdiction extends a further 310 miles (500 km) to the southern extremity of the island of Tasmania, and in the north, it extends to the southern shores of Papua New Guinea. Australia is separated from Indonesia to the northwest by the Timor and Arafura seas, from Papua New Guinea to the northeast by the Coral Sea and the Torres Strait, from the Coral Sea Islands Territory by the Great Barrier Reef, from New Zealand to the southeast by the Tasman Sea, and from Antarctica in the far south by the Indian Ocean. Australia has been called “the Oldest Continent,” “the Last of Lands,” and “the Last Frontier.” Those descriptions typify the world’s fascination with Australia, but they are somewhat unsatisfactory. In simple physical terms, the age of much of the continent is certainly impressive—most of the rocks providing the foundation of Australian landforms were formed during Precambrian and Paleozoic time (some 4.6 billion to 252 million years ago)—but the ages of the cores of all the continents are approximately the same. On the other hand, whereas the landscape history of extensive areas in Europe and North America has been profoundly influenced by events and processes that occurred since late in the last Ice 215 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Age—roughly the past 25,000 years—in Australia scientists use a more extensive timescale that takes into account the great antiquity of the continent’s landscape. Australia is the last of lands only in the sense that it was the last continent, apart from Antarctica, to be explored by Europeans. At least 60,000 years before European explorers sailed into the South Pacific, the first Aboriginal explorers had arrived from Asia, and by 20,000 years ago they had spread throughout the mainland and its chief island outlier, Tasmania. When Captain Arthur Phillip of the British Royal Navy landed with the First Fleet at Botany Bay in 1788, there may have been between 250,000 and 500,000 Aboriginals, though some estimates are much higher. Largely nomadic hunters and gatherers, the Aboriginals had already transformed the primeval landscape, principally by the use of fire, and, contrary to common European perceptions, they had established robust, semipermanent settlements in well-favored localities. The American-style concept of a national “frontier” moving outward along a line of settlement is also inappropriate. There was, rather, a series of comparatively independent expansions from the margins of the various colonies, which were not joined in an independent federated union until 1901. Frontier metaphors were long employed to suggest the existence of yet another extension of Europe and especially of an outpost of Anglo-Celtic culture in the distant “antipodes.” The most striking characteristics of the vast country are its global isolation, its low relief, and the aridity of much of its surface. If, like the English novelist D.H. Lawrence, visitors from the Northern Hemisphere are at first overwhelmed by “the vast, uninhabited land and by the grey charred bush…so phantom-like, so ghostly, with its tall, pale trees and many dead trees, like corpses,” they should remember that to Australians the bush—that sparsely populated Inland or Outback beyond the Great Dividing Range of mountains running along the Pacific coast and separating it from the cities in the east—is familiar and evokes nostalgia. It still retains some of the mystical quality it had for the first explorers searching for inland seas and great rivers, and it remains a symbol of Australia’s strength and independence; the Outback poem by A.B. (“Banjo”) Paterson, “Waltzing Matilda,” is the unofficial national anthem of Australia known the world over. Australia’s isolation from other continents explains much of the singularity of its plant and 216 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

animal life. Its unique flora and fauna include hundreds of kinds of eucalyptus trees and the only egg-laying mammals on Earth, the platypus and echidna. Other plants and animals associated with Australia are various acacias (Acacia pycnantha [golden wattle] is the national flower) and dingoes, kangaroos, koalas, and kookaburras. The Great Barrier Reef, off the east coast of Queensland, is the greatest mass of coral in the world and one of the world’s foremost tourist attractions. The country’s low relief results from the long and extensive erosive action of the forces of wind, rain, and the heat of the sun during the great periods of geologic time when the continental mass was elevated well above sea level. Isolation is also a pronounced characteristic of much of the social landscape beyond the large coastal cities. But an equally significant feature of modern Australian society is the representation of a broad spectrum of cultures drawn from many lands, a development stemming from immigration that is transforming the strong Anglo-Celtic orientation of Australian culture. Assimilation, of course, is seldom a quick and easy process, and minority rights, multiculturalism, and race-related issues have played a large part in contemporary Australian politics. In the late 1990s these issues sparked a conservative backlash. Australia has a federal form of government, with a national government for the Commonwealth of Australia and individual state governments (those of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania). Each state has a constitution, and its government exercises a limited degree of sovereignty. There are also two internal territories: Northern Territory, established as a self-governing territory in 1978, and the Australian Capital Territory (including the city of Canberra), which attained self- governing status in 1988. The federal authorities govern the external territories of Norfolk Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island, Ashmore and Cartier islands, the Coral Sea Islands, and Heard Island and McDonald Islands and claim the Australian Antarctic Territory, an area larger than Australia itself. Papua New Guinea, formerly an Australian external territory, gained its independence in 1975. Historically part of the British Empire and now a member of the Commonwealth, Australia is a relatively prosperous independent country. Australians are in many respects fortunate in that they do not share their continent—which is only a little smaller than the United States— with any other country. Extremely remote from their traditional allies and trading partners—it 217 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

is some 12,000 miles (19,000 km) from Australia to Great Britain via the Indian Ocean and the Suez Canal and about 7,000 miles (11,000 km) across the Pacific Ocean to the west coast of the United States—Australians have become more interested in the proximity of huge potential markets in Asia and in the highly competitive industrialized economies of China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Australia, the continent and the country, may have been quite isolated at the beginning of the 20th century, but it entered the 21st century a culturally diverse land brimming with confidence, an attitude encouraged by the worldwide fascination with the land “Down Under” and demonstrated when Sydney hosted the 2000 Olympic Games. 11.2 PEOPLE 11.2.1 Ethnic groups Today the population of Australia consists of more than 270 ethnic groups. Until the mid- 20th century, however, Australian society was, with some accuracy, regarded in the wider world as essentially British—or at any rate Anglo-Celtic. The ties to Britain and Ireland were scarcely affected by immigration from other sources until then. The complex demographic textures in Australia at the beginning of the 21st century contrasted quite sharply with the homogeneity of the country during the first half of the 20th century. Although some nine- tenths of Australia’s population is of European ancestry, more than one-fifth is foreign-born, and there is a small but important (and growing) Aboriginal population. Of those born overseas, about half were born in Europe, though by far the largest proportion of those came from the United Kingdom. Among the larger non-European groups are New Zealanders and Chinese. The growth in immigration, particularly Asian immigration (from China, Vietnam, Hong Kong, and the Philippines) beginning in the last decades of the 20th century, combined with a subsequent flow of refugees from the Balkans, altered the cultural landscape, imbuing Australia with a cosmopolitanism that it lacked in the mid-20th century. Despite the country’s long-standing Anglo-Celtic heritage, two ethnic groups, the Chinese and the Italians, have had an important presence in Australia since the 19th century. 11.2.2 The Chinese The long history of Chinese migration to Australia dates from the early 19th century. In the 218 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1850s tens of thousands of Chinese people arrived to provide a source of cheap labour as workers in the goldfields. After the gold rushes, many Chinese miners returned home to their families in China, but others stayed to establish businesses or work the land. Because many Chinese immigrants had rural backgrounds and possessed water and land management skills, they played an important role in the early development of Australian agriculture. Chinese communities also set up market gardens, growing and selling fresh food such as vegetables, herbs, ginger, and other spices. Many other Chinese worked as labourers, cooks, clerks, carpenters, and interpreters. Resentment and anger grew, however, over the perceived threat that Chinese migrants posed to European colonists, who wanted to restrict the economic competition that came from Asian migrants. As a reaction, when Australia became a federation in 1901, one of the first laws passed by the newly formed government was the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901. This legislation, known as the “White Australia” policy, was specifically designed to end Asian migration to the country in order to maintain a “white” population. It severely limited the size of Chinese communities in Australia for more than 50 years, until its abolishment in 1973. Since then, migrants of Chinese origin have arrived in increasing numbers, and many have become notable figures in a variety of sectors in society. 11.2.3 The Italians Italian migrants are another cultural group with a long and rich history of settlement in Australia. The first Italian community was established in Victoria during the gold rush of the 1850s. After the gold ran out in the region, many Italians remained in Australia and established agricultural communities in other parts of the country. Like the Chinese, many Italian migrants came from rural backgrounds, which helped them to excel in farming and viticulture. After World War II the Australian migration schemes of the 1950s and ’60s brought large numbers of Italian migrants to Australia. In the suburbs and cities, Italians set up family businesses, including bars, restaurants, greengrocers, general stores, fishmongers, and bakeries. From the 1950s onward large numbers of Italians also migrated to northern Queensland where they were recruited to work on the sugar plantations. Italian migrants were also employed in significant construction projects, most notably on the Snowy Mountains Hydro- 219 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Electric Scheme, the largest and most complex engineering project in Australian history. With workers from more than 30 countries, including thousands of Italian immigrants, it took over 25 years to build. Italian migrants also established their own highly successful construction companies, such as Electric Power Transmission (EPT), Transfield, and Pioneer Concrete. The persecution of and political indifference shown toward Aboriginal people failed to extinguish their culture. Inevitably, “land rights” became the rallying cry of a political movement accompanying a highly publicized revival of the Aboriginal community. A national referendum on Aboriginal rights held in 1967 agreed to the transfer of legislative power over Aboriginal affairs from the states to the federal government, and this accelerated the revival. The number of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, though still only a tiny fraction of the total population, increased dramatically in the last decades of the 20th century and into the 21st century, jumping from 115,000 in 1971 to some 550,000 in the 2011 census. In numerical terms, the most important Aboriginal concentrations are located in Queensland, New South Wales, Western Australia, and Northern Territory. Until the later 1960s the Aboriginal population was not inaccurately described as being as rural as white Australia was urban. In the Outback, small numbers still lived-in tribal societies and tried to maintain the traditional ways. Some were employed as highly skilled stockmen on the big stations (ranches), and welfare payments and charitable organizations supported others on mission stations and government reserves. From the 1970s and ’80s the drift of Aboriginal people to the towns and cities transformed the old patterns except in Northern Territory, where the rural distribution has remained predominant. Their migrations to the country towns have often left Aboriginal families as stranded “fringe dwellers,” a term with social as well as geographic connotations. In the larger centres, Aboriginal communities from widely differing backgrounds face innumerable hazards as they attempt to adjust to volatile urban politics. Perceptions of common grievances have encouraged a unity of purpose and a sense of solidarity between urban and rural groups. 11.3 CULTURAL LIFE Australia’s isolation as an island continent has done much to shape—and inhibit—its culture. 220 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The Aboriginal peoples developed their accommodation with the environment over a period of at least 40,000 years, during which time they had little contact with the outside world. When Britain settled New South Wales as a penal colony in 1788, it did so partly because of the continent’s remoteness. Australia’s convict heritage ensured that European perceptions of the environment were often influenced by the sense of exile and alienation. Yet, the distance from Britain—and the isolation it imposed—strengthened rather than weakened ties with it. The ambivalence of the continuing colonial relationship, which only began to be dismantled in the second half of the 20th century, has been a central cultural preoccupation inAustralia. Until World War II, Australian culture was almost exclusively Anglo-Celtic. The Aboriginal population was small and persecuted, and the Commonwealth government’s exclusivist White Australia policy helped to maintain the continent’s striking cultural homogeneity. However, in the second half of the 20th century, immigration rules were relaxed, and large influxes of both immigrants and refugees from eastern Asia, the Middle East, and various continental European countries made their way to Australia, each leaving an indelible imprint on the continent’s culture. Likewise, a revival of Aboriginal identity and positive measures from the government to redress past wrongs, along with a dramatic increase in the Aboriginal population, unleashed a renaissance in the Aboriginal arts. 11.3.1 Daily life and social customs Australians are proud of their heritage and progress—proud of the fact that a nation of convicts and working-class folks could build a modern egalitarian society in a rough and inhospitable land. They typically disdain the pompous and ostentatious, and they are often characterized as informal and “laid back,” an impression fostered by the typical and now internationally recognized greeting among “mates” and “sheilas”: G’day (Good day). Their tastes in popular fashions and entertainment differ little from those in Europe and North America, and their humour is often characterized as sarcastic, ironic, and self-deprecating. Drinking and gambling have long been important aspects of Australian popular culture, despite persistent government attempts to regulate and limit them. Beer has traditionally been the drink of choice, but the explosion of Australian wine production has somewhat altered patterns. Since World War II, laws generally have been liberalized in favour of more “civilized” drinking and greater access to gambling, often through government-owned 221 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

agencies. However, whereas an older generation turned to the pub for socializing, many of the young are likely to seek out the disco or trendy bar or restaurant. Australian cuisine is a product of international trends and the contributions of its Aboriginal and immigrant communities. Nevertheless, it has been heavily influenced by the country’s Anglo-Celtic heritage, with the traditional British supper still common. Barbecues (“the barbie”) are a quintessential Australian pastime, and meat is ubiquitous. Traditional Aboriginal Outback cuisine consists of such unique foods as kangaroo, wombat, turtle, eel, emu, snake, and witchetty grubs (larvae of the ghost moth). Vegemite, a salty, dark-brown yeast extract, has long been a staple of the Australian diet. Prior to the 1950s, very few European delicacies had been introduced to Australia, and it was difficult to obtain products such as olive oil and pasta. However, today, Italian food is a significant part of the national culinary culture, and pizza and pasta are among the most popular dishes in Australia. Immigrant traditions and customs also have had a major influence on Australian society and culture. In addition to cuisine, Chinese contributions include medicine and therapy (e.g., acupuncture and Shiatsu massage). The calendar is well endowed with public holidays, making the long weekend an institution. ANZAC Day (April 25), marking the Australian and New Zealand landing at Gallipoli in 1915, is observed throughout Australia. Australia Day (January 26) celebrates the 1788 arrival of the British First Fleet at Sydney Cove and the proclaiming of Australia as a British possession. The British monarch’s birthday is also celebrated in June (October in Western Australia). In addition, the states have several regional holidays. Australia hosts many festivals, which often attract a wide international audience. Particularly noteworthy arts events are the Sydney Festival (January), which features concerts and theatre and is accompanied by fireworks displays; the biennial Adelaide Festival of Arts (March); and the Melbourne Festival (October). Aboriginal arts festivals include the Barunga and Cultural Sports Festival (June) and Stompin Ground (October), held in Broome. Sydney’s vibrant Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras, held annually in February, attracts hundreds of thousands of revelers from around the world and is considered the world’s largest celebration of its kind. Chinese cultural celebrations include Chinese New Year, the Dragon Boat Festival, and the Lantern Festival. 222 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The arts -Literature The original inhabitants of Australia used the oral tradition, including song and dance with gestural storytelling, to entertain, instruct, guide, and reveal spiritual truths, as well as physical geography and the location of life-sustaining resources. (See Australian literature.) This tradition, disrupted and more or less destroyed by the arrival of the British, was replaced by a literature that imitated European models. In the mid-19th century, the Australian landscape, flora, and fauna became the setting for many novels, and, soon after, the colonial experience became a popular subject. Although the bush, or Outback, loomed large in the national consciousness, Australia has been a characteristically urban society, even from its days as a penal colony. Writers as diverse as Robin Boyd, Donald Horne, and Hugh Stretton, as well as the satirist Barry Humphries (Dame Edna Everage), drew attention to the significance of the suburban ethos in Australian culture. Patrick White, Australia’s greatest novelist and winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1973, explored the negative potentialities of a country in the process of defining itself. Contemporary Australian writers such as Thomas Keneally, Thea Astley, David Malouf, Peter Carey, Hal Porter, Janette Turner Hospital, Elizabeth Jolley, and Tim Winton continue to draw an international following. 11.3.2 Performing arts Dance Perhaps best-known among Australia’s dance troupes is the world-renowned national company, the Australian Ballet (founded 1962). Like the state-sponsored Queensland Ballet (1960) and West Australian Ballet (1953), it presents both classical and contemporary programs, though unlike them it tours internationally as well as regionally. Also noteworthy are Australian Dance Theatre (1965; contemporary dance), Dance North (1970), One Extra Dance Company (1976), Sydney Dance Company (1979), TasDance (1981), Legs on the Wall (1984), and Buzz Dance Theatre (1985). Bangarra Dance Theatre (1989), which blends the ancient traditions and spirit of the first Australians with the contemporary concerns of indigenous peoples, reached a large international audience when it performed in the opening ceremonies of the 2000 Summer Olympic Games. 223 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Music Like the other arts in Australia, music there has two distinct traditions: those of the European colonists and those of the indigenous peoples, whose singing and ritual playing of the didjeridu (a drone instrument) reenact the ancient traditions related to a mythological time called the Dreaming, the Aboriginal conception of creation. Contemporary Aboriginal bands (such as Warumpi Band and Yothu Yindi in the early 21st century) incorporate elements of ancestral rituals. The European-based musical tradition also maintains its vitality in the contemporary scene. Australian opera fans can point to talent ranging from the popular coloratura soprano Dame Nellie Melba to the Australian filmmaker Baz Luhrmann’s 21st- century production of Giacomo Puccini’s La Bohème. Traditional symphony orchestras abound, Australian musicians also have made important contributions to the development of rock music, which has been central to Australian popular culture since the late 1950s, when Americans Bill Haley and His Comets first brought rock and roll to Australia. In 1958 Johnny O’Keefe became the first Australian rock and roll singer to reach the national charts, with his hit “Wild One.” The first Australian rockers to have an impact outside the country were the Easybeats, who formed at an immigrant hostel near Sydney and scored an international hit with “Friday on My Mind” in 1966. Although the Easybeats would struggle to repeat that success, two of the band’s members, George Young and Harry Vanda, would go on to be a prolific songwriting and producing team. Moreover, two of Young’s brothers would later be key contributors to one of Australia’s biggest musical exports, superstar heavy metal band AC/DC. Another set of Australian siblings, the Bee Gees (short for Brothers Gibb), found similar international success in the pop and disco realm. AC/DC had emerged from Australia’s vibrant pub rock scene. Live-music venues thrived throughout the country and produced a number of bands that enjoyed limited foreign success but had huge followings in Australia and other bands that were popular beyond the country’s borders. Among the most notable were Daddy Cool (” Eagle Rock,” 1971), the Masters Apprentices, hard-rocking Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs, soft rockers Air Supply and the Little River Band, blues-based Chain, glam rockers Skyhooks, and Cold Chisel, which was fronted by raspy-voiced everyman Jimmy Barnes and whose 1973 anthem “Khe Sanh” evocatively 224 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

conveys the experience of Australian veterans of the Vietnam War. Female vocalists Helen Reddy, Olivia Newton-John, and, later, Kylie Minogue found success by taking their talents abroad. Central to Australian rock and pop music in the 1970s and beyond was the television music program Countdown, hosted by Ian (“Molly”) Meldrum. By the 1980s a bounty of Australian pop, rock, and alternative rock performers were enjoying worldwide success, including Men at Work (“Down Under,” 1981), Midnight Oil, Crowded House, Hunters and Collectors, the Divinyls, and INXS. Several punk-influenced alternative performers—notably Nick Cave, the Go-Betweens, the Saints, and the Triffids—sought fame in exile, relocating to England, as the Easybeats and the folk-rock group the Seekers (“Georgy Girl,” 1966) had done in the 1960s. The latter-day expatriates found limited commercial success, though they were critics’ darlings and gained cult followings. Throughout the 1990s and on into the 21st century, the list of Australian rock and pop performers who made a significant impact on international audiences grew to include Hoodoo Gurus, Silver chair, Jet, the Sleepy Jackson, Powder finger, Savage Garden, Wolfmother, the Living End, and Courtney Barnett. Theatre For indigenous Australians, the corroboree comes closest to a modern concept of theatre, but this participatory public performance of songs and dances represents much more than entertainment; it is a celebration of Aboriginal mythology and spirituality. Groups such as Bangarra Dance Theatre bring a modern sensibility to bear on the storytelling and ritual essential to Aboriginal culture. European-based contemporary Australian theatre is characterized by its emphasis on smaller, regional theatre groups. Australia’s larger cities offer fringe theatre as well as mainstream and alternative performances. Most of these troupes are committed to presenting the work of Australian playwrights, including Alexander Buzo, Jack Davis, Tim Robertson, and David Williamson. Visual arts At the time that Europeans arrived, Australia’s Aboriginal people had long-standing traditions in the visual arts, including rock art (painted or carved rocks), bark painting, sand sculpture, wood sculpture, and body decoration (usually painting and scarification). Some 225 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Aboriginal artists subsequently continued these traditions without alteration. Beginning in the late 20th century, others, such as landscape painter Albert Namatjira, successfully pursued Western styles. The art market, art critics, and museums now fully acknowledge the importance and lasting value of Aboriginal artistic traditions. Many Aboriginal communities generate income by selling handcrafted art to tourists and an increasingly eager art market, an economic necessity that has sometimes been troubling given the spiritual and ancestral importance the artists attached to the work. Perhaps the most famous Aboriginal handicraft is the boomerang, on which artists often paint or carve designs that relate to indigenous legends or traditions; a common theme is the Dreaming. They are sometimes used in religious ceremonies and other times clapped together, or pounded on the ground, as accompaniment to songs and chants. Carved and painted emu eggs are also popular. 11.4 MAJOR ATTRACTIONS Australia is a vast country that is just slightly smaller than the continental United States. So, it probably shouldn’t be surprising that a country this large would also be home to some of the most unusual destinations and creatures in the world. Among the many iconic sites and landmarks, you can visit in Australia are Ayers Rock and the Sydney Opera House. While these spots are very popular with tourists, there are a number of tourist attractions in Australia that aren’t as well-known but are just as impressive. 11.5 WHITSUNDAY ISLANDS This stunning collection of 74 islands lies in the middle of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, making them a perfect jumping off spot for travelers looking to explore the amazing and colorful marine life that live in the waters of this area. Although most of the Whitsunday Islands are deserted, seven do have outstanding resorts on them, including the world-famous One&Only on Hayman Island, a favorite of celebrities and the rich and famous. One of the most beautiful of the Whitsunday Islands is Whitehaven Beach, which boasts blinding white sands. These islands are the perfect choice for travelers seeking a blissful vacation on a lovely tropical island or for those who enjoy hours of snorkeling and scuba diving. 11.5.1 Kakadu National Park 226 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Located in Australia’s Northern Territory, about three hours north of Darwin, Kakadu is the country’s largest national park. There is a lot to see in Kakadu National Park, including a large concentration of Aboriginal rock art; some of which are estimated to be up to 20,000 years old. This park is also home to many different species of wildlife, including wallabies, dingoes and crocodiles. In addition, Kakadu National Park, which is home to one-third of Australia’s bird species, is a birdwatcher’s dream. 11.5.2 Uluru/Ayers Rock One of the world’s largest monoliths, Ayers Rock is also one of the top tourist attractions in Australia. Located within the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park of the Northern Territory, this large sandstone formation stands more than 340 meters (1,100 feet) high. One of the rock’s peculiarities is that it changes colors dramatically at sunset from terra cotta to blue, violet and red. The local Aboriginal tribe, known as Anangu, call the rock Uluru and regard it as a sacred site. 11.5.3 Great Barrier Reef One of the top destinations for underwater explorers and scuba divers is the world’s largest barrier reef system, famously known as the Great Barrier Reef. Located in the Coral Sea, the Great Barrier Reef encompasses a huge area of more than 2,900 coral reefs and hundreds of islands and cays. The best way to explore the Reef is by one of the numerous boat cruises that run along the northern coast of Queensland. The town of Cairns is regarded as the main gateway to the Reef, but other towns also offer cruise operations. 11.5.4 Sydney Opera House Regarded as a 20th century architectural masterpiece, the Sydney Opera House was designed and built by architect, Jørn Utzon, to reflect the image of a huge sailing ship. It houses multiple venues that together host more than 1,500 performances each year. Surrounded by the beautiful scenery of the Sydney Harbour and the Royal Botanic Gardens, the famous Opera House in Sydney is one of Australia’s most famous landmarks. 11.6 SUMMARY Popular Australian destinations include the coastal cities of Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne, 227 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

as well as other high-profile destinations including regional Queensland, the Gold Coast and the Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest reef. Uluru and the Australian outback are other popular locations, as is the Tasmanian wilderness. The unique Australian wildlife is also another significant point of interest in the country's tourism. 11.7 KEYWORDS • The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometers (1,400 mi) over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometers (133,000 sq mi) • Capacity management: A process that seeks to ensure that their organisations operate at optimum capacity whilst maintaining customer satisfaction levels. • Capital expenditure: The cost of long-term assets; such as computer equipment, vehicles and premises. Importantly these are bought to use over several years and not to resell. • carrier: transportation company such as an airline, motorcoach, cruise line, or railroad which carries passengers and/or cargo carrying capacity: the amount of tourism a destination can handle. • Carrying capacity: The amount of visitor activity that a site or destination can sustain. 11.8 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Compare and contrast living of people of Australia with neighboring countries 2. Draw a comparative study of various islands of Australia 228 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

11.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. State where is Australia located? 2. Discuss the cultural aspects of Australia. 3. Describe the demographical aspects of Australia. 4. Explain thesignificance of Opera house. 5. Why Great barrier reef is famous? Give reasons. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. This stunning collection of 74 islands lies in the middle of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, making them a perfect jumping off spot for travelers looking to explore the amazing and colorful marine life that live in the waters of this area a. Whitsunday Islands b. Great Barrier reef c. Opera house d. Uluru ayre rock 2. Located in Australia’s Northern Territory, about three hours north of Darwin, Kakadu is the country’s largest national park. a. Kakadu National Park b. Great Barrier reef c. Opera house 229 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

d. Uluru ayre rock 3. One of the top destinations for underwater explorers and scuba divers is the world’s largest barrier reef system, famously known as the …………. a. Kakadu National Park b. Great Barrier reef c. Opera house d. Uluru ayre rock 4. Regarded as a 20th century architectural masterpiece, the ................... was designed and built by architect, Jørn Utzon, to reflect the image of a huge sailing ship. a. Sydney Opera House b. Kakadu National Park c. Great Barrier reef d. Blue mountain national park 5.The amount of visitor activity that a site or destination can sustain. 230 a. Carrying Capacity b. Loaded Capacity c. System Capacity d. Firm Capacity Answers 1.a 2.a 3.b 4.a 5.a CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

11.10 SUGGESTED READINGS • Australian Bureau of Statistics. \"Tourism Satellite Account 2014–15: Key Figures\". • Latest International Visitor Survey (IVS) Results – Year Ending June 2019 • \"Visitor Arrivals Data\". Tourism Australia. Archived from the original on 2015-09-05. • \"5249.0 – Australian National Accounts: Tourism Satellite Account, 2010–11\". Australian Bureau of Statistics. • \"Working with Tourism Australia GLOBAL MARKETING PROSPECTUS 2013/14\" (PDF). • \"2012 in Numbers: Australian Tourism Statistics\". Car Hire Search. Retrieved 2013- 02-23. • Denoon, Donald, et al. (2000). A History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-17962-3. • Goad, Philip and Julie Willis (eds.) (2011). The Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521- 88857-8. 231 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

'NOSñAAOLO8