RESEARCH METHODOLOGY-Final with alighment

MASTER OF COMMERCE SEMESTER-II RESEARCH METHODOLOGY MCM607 1 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning Course Development Committee Chairman Prof. (Dr.) Parag Diwan Vice Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab Advisors Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director – IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Majulika Srivastava, Director – CIQA, IGNOU Programme Coordinators & Editing Team Master of Business Administration (MBA) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Coordinator – Dr. Rupali Arora Coordinator – Dr. Simran Jewandah Master of Computer Applications (MCA) Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) Coordinator – Dr. Raju Kumar Coordinator – Dr. Manisha Malhotra Master of Commerce (M.Com.) Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) Coordinator – Dr. Aman Jindal Coordinator – Dr. Minakshi Garg Master of Arts (Psychology) Bachelor of Science (Travel &Tourism Management) Coordinator – Dr. Samerjeet Kaur Coordinator – Dr. Shikha Sharma Master of Arts (English) Bachelor of Arts (General) Coordinator – Dr. Ashita Chadha Co-ordinator – Ms. Neeraj Gohlan Academic and Administrative Management Prof. (Dr.) R. M. Bhagat Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Executive Director – Sciences Registrar Prof. (Dr.) Abhishek Prof. (Dr.) Inderpreet Kaur Executive Director – Management Director – IDOL Prof. (Dr.) Manaswini Acharya Executive Director – Liberal Arts © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the authors and thepublisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS Printed and Published by: SCHOOLGURU EDUSERVE PVT LTD B-903, Western Edge II, Western Express Highway, Borivali (E), Mumbai - 400066 Call Us: +91 22 4896 8005 Mail Us: [email protected] For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning 2 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

First Published in 2020 All rights reserved. No Part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from Chandigarh University. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this book may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. This book is meant for educational and learning purpose. The authors of the book has/have taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. In the even the Authors has/ have been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action 3 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CONTENT Unit-1 Introduction To Research .......................................................................................................4 Unit-2 Research Process .....................................................................................................16 Unit-3 Review Of Literature ..............................................................................................24 Unit-4 Identification Of Problems And Formulation Of Hypothesis ...............................31 Unit-5 Research Design ......................................................................................................................45 Unit-6 Sampling Design ......................................................................................................70 Unit-7 Understanding Of Qualitative And Quantitative Research ..................................81 Unit-8 Collection Of Data ...................................................................................................90 Unit-9 Scaling .................................................................................................................... 116 Unit-10 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 147 Unit-11 Hypothesis Test........................................................................................................159 Unit-12 Interpretation Of Data And Report Writing ..................................................... 173 4 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH Structure Learning Objectives Introduction Definition Meaning Characteristics Types Limitations Scope Summary Keywords 1.10.Learning Activity 1.11.Unit End Questions (Mcq and Descriptive) 1.12.References LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit, you will be able to:  Explain the basics of research  State the characteristics & limitations while conducting the research  Discuss various types of research INTRODUCTION Research in simple terms refers to search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic search for information on a particular topic or issue. It is also known as the art of scientific investigation. Several social scientists have defined research in different ways. DEFINITION According to Redman and Mory (1923), research is a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. It is an academic activity and therefore the term should be used in a technical sense. According to 5 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Clifford Woody (Kothari, 1988), research comprises “defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and finally, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated hypotheses”. In the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, D. Slesinger and M. Stephension (1930) defined research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in the practice of an art”. Thus, research is an original addition to the available knowledge, which contributes to its further advancement. It is an attempt to pursue truth through the methods of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In sum, research is the search for knowledge, using objective and systematic methods to find solution to a problem. MEANING Research methods include all those techniques/methods that are adopted for conducting research. Thus, research techniques or methods are the methods that the researchers adopt for conducting the research studies. On the other hand, research methodology is the way in which research problems are solved systematically. It is a science of studying how research is conducted scientifically. Under it, the researcher acquaints himself/herself with the various steps generally adopted to study a research problem, along with the underlying logic behind them. Hence, it is not only important for the researcher to know the research techniques/ methods, but also the scientific approach called methodology. CHARACTERISTICS The objective of research is to find answers to the questions by applying scientific procedures. In other words, the main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and has not yet been discovered. Although every research study has its own specific objectives, the research objectives may be broadly grouped as follows: 1. To gain familiarity with new insights into a phenomenon (i.e., formulative research studies); 2. To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group, or a situation (i.e., descriptive research studies). 6 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. To analyses the frequency with which something occurs (i.e., diagnostic research studies); and 4. To examine the hypothesis of a causal relationship between two variables (i.e., hypothesis- testing research studies). TYPES There are different types of research. The basic ones are as follows. 1. Descriptive Versus Analytical: Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different types. The main objective of descriptive research is describing the state of affairs as it prevails at the time of study. The term ‘ex post facto research’ is quite often used for descriptive research studies in social sciences and business research. The most distinguishing feature of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables here. He/she has to only report what is happening or what has happened. Majority of the ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher attempts to examine phenomena, such as the consumers’ preferences, frequency of purchases, shopping, etc. Despite the inability of the researchers to control the variables, ex post facto studies may also comprise attempts by them to discover the causes of the selected problem. The methods of research adopted in conducting descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including correlational and comparative methods. Meanwhile in the Analytical research, the researcher has to use the already available facts or information, and analyses them to make a critical evaluation of the subject. 2. Applied Versus Fundamental: Research can also be applied or fundamental in nature. An attempt to find a solution to an immediate problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a business organization, or the society is known as applied research. Researchers engaged in such researches aim at drawing certain conclusions confronting a concrete social or business problem. On the other hand, fundamental research mainly concerns generalizations and formulation of a theory. In other words, “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research” (Young in Kothari, 1988). Researches relating to pure mathematics or concerning some natural phenomenon are instances of Fundamental Research. Likewise, studies focusing on human behavior also fall under the category of fundamental research. 7 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Thus, while the principal objective of applied research is to find a solution to some pressing practical problem, the objective of basic research is to find information with a broad base of application and add to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge. 3. Quantitative Versus Qualitative: Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in terms of quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. Various available statistical and econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such research. Which includes correlation, regressions and time series analysis etc. On the other hand, Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, or more specifically, the aspects related to or involving quality or kind. For example, an important type of qualitative research is ‘Motivation Research’, which investigates into the reasons for certain human behavior. The main aim of this type of research is discovering the underlying motives and desires of human beings by using in-depth interviews. The other techniques employed in such research are story completion tests, sentence completion tests, word association tests, and other similar projective methods. Qualitative research is particularly significant in the context of behavioral sciences, which aim at discovering the underlying motives of human behavior. Such research helps to analyses the various factors that motivate human beings to behave in a certain manner, besides contributing to an understanding of what makes individuals like or dislike a particular thing. However, it is worth noting that conducting qualitative research in practice is considerably a difficult task. Hence, while undertaking such research, seeking guidance from experienced expert researchers is important. 4. Conceptual Versus Empirical: The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as Conceptual Research. Generally, philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts or for reinterpreting the existing ones. Empirical Research, on the other hand, exclusively relies on the observation or experience with hardly any regard for theory and system. Such research is data based, which often comes up with conclusions that can be verified through experiments or observation. Empirical research is also known as experimental type of research, in which it is important to first collect the facts and their sources, and actively take steps to stimulate the production of desired information. In this type of research, the researcher first formulates a working hypothesis, and then gathers sufficient facts to prove or disprove the stated hypothesis. He/she formulates the experimental design, which according to him/her would manipulate the variables, so as to obtain the desired information. This type of research is thus characterized by the researcher’s control over the variables under study. In simple term, empirical research is most appropriate when an attempt is made to prove that certain variables 8 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

influence the other variables in some way. Therefore, the results obtained by using the experimental or empirical studies are considered to be the most powerful evidences for a given hypothesis. 5. Other Types Of Research: The remaining types of research are variations of one or more of the afore-mentioned type of research. They vary in terms of the purpose of research, or the time required to complete it, or may be based on some other similar factor. On the basis of time, research may either be in the nature of one-time or longitudinal time series research. While the research is restricted to a single time-period in the former case, it is conducted over several time-periods in the latter case. Depending upon the environment in which the research is to be conducted, it can also be laboratory research or field- setting research, or simulation research, besides being diagnostic or clinical in nature. Under such research, in-depth approaches or case study method may be employed to analyses the basic causal relations. These studies usually undertake a detailed in-depth analysis of the causes of certain events of interest, and use very small samples and sharp data collection methods. The research may also be explanatory in nature. Formalized research studies consist of substantial structure and specific hypotheses to be verified. As regards to historical research, sources like historical documents, remains, etc. Are utilized to study past events or ideas. It also includes philosophy of persons and groups of the past or any remote point of time. Research has also been classified into decision-oriented and conclusion-oriented categories. The decision-oriented research is always carried out as per the need of a decision maker and hence, the researcher has no freedom to conduct the research according to his/her own desires. On the other hand, in the case of Conclusion-oriented research, the researcher is free to choose the problem, redesign the enquiry as it progresses and even change conceptualization as he/she wishes to. Operations research is a kind of decision-oriented research, where in scientific method is used in providing the departments, a quantitative basis for decision-making with respect to the activities under their purview. LIMITATIONS  Formulation of research aims and objectives. You might have formulated research aims and objectives too broadly. You can specify in which ways the formulation of research aims and objectives could be narrowed so that the level of focus of the study could be increased.  Implementation of data collection method. Because you do not have an extensive experience in primary data collection (otherwise you would not be reading this book), there is a great chance that the nature of implementation of data collection method is flawed.  Sample size. Sample size depends on the nature of the research problem. If sample size is too small, statistical tests would not be able to identify significant relationships within data set. You 9 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

can state that basing your study in larger sample size could have generated more accurate results. The importance of sample size is greater in quantitative studies compared to qualitative studies.  Lack of previous studies in the research area. Literature review is an important part of any research, because it helps to identify the scope of works that have been done so far in research area. Literature review findings are used as the foundation for the researcher to be built upon to achieve her research objectives. However, there may be little, if any, prior research on your topic if you have focused on the most contemporary and evolving research problem or too narrow research problem. For example, if you have chosen to explore the role of Bitcoins as the future currency, you may not be able to find tons of scholarly paper addressing the research problem, because Bitcoins are only a recent phenomenon.  Scope of discussions. You can include this point as a limitation of your research regardless of the choice of the research area. Because (most likely) you don’t have many years of experience of conducing researches and producing academic papers of such a large size individually, the scope and depth of discussions in your paper is compromised in many levels compared to the works of experienced scholars. SCOPE A. Environmental Level  Technological innovations: Research is conducted to know & adapt new technological innovations, developments in machinery, method, etc. used. For e.g., to know level of use of information technology e.g. Networking, Tally, SAP, etc. in the organization.  Environmental level • Economical, Socio-Cultural, Natural, Political - Legal Environments: Research is also done to know the characteristics, complexity, dynamism of socio-Cultural, economic, political- legal, which ultimately gives the idea of the potential, feasibility, viability etc. of the market.  Competitors Analysis: Companies conducts research for studying the strategic patterns of competitors, their strengths & weaknesses for making better strategies for competing effectively in order to survive & thrive in the market.  Industry fears: Research is conducted sometimes to know the survival & growth opportunities of an industry. it may be due to the extinction of raw material/sources of raw material. E.g. Finishing stock of Petroliam, coal may cause the extinction for automobile & power industry thus research for alternative sources/solutions is conducted. For the above 10 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

e.g., the solutions are electric car(automobile), CNG gas generated Automobile, Battery driven Automobiles.  New Market entry: Before making any entry into any new market, companies conduct research/pilot survey to know market potential, commercial feasibility, growth rate for the acceptance level of the consumers.  New product development: Research is mainly conducted to know needs, wants, desires, tastes, preference, problems, demography, psychography etc. of consumers. On the basis of which Organizations may develop new products & Services. B. Organizational level  HRM: it is related to Efficiency, productivity, Effectiveness, performance, Satisfaction level of Employees, structure, culture etc. of the organization.  Finance: It may be related to any operation like financial analysis, Capital structure, Ratio analysis etc. Research is done to evaluate the performance or viability of the existing systems/procedures /approaches for the same, in order to improve the existing one or develop new methods for the same. Ultimately the motive remains for reducing loss & increase profitability.  Production: Here, research is related to know and improve the efficiency, productivity, effectiveness level of workers , process planning, materials planning, layout, purchasing etc. which ultimately have objectives of cost minimization & Profit maximization.  Organizational Effectiveness and Success: It is related to effectiveness, efficiency, rationality, viability of general management, administration, systems, procedures, operations, policies, rules, Regulations etc. prevailing currently in the organization. Any research which can contribute to enhance the effectiveness of the organization or towards the success of the organization C. Marketing level  Product: Research is conducted to improve quality, features, design, packaging, labeling, and differentiation etc. of the products or services.  Price: Research is conducted for the cost minimization, determining Pricing methods(strategies), develop new pricing strategies etc. for the product in order to attract & 11 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

retain the customers.  Place: Research is also conducted for evaluating & improving the performance, satisfaction, effectiveness of the distribution channels (Retailers, Dealers, agents etc.)  Promotion: Research is also conducted to determine & develop appropriate & new approaches/methods for Advertising, Sales promotion as per the target market.  Sales : Research is conducted to know the sales performance(sales audit), effectiveness & efficiency of the sales force, Determination of Sales Quota, defining Sales Territory, developing innovative & effective sales training & motivating technique  Customer: current trend of shopping & Consumption patterns of consumers Scope. SUMMARY  Research may be very broadly defined as systematic gathering of data and information and its analysis for advancement of knowledge in any subject. Research attempts to find answer intellectual and practical questions through application of systematic methods. Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary defines research as \"studious inquiry or examination; esp.: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws\". Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown.  It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.  Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. To research is to purposely and methodically search for new knowledge and practical solutions in the form of answers to questions formulated beforehand. Research is also defined as a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests new interpretations of data or texts, and poses new questions for future research to explore.  Research is not a solitary activity –but an act of community. As a member of the research community, you are building on the knowledge that others have acquired before you and providing a road map for those who come after you. You are adding to a body of work that will never be complete. Research is an ongoing, collaborative process with no finish line in sight. 12 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 According to Babbie, 1998, Research involves inductive and deductive methods. Inductive methods analyze the observed phenomenon and identify the general principles, structures, or processes underlying the phenomenon observed; deductive methods verify the hypothesized principles through observations. The purposes are different: one (inductive method) is aimed at or directed to develop explanations, and the other (deductive method) is aimed at or directed to test the validity of the explanations.  Research and development refers to a wide range of business, governmental, and academic activities designed to gather new knowledge. Sometimes, the new knowledge leads to newproducts or processes, and sometimes it doesn't. The purpose of R&D is to expand the frontiers of human understanding and to improve our society as a whole. In other words, to supply the innovations that took us from the wall phone to the iPhone 5 R&D activities has to take place. R & D can be subdivided into three categories: Pure research, Applied research, and Development activities KEYWORDS  Primary Source: It is one that itself collects the data.  Secondary Source: It is one that makes available data collected by some other agency.  Collection of Statistics: Collection means the assembling for the purpose of particular investigation of entirely new data presumably not already available in published sources.  Questionnaire: A list of questions properly selected and arranged pertaining to the investigation. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. State the limitations of the research activity conducted by you. 2. Explain the scope of the research conducted by a financial company. 13 UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQ AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. State the characteristics of research. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2. Explain the types of research 3. Explain the limitations of the research 4. Write a short note on Research Methodology 5. Give definition of – a. Research Methods b. Research Methodology B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. The systematic way to solve the research problem is called as— a. Research methodology b. Research methods c. Research d. None of these 2. The techniques that are used for conduct of a research are known as— a. Research methodology b. Research methods c. Research d. None of these 3. Research is defined as \"a careful critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles, diligent investigation in order to ascertain something\" by— a. Robert Ross b. Prof. Young c. Webster's International Dictionary d. John W Best 4. Which of the following is not a limitation in research? 14 a. Sample size b. Lack of literature review data CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

c. Time constraints d. None of these 5. research consists of surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different types a. Descriptive b. Applied c. Analytical d. Fundamental Answers: 2. (b), 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 1. (a), REFERENCES  Donald, R. Cooper & Pamela S. Schindler (2014). Business Research Methods. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.  Gupta, S.C. (2010). Fundamentals of Statistics. 6th Ed. Mumbai: HPH.  Gupta, S. P. (2002). Statistical Methods. New Delhi: Sultan Chand & Sons.  Beri, G. C. (2012). Business Statistics. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.  Zikmund. (2015). Business Research Methods. New Delhi: Cengage Learning  Bhandarkar & Wilkinson, Methodology& Techniques of Social Research, Himalaya Publishing House, 2007.  Lundberg G.A., Social Research, N.Y, 1942.  Goffman. F, The Methodology of Social Sciences, N.Y. 1944.  Goode W & P. Hatt, Methods in Social Research, Oxford Printing Press, 1952. 15 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT-2 RESEARCH PROCESS Structure Learning Objectives Introduction Anoverview Steps in the research process Summary Keywords Learning Activity Unit End Questions (Mcq And Descriptive) References LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit, you will be able to:  Explain the process of research.  Discuss the different stages of research process INTRODUCTION There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of investigation, irrespective of whether it is applied research or basic research. Each particular research study will be unique in some ways because of the particular time, setting, environment, and place in which it is being undertaken. Nevertheless, all research endeavors share a common goal of furthering our understanding of the problem and thus all traverse through certain basic stages, forming a process called the research process. 16 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

AN OVERVIEW Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering a multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This process is used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method (scientific method of inquiry, evaluation research, or action research). The process focuses on testing hunches or ideas in a park and recreation setting through a systematic process. In this process, the study is documented in such a way that another individual can conduct the same study again. This is referred to as replicating the study. Any research done without documenting the study so that others can review the process and results is not an investigation using the scientific research process. The scientific research process is a multiple-step process where the steps are interlinked with the other steps in the process. If changes are made in one step of the process, the researcher must review all the other steps to ensure that the changes are reflected throughout the process. Parks and recreation professionals are often involved in conducting research or evaluation projects within the agency. STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS Research process consists of a series of steps or actions required for effectively conducting research. Figure 2.1 Research Process 17 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1. Selecting the research area. You are expected to state that you have selected the research area due to professional and personal interests in the area and this statement must be true. The importance of this first stage in the research process is often underestimated by many students. If you find research area and research problem that is genuinely interesting to you it is for sure that the whole process of writing your dissertation will be much easier. Therefore, it is never too early to start thinking about the research area for your dissertation. 2. Formulating research aim, objectives and research questions or developing hypotheses. The choice between the formulation of research questions and the development of hypotheses depends on your research approach as it is discussed further below in more details. Appropriate research aims and objectives or hypotheses usually result from several attempts and revisions and these need to be mentioned in Methodology chapter. It is critically important to get your research questions or hypotheses confirmed by your supervisor before moving forward with the work. 3. Conducting the literature review. Literature review is usually the longest stage in the research process. Actually, the literature review starts even before the formulation of research aims and objective; because you have to check if exactly the same research problem has been addressed before. Nevertheless, the main part of the literature review is conducted after the formulation of research aim and objectives. You have to use a wide range of secondary data sources such as books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online articles etc. 4. Selecting methods of data collection. Data collection method(s) need to be selected on the basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages associated with several alternative data collection methods. In studies involving primary data collection, in-depth discussions of advantages and disadvantages of selected primary data collection method(s) need to be included in methodology. 5. Collecting the primary data. Primary data collection needs to be preceded by a great level of preparation and pilot data collection may be required in case of questionnaires. Primary data collection is not a compulsory stage for all dissertations and you will skip this stage if you are conducting a desk-based research. 6. Data analysis. Analysis of data plays an important role in the achievement of research aim and objectives. Data analysis methods vary between secondary and primary studies, as well as, between qualitative and quantitative studies. 7. Reaching conclusions. Conclusions relate to the level of achievement of research aims and objectives. In this final part of your dissertation you will have to justify why you think that research aims and objectives have been achieved. Conclusions also need to cover research limitations and suggestions for future research. 8. Completing the research. Following all of the stages described above, and organizing separate 18 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

chapters into one file leads to the completion of the first draft. The first draft of your dissertation needs to be prepared at least one month before the submission deadline. This is because you will need to have sufficient amount of time to address feedback of your supervisor. SUMMARY  Research process refers to various decision stages involved in a research project and the relationship between those stages. A researcher has to proceed systematically in the already planned directions with the help of number of steps in sequence.  The Research Process is a process of multiple scientific steps in conducting the research work. Each step is interlinked with other steps. The process starts with the research problem at first. Then it advances in the next steps sequentially. Generally, a researcher conducts research work within seven steps. In research work, primarily, you require a Research Proposal. It is because the proposal approves the research project whether you achieve the ability to conduct research or not. So when you write a research proposal, present the detailed plans and specific objectives of your research correctly.  Scientific research includes a systematized procedure that emphases on being objective and gathering a multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This procedure is used in all research and evaluation projects, irrespective of the research technique. The procedure focuses on testing ideas in a park and regeneration setting through a systematic procedure. In this procedure, the study is recognized in such a move that another individual can conduct the similar study again. This is referred to as duplicating the study. Any research done without documenting the study so that others can review the procedure and consequences is not an investigation using the scientific research procedure. The scientific research procedure is a multiple-step procedure where the steps are interlinked with the other steps in the procedure. If deviations are made in one step of the procedure, the researcher or investigator must review all the other steps to guarantee that the changes are reflected throughout the procedure. Parks and recreation experts are often involved in conducting research or assessment projects within the activity. These experts need to recognize the eight steps of the research procedure as they apply to conducting a study. KEYWORDS  Investigator: Investigator is a person who collects the information.  Respondent: A person who fills the questionnaire or provides the required information. 19 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Write an outline for a research process which needs to be conducted by a student. 2. Write an outline for a research process which needs to be conducted by a faculty writing a research paper. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQ AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Question 1. Explain the steps of research process 2. Draw the diagram of the stages of the research process B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. Which of the following is not included in research? a. feedback on published research report b. Defining problem c. collecting data d. drawing conclusions 2. Which is not the purpose of research? a. Informing actions b. Acquiring Monopoly c. Forming knowledge d. Solving Problem 3. is usually the longest stage in the research process. a. Literature Review b. Data collection c. Hypothesis testing d. None of these 4. is not a compulsory stage for all dissertations and you will skip this stage if you are conducting a desk-based research. a. Primary data collection b. Literature review 20 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

c. Hypothesis testing d. Report writing 5. varies between the type of study conducted for research a. Report writing b. Literature review c. Primary data d. Data analysis Answers: 1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (d) REFERENCES  Donald, R. Cooper & Pamela S. Schindler (2014). Business Research Methods. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.  Gupta, S.C. (2010). Fundamentals of Statistics. 6th Ed. Mumbai: HPH.  Gupta, S. P. (2002). Statistical Methods. New Delhi: Sultan Chand & Sons.  Beri, G. C. (2012). Business Statistics. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.  Zikmund. (2015). Business Research Methods. New Delhi: Cengage Learning  Krishna Swamy K.N., Siva Kumar A.I., Mathirajan M., “Management Research Methodology (2006), Pearson Education, New Delhi.  Kothari C.R., “Research Methodology, Methods and Techniques, Second edition,(2008), New Age International Publication.  Ranjit Kumar: Research Methodology, A step by step guide for beginners, Pearson Education, sixth Edition 2009.  Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrain Thornhiu: Research Methods for Business Students, Pearson Education.  Ram Ahuja, “Research Methods”, (2001), Rawat Publications, New Delhi.  Cooper D., Schindler P., Business research methods”, (2003) Tata Mc-Graw Hill, New Delhi. 21 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

  UNIT-3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Structure Learning Objectives Introduction Meaning Purpose of literature review Sources of literature Primary Sources Secondary Sources Summary Keywords Learning Activity Unit End Questions (Mcq And Descriptive) References LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit, you will be able to:  Explain the literature review sources  Discuss the purpose of literature review INTRODUCTION In essence, a literature review identifies, evaluates and synthesizes the relevant literature within a particular field of research. It illuminates how knowledge has evolved within the field, highlighting what has already been done, what is generally accepted, what is emerging and what is the current state of thinking on the topic. In addition, within research-based texts such as a Doctoral thesis, a literature review identifies a research gap (i.e. unexplored or under-researched areas) and articulates how a particular research project addresses this gap MEANING A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a particular area of research. The review should enumerate, describe, summarize, objectively evaluate and clarify this previous 22 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

research. It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author) determine the nature of your research. The literature review acknowledges the work of previous researchers, and in so doing, assures the reader that your work has been well conceived. It is assumed that by mentioning a previous work in the field of study, that the author has read, evaluated, and assimilated that work into the work at hand. A literature review creates a \"landscape\" for the reader, giving her or him a full understanding of the developments in the field. This landscape informs the reader that the author has indeed assimilated all (or the vast majority of) previous, significant works in the field into her or his research. PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW The aim of a literature review is to show particular reader that researcher have read, and have a good grasp of, the main published work concerning a particular topic or question in specific field. This work may be in any format, including online sources. It may be a separate assignment, or one of the introductory sections of a report, dissertation or thesis. In the latter cases in particular, the review will be guided by research objective or by the issue or thesis researcher are arguing and will provide the framework for researchers’ further work. It is very important to note that review should not be simply a description of what others have published in the form of a set of summaries, but should take the form of a critical discussion, showing insight and an awareness of differing arguments, theories and approaches. It should be a synthesis and analysis of the relevant published work, linked at all times to your own purpose and rationale. SOURCES OF LITERATURE Primary Sources The term primary source is used broadly to embody all sources that are original. Primary sources provide first-hand information that is closest to the object of study. Primary sources vary by discipline. In the natural and social sciences, original reports of research found in academic journals detailing the methodology used in the research, in-depth descriptions, and discussions of the findings are considered primary sources of information. Other common examples of primary sources include speeches, letters, diaries, autobiographies, interviews, official reports, court records, artifacts, photographs, and drawings. Galvan, J. L. (2013). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral 23 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

sciences. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak. Secondary Sources A secondary source is a source that provides non-original or secondhand data or information. Secondary sources are written about primary sources. Research summaries reported in textbooks, magazines, and newspapers are considered secondary sources. They typically provide global descriptions of results with few details on the methodology. Other examples of secondary sources include biographies and critical studies of an author's work SUMMARY A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research. Writing a literature review involves finding relevant publications (such as books and journal articles), critically analyzing them, and explaining what you found. There are five key steps:  Search for relevant literature  Evaluate sources  Identify themes, debates and gaps  Outline the structure  Write your literature review A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources – it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.  “A literature review is a description of the literature relevant to a particular field or topic. It gives an overview of what has been said, who the key writers are, what are the prevailing theories and hypotheses, what questions are being asked, and what methods and methodologies are appropriate and useful\" (Emerald Insight).  Aliterature review is not just a summary of everything you have read on the topic. It is a critical analysis of the existing research relevant to your topic, and you should show how the literature relates to your topic and identify any gaps in the area of research.  The idea of “literature” usually conjures up images of dusty books that you are required to read for English, American, or World literature classes. The “literature” in a literature review, however, refers to all the previous research and scholarship on a particular topic, no matter what discipline you are studying; the “review” is your explanation of what the literature says. 24 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Aliterature review is the synthesis of the available literature regarding your research topic. This synthesis merges the conclusions of many different sources to explain the overall understanding of the topic, thus laying a foundation for both the research question and primary research. Although a literature review will cite sources and should discuss the credibility of the sources included, it is more than an annotated bibliography. Your literature review needs to review all the significant sources on a topic, regardless of whether or not they support the claims you will eventually be working toward. Your literature review, like any other document, should contain an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. KEYWORDS  Action research - Research aimed at helping powerless people in society to solve their problems and be empowered to fight for social justice.  Anonymity - \"A situation where even the researcher will not know who provided which specific responses or data for a research project, e.g., an anonymous survey. \"  Applied research - Research carried out for practical applications and problem-solving functions.  Archival analysis - Research that examines collections of public and other documents or records, to study a specific topic, issue or phenomenon.  Archival records - Public or private records or documents related to the phenomenon under study which can be examined as research data. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Mention various websites from where the data can be collected on the status of the national income & its concepts in India 2. Make a list of sources from where data can be collected regarding the consumer behaviours & their changes. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQ AND DESCRIPTIVE) 25 A. Descriptive Questions 1. Explain the sources of literature review? 2. Discuss types of data. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. Explain purpose of literature review. 4. State meaning of review literature. 5. State the sources of primary and second data B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. An appropriate source to find out descriptive information is................. a. Bibliography b. Directory c. Encyclopaedia d. Dictionary 2. Which of the following is not true about e journals? a. They are distributed through digital methods b. They also have editors or editorial boards c. They are publications of serial nature d. They are always free of cost 3. Which of the following is not a source of primary data? a. Interview b. Speech c. Personal diaries d. Newspapers 4. Which of the following is not a source of secondary data? a. Textbooks b. Magazines c. Surveys d. Journals 5. Literature review is conducted at the beginning of the research a. True b. False Answers: 1. (c), 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 26 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

REFERENCES  Donald, R. Cooper & Pamela S. Schindler (2014). Business Research Methods. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.  Gupta, S.C. (2010). Fundamentals of Statistics. 6th Ed. Mumbai: HPH.  Gupta, S.P. (2002). Statistical Methods. New Delhi: Sultan Chand & Sons.  Beri, G. C. (2012). Business Statistics. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.  Zikmund. (2015). Business Research Methods. New Delhi: Cengage Learning  Garraghan G. S., A Guide to Historical Method New York, Fordham University Press 1996.  Gottstack, L., Understanding History, New York, Alfred A. Knof 1951.  McMillan J. H. and Schumander S. Research in Education: A Conceptual Introduction Boston MA: Little Brown and Company 1984.  Shafer R.J., A Guide to Historical Method Illions: the Dorsey Press, 1974. 27 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT-4 IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS AND FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS Structure Learning Objectives Introduction Building Hypothesis Qualities of a good Hypothesis Null Hypothesis & Alternative Hypothesis Null Hypothesis Definition Alternate Hypothesis Definition Hypothesis Testing - Logic & Importance Importance of a Testable Hypothesis The Logic of Hypothesis Testing Summary Keywords Learning Activity Unit End Questions (Mcq And Descriptive) References LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit, you will be able to:  Understand the formulation of hypothesis  Explain the Null & Alternate hypothesis  Outline good hypothesis qualities INTRODUCTION “Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation in the light of established facts” (Kothari, 1988). A research 28 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

hypothesis is quite often a predictive statement, which is capable of being tested using scientific methods that involve an independent and some dependent variables. For instance, the following statements may be considered:  “Students who take tuitions perform better than the others who do not receive tuitions” or,  “The female students perform as well as the male students”. These two statements are hypotheses that can be objectively verified and tested. Thus, they indicate that a hypothesis states what one is looking for. Besides, it is a proposition that can be put to test in order to examine its validity. BUILDING HYPOTHESIS A testable hypothesis is not a simple statement. It is an intricate statement that needs to offer a clear introduction to a scientific experiment, its intentions, and the possible outcomes. However, there are some important things to consider when building a compelling hypothesis.  State the problem that you are trying to solve.  Make sure that the hypothesis clearly defines the topic and the focus of the experiment.  Try to write the hypothesis as an if-then statement.  Follow this template: If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.  Define the variables In scientific experiments, a hypothesis proposes and examines the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. The effect on the dependent variable (the idea being tested) depends on or is determined by what happens when you change the independent variable (the factor being changed). For example, let us take a look at this hypothesis: You should not ignore the importance of the above steps. The validity of your experiment and its results rely on a robust testable hypothesis. Developing a strong testable hypothesis has few advantages, it compels us to think intensely and specifically about the outcomes of a study. It enables us to understand the implication of the question and the different variables involved in the study. It helps us to make precise predictions based on prior research. Hence, forming a hypothesis would be of great value to the research. Here are some good examples of testable hypotheses. 29 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

QUALITIES OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS a. Power of Prediction One of the valuable attribute of a good hypothesis is to predict for future. It not only clears the present problematic situation but also predict for the future that what would be happened in the coming time. So, hypothesis is a best guide of research activity due to power of prediction. b. Closest to observable things A hypothesis must have close contact with observable things. It does not believe on air castles but it is based on observation. Those things and objects which we cannot observe, for that hypothesis cannot be formulated. The verification of a hypothesis is based on observable things. c. Simplicity A hypothesis should be so dabble to every layman, P.V young says, “A hypothesis wo0uld be simple, if a researcher has more in sight towards the problem”. W-ocean stated that, “A hypothesis should be as sharp as razor’s blade”. So, a good hypothesis must be simple and have no complexity. d. Clarity A hypothesis must be conceptually clear. It should be clear from ambiguous information’s. The terminology used in it must be clear and acceptable to everyone. e. Testability A good hypothesis should be tested empirically. It should be stated and formulated after verification and deep observation. Thus testability is the primary feature of a good hypothesis. f. Relevant to Problem If a hypothesis is relevant to a particular problem, it would be considered as good one. A hypothesis is guidance for the identification and solution of the problem, so it must be accordance to the problem. g. Specific It should be formulated for a particular and specific problem. It should not include generalization. If generalization exists, then a hypothesis cannot reach to the correct conclusions. h. Relevant to available Techniques Hypothesis must be relevant to the techniques which is available for testing. A researcher must know about the workable techniques before formulating a hypothesis. i. Fruitful for new Discoveries 30 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

It should be able to provide new suggestions and ways of knowledge. It must create new discoveries of knowledge J.S. Mill, one of the eminent researcher says that “Hypothesis is the best source of new knowledge it creates new ways of discoveries”. j. Consistency & Harmony Internal harmony and consistency is a major characteristic of good hypothesis. It should be out of contradictions and conflicts. There must be a close relationship between variables which one is dependent on other. NULL HYPOTHESIS & ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS Null hypothesis definition The null hypothesis is a general statement that states that there is no relationship between two phenomena under consideration or that there is no association between two groups. A hypothesis, in general, is an assumption that is yet to be proved with sufficient pieces of evidence. A null hypothesis thus is the hypothesis a researcher is trying to disprove. A null hypothesis is a hypothesis capable of being objectively verified, tested, and even rejected. If a study is to compare method A with method B about their relationship, and if the study is preceded on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis should always be a specific hypothesis, i.e., it should not state about or approximately a certain value. Null hypothesis symbol The symbol for the null hypothesis is H0, and it is read as H-null, H-zero, or H-naught. The null hypothesis is usually associated with just ‘equals to’ sign as a null hypothesis can either be accepted or rejected. Null hypothesis purpose The main purpose of a null hypothesis is to verify/ disprove the proposed statistical assumptions. Some scientific null hypothesis helps to advance a theory. The null hypothesis is also used to verify the consistent results of multiple experiments. For e.g., the null hypothesis stating that there is no relation between some medication and age of the patients supports the general effectiveness conclusion, and allows recommendations. 31 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Null hypothesis principle The principle of the null hypothesis is collecting the data and determining the chances of the collected data in the study of a random sample, proving that the null hypothesis is true. In situations or studies where the collected data doesn’t complete the expectation of the null hypothesis, it is concluded that the data doesn’t provide sufficient or reliable pieces of evidence to support the null hypothesis and thus, it is rejected. The data collected is tested through some statistical tool which is designed to measure the extent of departure of the date from the null hypothesis. The procedure decides whether the observed departure obtained from the statistical tool is larger than a defined value so that the probability of occurrence of a high departure value is very small under the null hypothesis. However, some data might not contradict the null hypothesis which explains that only a weak conclusion can be made and that the data doesn’t provide strong pieces of evidence against the null hypothesis and the null hypothesis might or might not be true. Under some other conditions, if the data collected is sufficient and is capable of providing enough evidence, the null hypothesis can be considered valid, indicating no relationship between the phenomena. When to reject null hypothesis? When the p-value of the data is less than the significant level of the test, the null hypothesis is rejected, indicating the test results are significant. However, if the p-value is higher than the significant value, the null hypothesis is not rejected, and the results are considered not significant. The level of significance is an important concept while hypothesis testing as it determines the percentage risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when H0 might happen to be true. In other words, if we take the level of significance at 5%, it means that the researcher is willing to take as much as a 5 percent risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true. The null hypothesis cannot be accepted because the lack of evidence only means that the relationship is not proven. It doesn’t prove that something doesn’t exist, but it just means that there are not enough shreds of evidence and the study might have missed it. Null hypothesis examples 32 The following are some examples of null hypothesis: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

If the hypothesis is that “the consumption of a particular medicine reduces the chances of heart arrest”, the null hypothesis will be “the consumption of the medicine doesn’t reduce the chances of heart arrest.” If the hypothesis is that, “If random test scores are collected from men and women, does the score of one group differ from the other?” a possible null hypothesis will be that the mean test score of men is the same as that of the women. H0: µ1= µ2 H0= null hypothesis µ1= mean score of men µ2= mean score of women Alternative hypothesis definition An alternative hypothesis is a statement that describes that there is a relationship between two selected variables in a study. An alternative hypothesis is usually used to state that a new theory is preferable to the old one (null hypothesis). This hypothesis can be simply termed as an alternative to the null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis that is to be proved that indicates that the results of a study are significant and that the sample observation is not results just from chance but from some non-random cause. If a study is to compare method A with method B about their relationship and we assume that the method A is superior or the method B is inferior, then such a statement is termed as an alternative hypothesis. Alternative hypotheses should be clearly stated, considering the nature of the research problem. Alternative hypothesis symbol The symbol of the alternative hypothesis is either H1 or Ha while using less than, greater than or not equal signs. Alternative hypothesis purpose An alternative hypothesis provides the researchers with some specific restatements and clarifications 33 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

of the research problem. An alternative hypothesis provides a direction to the study, which then can be utilized by the researcher to obtain the desired results. Since the alternative hypothesis is selected before conducting the study, it allows the test to prove that the study is supported by evidence, separating it from the researchers’ desires and values. An alternative hypothesis provides a chance of discovering new theories that can disprove an existing one that might not be supported by evidence. The alternative hypothesis is important as they prove that a relationship exists between two variables selected and that the results of the study conducted are relevant and significant. Alternative hypothesis principle The principle behind the alternative hypothesis is similar to that of the null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is based on the concept that when sufficient evidence is collected from the data of random sample, it provides a basis for proving the assumption made by the researcher regarding the study. Like in the null hypothesis, the data collected from a random sample is passed through a statistical tool that measures the extent of departure of the data from the null hypothesis. If the departure is small under the selected level of significance, the alternative hypothesis is accepted, and the null hypothesis is rejected. If the data collected don’t have chances of being in the study of the random sample and are instead decided by the relationship within the sample of the study, an alternative hypothesis stands true. Alternative hypothesis examples The following are some examples of alternative hypothesis: 1. If a researcher is assuming that the bearing capacity of a bridge is more than 10 tons, then the hypothesis under this study will be: Null hypothesis H0: µ= 10 tons Alternative hypothesis Ha: µ>10 tons 2. Under another study that is trying to test whether there is a significant difference between the effectiveness of medicine against heart arrest, the alternative hypothesis will be that there is a relationship between the medicine and chances of heart arrest. 34 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

HYPOTHESIS TESTING - LOGIC & IMPORTANCE Importance of a Testable Hypothesis To devise and perform an experiment using the scientific method, you need to make sure that your hypothesis is testable. To be considered testable, some essential criteria must be met:  There must be a possibility to prove that the hypothesis is true.  There must be a possibility to prove that the hypothesis is false.  The results of the hypothesis must be reproducible. Without these criteria, the hypothesis and the results will be vague. As a result, the experiment will not prove or disprove anything significant. The Logic of Hypothesis Testing The Logic of Hypothesis Testing As just stated, the logic of hypothesis testing in statistics involves four steps.  State the Hypothesis: We state a hypothesis (guess) about a population. Usually the hypothesis concerns the value of a population parameter.  Define the Decision Method: We define a method to make a decision about the hypothesis. The method involves sample data.  Gather Data: We obtain a random sample from the population.  Make a Decision: We compare the sample data with the hypothesis about the population. Usually we compare the value of a statistic computed from the sample data with the hypothesized value of the population parameter. If the data are consistent with the hypothesis we conclude that the hypothesis is reasonable. NOTE: We do not conclude it is right, but reasonable! AND: We actually do this by rejecting the opposite hypothesis (called the NULL hypothesis). More on this later. If there is a big discrepancy between the data and the hypothesis we conclude that the hypothesis was wrong. SUMMARY  Ahypothesis is a statement that introduces a research question and proposes an expected result. It is an integral part of the scientific method that forms the basis of scientific experiments. Therefore, you need to be careful and thorough when building your hypothesis. 35 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

A minor flaw in the construction of your hypothesis could have an adverse effect on your experiment.  More importantly, you need to build a robust testable hypothesis for your scientific experiments. A testable hypothesis is a hypothesis that can be proved or disproved as a result of experimentation.  Hypothesis testing is an act in statistics whereby an analyst tests an assumption regarding a population parameter. The methodology employed by the analyst depends on the nature of the data used and the reason for the analysis.  Hypothesis testing is used to assess the plausibility of a hypothesis by using sample data. Such data may come from a larger population, or from a data-generating process.  In hypothesis testing, an analyst tests a statistical sample, with the goal of providing evidence on the plausibility of the null hypothesis.  Statistical analysts test a hypothesis by measuring and examining a random sample of the population being analyzed. All analysts use a random population sample to test two different hypotheses: the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.  The null hypothesis is usually a hypothesis of equality between population parameters; e.g., a null hypothesis may state that the population mean return is equal to zero. The alternative hypothesis is effectively the opposite of a null hypothesis; e.g., the population mean return is not equal to zero. Thus, they are mutually exclusive, and only one can be true. However, one of the two hypotheses will always be true. All hypotheses are tested using a four-step process:  The first step is for the analyst to state the two hypotheses so that only one can be right.  The next step is to formulate an analysis plan, which outlines how the data will be evaluated.  The third step is to carry out the plan and physically analyze the sample data  The fourth and final step is to analyze the results and either reject the null hypothesis, or state that the null hypothesis is plausible, given the data. KEYWORDS  Basic research - Research carried out to discover something simply for the sake of knowledge to improve our understanding of the world, and for academic rather than commercial purposes 36 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Bibliography - A list of all sources of information consulted for the study, some of which may not have been cited within the body of the publication.  Case studies - A case study is the in-depth examination of just one or a few cases, instances or ‘objects of interest’ to analyses a complex, contemporary phenomenon.  Causality - Examining if one variable causes changes in another, in a given phenomenon. This cause and effect link is examined using experimental research where the time order release of the two variables is controlled, to see if the cause precedes the effect. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Create 2 null & alternate hypothesis for the research on consumer behavior 2. Create 2 null & alternate hypothesis for the research on reasons for dip in sales revenue. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQ AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. Explain Null Hypothesis. 2. Describe Alternate Hypothesis. 3. State the qualities of a good Hypothesis. 4. Discuss the logic of hypothesis testing. 5. Outline the stages of building the hypothesis. B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. A hypothesis should be - a. Both deductible & testable b. Only deductible c. Unscientifically constructed d. Inadequate 2. A good hypothesis to be testable should always be— a. Inter-objectively meaningful b. Inter-subjectively un-meaningful c. Inter-objectively un-meaningful 37 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

d. Inter-subjectively meaningful 3. A hypothesis is not testable if it is— a. Operationally non-definable b. Operationally definable c. Scientific d. All of these 4. Which of the following is a quality of a good hypothesis a. Observation b. Simplicity c. Clarity All of these 5. Which of the following is not a stage of the hypothesis testing a. State the hypothesis b. Define the decision methods c. Gather data d. None of these Answers: 1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (d) REFERENCES  Donald,R. Cooper & Pamela S. Schindler (2014). Business Research Methods. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.  Gupta,S.C. (2010). Fundamentals of Statistics. 6th Ed. Mumbai: HPH.  Gupta, S.P. (2002). Statistical Methods. New Delhi: Sultan Chand & Sons.  Beri, G.C. (2012). Business Statistics. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.  Zikmund. (2015). Business Research Methods. New Delhi: Cengage Learning  Garraghan G. S., A Guide to Historical Method New York, Fordham University Press 1996.  Gottstack, L., Understanding History, New York, Alfred A. Knof 1951.  McMillan J. H. and Schumander S. Research in Education: A Conceptual Introduction Boston MA: Little Brown and Company 1984.  Shafer R.J., A Guide to Historical Method Illions: the Dorsey Press, 1974.  38 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 39 UNIT-5 RESEARCH DESIGN Structure Learning Objectives Introduction Meaning and Importance of Research Design Features of a good research design Exploratory Research Design – concept, types and uses Types & methodologies of exploratory research Exploratory research: Steps to conduct a research Characteristics of Exploratory research Advantages of Exploratory research Disadvantages of Exploratory research Importance of Exploratory research Descriptive Research Designs - concept, types and uses Characteristics of descriptive research Applications of descriptive research with examples Advantages of descriptive research Experimental Design-Causal relationships Concept of Independent & Dependent variables Diagnostic Research Design Summary Keywords Learning Activity Unit End Questions (Mcq And Descriptive) References LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit, you will be able to:  Outline the concepts of research design  State importance of research design  Explain various types of research designs CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

INTRODUCTION Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher. The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies up for success. The design of a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study). MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN There are three main types of research design: Data collection, measurement, and analysis. The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and not vice-versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to use and how they are used. An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the least margin of error in experimental research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential elements of the research design are:  Accurate purpose statement  Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research  The method applied for analyzing collected details  Type of research methodology  Probable objections for research  Settings for the research study  Timeline  Measurement of analysis Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a design. Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal 40 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

expenditure of effort, time and money. Research design has a significant impact on the reliability of the results obtained. It thus acts as a firm foundation for the entire research. For example, economical and attractive construction of house we need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the map of the house) well thought out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our research project. Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis. The need for research design is as follows:  It reduces inaccuracy;  Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;  Eliminates bias and marginal errors;  Minimizes wastage of time;  Helpful for collecting research materials;  Helpful for testing of hypothesis;  Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower, time, and efforts;  Provides an overview to other experts;  Guides the research in the right direction. FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN Designing a research, particularly in the field of social sciences is very complex as the selection of a method or methods of logic and planning of the design was not always guarantee sound results. As a blue print, the research design may at best be only tentative and useful to the extent of providing the researcher with a series of guide posts to keep him headed is the right direction. Although every design has its own strengths and weaknesses and simultaneously the possibility of a single perfect research design is difficult, a good research design is often believed to possess characteristic features like flexibility, appropriateness, efficiency, economically sound and so on. A design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of data is construed as a good design. Similarly the design giving the smallest experimental error is considered to the best design and the design yielding maximal information covering various aspects of a problem is construed as the most efficient design because it is appropriate to the research problem. Hence, consideration of a design as 41 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

good depends too much upon the objective of the research problem and also the nature of the problem under investigation. A single design can never serve the purpose of all types of research problems because what appears to be suitable in one case may be lacking in one respect or the other in the context of some other research problems. A good research design should always fulfill the following four conditions; objectivity, reliability, validity and generalizability of the findings. (a) Objectivity: The findings are said to be objective when they pertain to the method of data collection and the scoring of the responses. The objectivity in respect of the procedure may be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to various persons by more than one independent observer. The more the agreement among the observers the more objective are the observation, recording and evaluation of the responses. Therefore, a good research design should permit fairly objective measuring instruments in which every observer visualizing a performance comes to the same conclusion. (b) Reliability: The question of reliability of knowledge is usually raised when the presence of a problem arouses in the knower a demand, not only for something more than mere conjecture, but for something for which it shall be useful in a given situation and perhaps in other similar situations. Reliable knowledge means any claim that is substantiated as trustworthy for a given purpose. (c) Validity: Validity implies self-consistency or absence of self-contradiction. It is identified with formal truth or self-consistency. A valid reasoning conforms to the rules of correct reasoning. It is that type of reasoning where conclusions automatically follow from the premises legitimately. (d) Generalizability: The degree of generalizability is known in terms of the replicability and reproducibility of the findings in spite of different measures and settings respectively. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN – CONCEPT, TYPES AND USES Definition Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but will not provide conclusive results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this research as a medium to identify issues that can be the focus for future research. An important aspect here is 42 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

that the researcher should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often referred to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why and how. For example: Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that increasing the variety of juices will enable increase in customers, however he is not sure and needs more information. The owner intends to carry out an exploratory research to find out and hence decides to do an exploratory research to find out if expanding their juices selection will enable him to get more customers of if there is a better idea. Another example of exploratory research is a podcast survey template that can be used to collect feedback about the podcast consumption metrics both from existing listeners as well as other podcast listeners that are currently not subscribed to this channel. This helps the author of the podcast create curated content that will gain a larger audience. Types and methodologies of exploratory research While it may sound a little difficult to research something that has very little information about it, there are several methods which can help a researcher figure out the best research design, data collection methods and choice of subjects. There are two ways in which research can be conducted namely primary and secondary. Under these two types, there are multiple methods which can used by a researcher. The data gathered from these researches can be qualitative or quantitative. Some of the most widely used research designs include the following: a. Primary research methods Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject. It can be through a group of people or even an individual. Such a research can be carried out directly by the researcher himself or can employ a third party to conduct it on their behalf. Primary research is specifically carried out to explore a certain problem which requires an in-depth study.  Surveys/polls: Surveys/polls are used to gather information from a predefined group of respondents. It is one of the most important quantitative method. Various types of surveys or polls can be used to explore opinions, trends, etc. With the advancement in technology, surveys can now be sent online and can be very easy to access. For instance, use of a survey app through tablets, laptops or even mobile phones. This information is also available to the researcher in real time as well. Nowadays, most organizations offer short length surveys and rewards to respondents, in order to achieve higher response rates. For example: A survey is sent to a given set of audience to understand their opinions about the size of mobile phones when they purchase one. Based on such information organization can dig deeper into 43 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

the topic and make business related decision.  Interviews: While you may get a lot of information from public sources, but sometimes an in person interview can give in-depth information on the subject being studied. Such a research is a qualitative research method. An interview with a subject matter expert can give you meaningful insights that a generalized public source won’t be able to provide. Interviews are carried out in person or on telephone which have open-ended questions to get meaningful information about the topic. For example: An interview with an employee can give you more insights to find out the degree of job satisfaction, or an interview with a subject matter expert of quantum theory can give you in-depth information on that topic. F ocus groups: Focus group is yet another widely used method in exploratory research. In such a method a group of people is chosen and are allowed to express their insights on the topic that is being studied. Although, it is important to make sure that while choosing the individuals in a focus group they should have a common background and have comparable experiences. For example: A focus group helps a research identify the opinions of consumers if they were to buy a phone. Such a research can help the researcher understand what the consumer value while buying a phone. It may be screen size, brand value or even the dimensions. Based on which the organization can understand what are consumer buying attitudes, consumer opinions, etc.  Observations: Observation research can be qualitative observation or quantitative observation. Such a research is done to observe a person and draw the finding from their reaction to certain parameters. In such a research, there is no direct interaction with the subject. For example: An FMCG company wants to know how its consumer react to the new shape of their product. The researcher observes the customers first reaction and collects the data, which is then used to draw inferences from the collective information. b. Secondary research methods  Secondary research is gathering information from previously published primary research. In such a research you gather information from sources likes case studies, magazines, newspapers, books, etc. Online research: In today’s world, this is one of the fastest ways to gather information on any topic. A lot of data is readily available on the internet and the researcher can download it whenever he needs it. An important aspect to be noted for such a research is the genuineness and authenticity of the source websites that the researcher is gathering the information from. For example: A researcher needs to find out what is the percentage of people that prefer a specific 44 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

brand phone. The researcher just enters the information he needs in a search engine and gets multiple links with related information and statistics.  Literature research: Literature research is one of the most inexpensive method used for discovering a hypothesis. There is tremendous amount of information available in libraries, online sources, or even commercial databases. Sources can include newspapers, magazines, books from library, documents from government agencies, specific topic related articles, literature, Annual reports, published statistics from research organizations and so on. However, a few things have to be kept in mind while researching from these sources. Government agencies have authentic information but sometimes may come with a nominal cost. Also, research from educational institutions is generally overlooked, but in fact educational institutions carry out more number of researches than any other entities. Furthermore, commercial sources provide information on major topics like political agendas, demographics, financial information, market trends and information, etc. For example: A company has low sales. It can be easily explored from available statistics and market literature if the problem is market related or organization related or if the topic being studied is regarding financial situation of the country, then research data can be accessed through government documents or commercial sources.  Case study research: Case study research can help a researcher with finding more information through carefully analyzing existing cases which have gone through a similar problem. Such analyses are very important and critical especially in today’s business world. The researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the case carefully in regards to all the variables present in the previous case against his own case. It is very commonly used by business organizations or social sciences sector or even in the health sector. For example: A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest success rate for performing knee surgeries. A lot of other hospitals or doctors have taken up this case to understand and benchmark the method in which this surgeon does the procedure to increase their success rate. Exploratory research: Steps to conduct a research  Identify the problem: A researcher identifies the subject of research and the problem is addressed by carrying out multiple methods to answer the questions.  Create the hypothesis: When the researcher has found out that there are no prior studies and the problem is not precisely resolved, the researcher will create a hypothesis based on the questions obtained while identifying the problem.  Further research: Once the data has been obtained, the researcher will continue his study 45 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

through descriptive investigation. Qualitative methods are used to further study the subject in detail and find out if the information is true or not. Characteristics of Exploratory research  They are not structured studies  It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.  It will enable a researcher answer questions like what is the problem? What is the purpose of the study? And what topics could be studied?  Tcarry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior research done or the existing ones do not answer the problem precisely enough.  It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks associated with it.  The researcher will have to go through all the information available for the particular study he is doing.  There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are flexible, broad and scattered.  The research needs to have importance or value. If the problem is not important in the industry the research carried out is ineffective.  The research should also have a few theories which can support its findings as that will make it easier for the researcher to assess it and move ahead in his study.  Such a research usually produces qualitative data, however in certain cases quantitative data can be generalized for a larger sample through use of surveys and experiments. Advantages of Exploratory research  The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can adapt to changes as the research progresses.  It is usually low cost.  It helps lay the foundation of a research, which can lead to further research.  It enables the researcher understand at an early stage, if the topic is worth investing the time and resources and if it is worth pursuing.  It can assist other researchers to find out possible causes for the problem, which can be further studied in detail to find out, which of them is the most likely cause for the problem. 46 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Disadvantages of Exploratory research  Even though it can point you in the right direction towards what is the answer, it is usually inconclusive.  The main disadvantage of exploratory research is that they provide qualitative data. Interpretation of such information can be judgmental and biased.  Most of the times, exploratory research involves a smaller sample, hence the results cannot be accurately interpreted for a generalized population.  Many a times, if the data is being collected through secondary research, then there is a chance of that data being old and is not updated. Importance of Exploratory research Exploratory research is carried out when a topic needs to be understood in depth, especially if it hasn’t been done before. The goal of such a research is to explore the problem and around it and not actually derive a conclusion from it. Such kind of research will enable a researcher to set a strong foundation for exploring his ideas, choosing the right research design and finding variables that actually are important for the analysis. Most importantly, such a research can help organizations or researchers save up a lot of time and resources, as it will enable the researcher to know if it worth pursuing. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS - CONCEPT, TYPES AND USES Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject. The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens. For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but not cover any investigative information about “why” the pattern exits. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the study’s objective. Characteristics of descriptive research The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, design of the study, and data analysis 47 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method because none of the research study variables are influenced in any capacity. Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:  Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.  Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.  Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied. The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and analyzed from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can also help point towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent research. 5.5. 2 Applications of descriptive research with examples A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before getting into any survey, though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite following these steps, there is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to use descriptive research? To understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways organizations currently use descriptive research today:  Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a respondent, their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For example, understanding from millennials the hours per week they spend on browsing the internet. All this information helps the organization researching to make informed business decisions.  Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive research design’s statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel company researches different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch, it provides insight into what clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the clothes and apparel that customers don’t like.  Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research design to understand how different groups respond to a specific product or service. For example, an apparel brand creates a 48 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

survey asking general questions that measure the brand’s image. The same study also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical location, etc. This consumer research helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also helps make product or marketing fixes or even creates a new product line to cater to high growth potential groups.  Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive research to help ascertain the research object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns. Due to the non-invasive research method and the use of quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative observation, researchers observe each variable and conduct an in-depth analysis. Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that may be prevalent in a population.  Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at different periods to ascertain any similarities or differences. This also allows any number of variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw trends. Descriptive research methods There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are: a. Observational method The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative observations. A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data, which is primarily focused on numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale, etc. For example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand using a simple Net Promoter Score question. Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective. In a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. For example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the customers’ selection and purchasing trends. This offers a more in-depth insight into the purchasing experience of the customer. b. Case study method Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not 49 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

be used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because there could be a bias on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are not a reliable way of conducting descriptive research is that there could be an atypical respondent in the survey. Describing them leads to weak generalizations and moving away from external validity. c. Survey research In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls. They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful data should have the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions. The survey method can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is enormous. Examples of descriptive research Some examples of descriptive research are: A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different people. To understand the preferred flavor palette, they conduct this type of research study using various methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By also surveying while collecting in-depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of different markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting this type of research helps the organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets. Another example of where this research can be used is if a school district wishes to evaluate teachers’ attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and observing their comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the researcher can gauge what they can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issue. This also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way with this change. Some other problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:  Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.  A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.  A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather than textbooks.  To understand if its wellness programs enhance the overall health of the employees. 3 Advantages of descriptive research Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are: 50 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)