environment are likely to occur between the tenth and eleventh weeks after conception. • Development Irregularities: Maternal malnutrition, vitamin and glandular deficiencies, excessive use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco and diseases like diabetes and German measles, interfere with normal development, especially that of the embryonic brain. iv) Period of the Fetus • Miscarriages: Miscarriages are always possible up to the fifth month of pregnancy, the most vulnerable time when the woman’s menstrual period would normally occur. • Prematurity: Fetuses who weigh less than 2 pounds 3 ounces have less chances of surviving than heavier fetuses and a greater chance of developing malformations. • Complications of delivery: Maternal stress affects uterine contractions and is likely to lead to complications during birth. • Developmental Irregularities: Any of the unfavourable environmental conditions present during the period of the embryo will also affect the development of fetal features and retard the whole pattern of fetal development. v) Teratological Hazards • Teratogen agent that causes birth defect. • Maternal Factors emanating from mother are: age, nutrition, emotional state and stress. • Toxoplasmosis disease caused from parasite ingested from eating raw meat, or touching cat feces. • Ectopic Pregnancy presence of developing embryo or fetus outside normal location in uterus. • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome cluster of abnormalities that appears in offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. • Paternal Factors emanating from father are: exposure to lead, radiation, pesticides, and petrochemicals. • Also, fathers who have a diet low in vitamin C, often produce offspring with higher risks of birth defects and cancer. vi) Environmental Hazards • Pollutants, toxic wastes, chemicals & radiation can cause birth defects or adversely affect developing fetus. • Recent research has shown that prolonged exposure by mothers to heat in saunas or hot tubs also endanger fetus. • Fetal Surgery and Therapy is a recent practice in which surgical treatment is used to correct possible defects before permanent damage results after birth. 100 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
The prenatal period is a crucial period of development of our lives. It is the formative period for all our body organs and plays a role in establishing their functional capacity. The potential exists for severe disruption to the normal developmental process from environmental agents. However for the vast majority of pregnancies the environment exerts a positive effect, shaping the individual’s development. The fetus is an active participant in its own development. Its behaviour is important for progressing normal development within the womb and for its life in the postnatal world. It is the foundation on which all future development after birth is built. POSTNATAL PERIOD Postnatal (Latin for ‘after birth’, from post meaning “after” and natalis meaning “of birth”) is the period beginning immediately after the birth of a child and extending for about six weeks. Another term would be postpartum period, as it refers to the mother (whereas postnatal refers to the infant). Birth is not the beginning of life. Instead, it is merely an interruption in the development pattern that began at the time of conception. It is the time when the individual must make a transition from the internal environment of the mother’s uterus to the world outside the mother’s body. The time when the transition is being made, the period of Partunate begins. This period covers the first 15 or 30 minutes after birth. With the cutting of umbilical cord, the infant becomes a separate, distinct and independent individual. When adjustments to the postnatal environment are being made, no marked changes in development occur. Adjustments to Postnatal Period Because of the vast difference between the internal and external environments, infants must make radical and rapid adjustments. If they don’t make them, their lives will be threatened. There are four major adjustments every infant must make: 1) Adjustment to the temperature change: In the sac in the mother’s uterus, the temperature is constantly around 100F. In the postnatal environment, it will be between 68 and 70F and will vary. 2) Adjustment to breathing: Before birth, oxygen comes from the placenta through the umbilical cord. After birth when this cord is cut, the infant must inhale and exhale air. The birth cry normally comes when breathing begins and serves to inflate the lungs. Initially breathing is irregular and imperfect. The infant yawns, gasps, sneeze and coughs to regulate breathing process. 3) Adjustment to taking nourishment: 101 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Since the reflex activities of sucking and swallowing are imperfectly developed, the infant is frequently unable to get the nourishment and thus loses weight. This is in total contrast to prenatal period where the fetus received constant nourishment through umbilical cord. 4) Adjustment to elimination: Within a few minutes after birth, the excretory system begins to function, eliminating waste products from the body which formerly were eliminated through the umbilical cord and the maternal placenta. How Birth Affects Postnatal Development Birth will affect the postnatal development of one individual differently than of another individual. The following conditions are responsible for the effect of birth on postnatal development: 1) Type of birth: Generally there are five different types of birth: • Natural or spontaneous birth: It occurs without any external support and with a minimum of or no medication of the mother. The position of fetus and the size of fetus make it possible for the fetus to emerge head first. • Instrument birth: If the fetus is too large to emerge from the mother’s body spontaneously or its positioning the uterus is such that it makes normal birth impossible, then surgical instruments must be used to aid ion delivery. • Breech birth: The fetus buttocks appear first, followed by legs and arms and finally the head. If the position cannot be changed before the birth begins instruments must be used to aid in delivery. • Transverse-Presentation birth: The fetus lies crosswise in the uterus. If this position cannot be changed instruments must be used to aid in delivery. • Caesarean-Section birth: When the fetal body becomes too large to pass through the birth canal without a prolonged and a difficult labour, even when instruments are used, the fetus is delivered surgically by making a slit in the maternal abdominal wall. 2) Medication of the mother: The more the medication before and during childbirth, the longer and more difficult the infant’s adjustment to postnatal life. The effects vary according to the type, amount and the timing of the medication. It affects breast feeding and the infants loose more weight. 3) Prenatal environment: Many childbirth complications have been traced to prenatal environment. The unfavourable prenatal conditions usually persist after birth and manifest in various adjustment difficulties 102 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
such as feeding problems, gastrointestinal dysfunction, sleep problems, hyperactivity and irritability. 4) Length of gestation period: The average length of gestation period is 38 weeks or 266 days, very few infants arrive in this period. Those who arrive late are called “Postmatures” and those who arrive early are called “Prematures”. Premature infants usually experience difficulty in adjusting to their postnatal life whereas postmature infants adjust more quickly and successfully to the postnatal life, even better than full term infants. 5) Postnatal care: The type of care received in the early days following birth affects postnatal development. Nutrition, breast feeding, healthy and safe environment, love and affection do affect the infant. 6) Attitude of the parents: Whether the child is being received positively or negatively, affects postnatal development of infant. If the parents welcome the child unconditionally then the child develops into a physically and psychologically healthy individual. Some psychologists have considered all stages of life in the postnatal period, though dictionary meaning is restricted to approximately one month after birth. They have termed this one month period as neonatal period. STAGES OF POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT • Neonatal period o birth to end of 4th week o new-born begins to carry on respiration, obtain nutrients, digest nutrients, excrete wastes, regulate body temperature, and make cardiovascular adjustments Infancy o end of 4th week to one year o growth rate is high teeth begin to erupt o muscular and nervous systems mature o communication begins • Childhood o one year to puberty o growth rate is high o permanent teeth appear o muscular control is achieved 103 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
o bladder and bowel controls are established o intellectual abilities mature • Adolescence o puberty to adulthood o person becomes reproductively functional and emotionally more mature o growth spurts occur o motor skills continue to develop o intellectual abilities continue to mature • Adulthood o adolescence to old age o person remains relatively unchanged anatomically and physiologically o degenerative changes begin • Senescence o old age to death o degenerative changes continue SUMMARY 1. Human development is a continuous process 2. It beginning with fertilisation and continuing throughout pregnancy, birth, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and into old age. 3. These stages act as a foundation on which all subsequent development builds and examines the physical development of the individual before and after birth and explores the impact of the environment on development. 4. There are certain periods of development known as difficult periods or critical periods. It is said that children who do not get special stimulation during their time of receptivity may get stuck at this period. 5. Conception occurs when an egg from the mother is fertilized by a sperm from the father. In humans, the conception process begins with ovulation. 6. Ovulation occurs about halfway through the woman’s menstrual cycle and is aided by the release of a complex combination of hormones. In addition to helping the egg mature, the hormones also cause the lining of the uterus to grow thicker and more suitable for implantation of a fertilized egg. 7. Pre-natal development plays an important role in physical and cognitive development of an individual. Development happens quickly during the prenatal period, which is the time between conception and birth. 8. The process of prenatal development occurs in three main stages. The first two weeks after conception are known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth week is known as the embryonic period, and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the fetal period. 104 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
9. It is also the most testing period for the child. The child faces high levels of risks from a range of physical hazards to medical hazards to trauma to the foetus. 10. Type of birth may also affect the personality of human being. KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS • Neonatal development- All the progressive changes in body, mind, and behavior that occur in the first few weeks after birth. 8.11 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Write about potential health hazard in pre-natal period? 2. Write about potential health hazard in post-natal period? UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. Human development starts much before the birth of a child. Explain the sentence. 2. The first trimester is very crucial for the mother and the child. Elaborate the risks involved in the first trimester. 3. What are precautions a doctor will advise to the mother during the prenatal period? 4. Expecting mothers are advised to be cheerful and not undertake a lot of stress. How do emotions of a mother affect the foetus? 5. Explain the medical complications that are common during the prenatal period. 6. The process of birth is not simple. Identify the complications that may occur during the birthing process. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Monozygotic is to twins as dizygotic is to twins. [a] male, female [b] female, male [c] fraternal, identical [d] identical, fraternal 105 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
2. is the term given to the process of gestation that an embryo undergoes, right from the fertilisation stage to childbirth [a] Pre natal development [b] Ante natal development [c] Postpartum development [d] Antepartum development 3. is the term given to the changes that happen after birth [a] Pre natal development [b] Ante natal development [c] Postpartum development [d] Antepartum development 4. The period of gestation is about . A) 30 weeks [b] 32 weeks [c] 40 weeks [d] 36 weeks 5. can be a hazard during prenatal period. 106 A) Starvation [b] Miscarriage [c] Developmental irregularities [d] All of the above Answer CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
1 [d] 2 [a] 3 [b] 4 [c] 5 [d] REFERENCE • Santrock, J.W. (2006). A Topical Approach to Life Span Development. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. • Berk, L.E. (2003). Child Development. New Delhi: Pearson Education. • Bee, H. and Boyd, D. (2002). Life Span Development. Boston, M.A: Allyn and Bacon. • Bukatko, D. and Daehler, M.W. (2001). Child Development: A Thematic Approach. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. • Newman, B.M. and Newman, P.R. (1999). Development through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company. • Morgan, L. and Kunkel, S. (1998). Aging: The Social Context. London: Pine Forge Press. • Hetherington, M.E. and Parke, R.D. (1993). Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint. New York: McGraw Hill. • Berk, L. E. (2017). Exploring Lifespan Development (4th Ed.) Pearson Publisher. • Sigelman, C. K. and Rider, E. A. (2017). Life Span Human Development (9th Ed.). Wadsworth Publisher. • Broderick, P. C. and Blewitt, P. (2014). Life Span, The Human Development for Helping Professionals (4th Ed.) Pearson Higher Ed USA. • Alan Slater, & J. Gavin Bremner (2017). An Introduction to Developmental Psychology (3rd ed.). Wiley. • Gines, Et Al (1998) Rex Book Store Inc. • Margaret Harris, & George Butterworth (2012). Developmental Psychology: A Student's Handbook. Psychology Press • Peter Mitchell, & Fenja Ziegler (2013). Fundamentals of Developmental Psychology. Psychology Press 107 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT 9 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Structure Learning Objectives Introduction What is emotional development? Emotional Development during Infancy Emotional Development during Toddlerhood and Early Childhood Emotional Development during Middle and Late Childhood Emotional Development during Adolescence Emotional Development during Adulthood Psychosocial Development in Midlife The Stage-Crisis View and the Midlife Crisis Summary Key Words/ Abbreviations Learning Activity Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) Reference LEARNING OBJECTIVES After this unit, you will be able to, • Explain the concept of Emotional development • Explore the nature of emotional development during Infancy • Explore the nature of emotional development during Toddlerhood and Early Childhood • Explore the nature of emotional development during Middle and Late Childhood • Explore the nature of emotional development during Adolescence • Explore the nature of emotional development during Adulthood INTRODUCTION The important dimensions of children’s socioemotional development are the self, gender and moral development. During the early years of childhood, some important developments in the self-take place. The child due to socialisation has developed a sense of who s/he is and whom s/he wants to be identified with. The developing sense of independence makes children do things in their own way. 108 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
According to Erikson, the way parents respond to their self-initiated activities leads to developing a sense of initiative or sense of guilt. For example, giving freedom and opportunities for play like cycling, running, skating, etc. and answering children’s questions will create a sense of support for the initiative taken. In contrast, if they are made to feel that their questions are useless, and games played by them are stupid, the children are likely to develop feelings of guilt over self-initiated activities, which may persist through the children’s later life also. Self-understanding in early childhood is limited to defining oneself through physical characteristics: I am tall, she has black hair, I am a girl, etc. During middle and late childhood, the child is likely to define oneself through internal characteristics such as, “I am smart and I am popular” or “I feel proud when teachers assign me responsibility in school”. In addition to defining oneself through psychological characteristics, children’s self-descriptions also include social aspects of self, such as references to social groups like being a member of school’s music club, environment club, or any religious group. Children’s self-understanding also includes social comparison. Children are likely to think about what they can do or cannot do in comparison with others. For example, “I got more marks than Atul” or “I can run faster than others in the class”. This developmental shift leads to establishing one’s differences from others as an individual. Once the children enter school their social world expands beyond their families. They also spend greater amount of time with their age mates or peers. Thus the increased time that children spend with their peers shapes their development. WHAT IS EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT? Emotional development, emergence of the experience, expression, understanding, and regulation of emotions from birth and the growth and change in these capacities throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The development of emotions occurs in conjunction with neural, cognitive, and behavioural development and emerges within a particular social and cultural context. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT DURING INFANCY The expression of emotions during infancy promotes the transition from complete dependency to autonomy. The expression of interest promotes exploration and cognitive development. Social (intentional) smiles and other expressions of joy promote social interaction and healthy attachment relationships with primary caregivers. The expression of sadness encourages empathy and helping behaviour, and the expression of anger signals protest and discomfort. Infants’ unique tendency to experience and express particular emotions and the threshold for expressing those emotions is usually referred to as their temperament or characteristic emotionality. 109 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Researchers generally agree that neonatal (nonintentional) smiles are present at birth and that social smiling and emotional expressions of interest appear as early as six weeks of age. By four to five months of age, infants selectively smile at familiar faces and at other infants, and their caregivers begin to share positive emotional exchanges with them. Researchers disagree in their explanations of the development and time of emergence of discrete negative emotional expressions. Consistently with the view that infants express negative emotions in early infancy, scientists have shown that infants perceive and respond differentially to the negative emotional expressions (e.g., sadness, anger) of others by the age of four months. During the second six months of life, as infants gain rudimentary cognitive and memory capacities, they begin to express particular emotions based on context. Emotions begin to emerge dynamically as the infant begins to take a more direct role in emotional exchanges with caregivers. The emotional bond with the caregiver is increasingly important, as infants seek support for exploration and look for signals of danger. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT DURING TODDLERHOOD AND EARLY CHILDHOOD During the toddler period, in conjunction with rapid maturation of the frontal lobes and the limbic circuit in the brain, recognition of the self emerges. As a result, the toddler strives to become more independent, and the expression of anger and defiance increases in that struggle for autonomy. The ability to differentiate the self from others also promotes basic empathetic behavior and moral understanding. By the end of the second year of life, toddlers respond to negative signals from others, and they have specific emotional responses to their own negative actions. The emotions that emerge with a rudimentary conception of the self are often called self-conscious emotions and include shame, embarrassment, guilt, and pride. Some self-conscious emotions, such as pride and guilt, do not emerge until toddlers and young children have learned to conceptualize internalized standards of behavior. As children enter preschool, they begin to label their own emotions and rely on discourse about emotions within the family to facilitate their understanding of basic emotions. Young children first distinguish happiness from negative emotions and then begin to distinguish negative emotions such as sadness, anger, and fear from each other. They begin to recognize these emotions in facial expressions, and then, as they enter middle childhood, they begin to understand situational determinants of emotions. An understanding of emotional subjectivity also develops as children learn that what makes one child happy may not make another child feel the same way. The emergence of emotional self-regulation is particularly important during early childhood and occurs in the context of family and peer relationships. Open expression of positive 110 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
emotions and warm, supportive relationships between parents and children promote effective emotional self-regulation. On the other hand, frequent expression of negative emotions in the family and harsh, punitive disciplinary responses increase the experience of distressing and dysregulated emotions that may lead to psychopathology. Appropriate peer relationships characterized by shared play activities are also important for the development of emotional regulation during early childhood. Children gain emotional understanding and the capacity for empathetic and helping behavior from well-regulated emotional exchanges with peers. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD Childhood is a time of rapid emotional and social development, as children learn to regulate emotions and interact with others. During middle and late childhood, stable self-concepts based on the child’s typical emotional experiences emerge. With the increased capacity for self-reflection, children gain an understanding of their self-conscious emotions. As a result, the consistent experience of patterns of self-conscious emotions has an impact on the child’s self-concept. For example, the tendency to experience shame rather than guilt in response to negative transgressions affects the child’s emergent self-esteem and may encourage a tendency to respond with aggression or violence. Also during middle and late childhood, children begin to understand that a single situation or event can lead to the experience of multiple, mixed emotions. For example, older children understand that a goodbye party for a sibling who will leave for college is likely to be both a happy and a sad event for the child and his sibling. This capacity likely emerges with the cognitive capacity to understand multiple aspects of a situation, called decentration. Children also learn emotional display rules as they progress through middle and late childhood. For example, a child learns to look happy even though she feels upset when a friend or family member gives her an undesirable gift. The use of display rules tends to increase as children begin to consider what consequences their actions may have for others. Display rules are used judiciously, and the likelihood of suppressing negative emotion depends on a number of factors, including the child’s gender, the likely recipients of the expression, the specific context, and the child’s cultural milieu. Emotional development is essentially the way emotions change or remain constant across the human lifespan. Social development is the way in which humans learn to interact with one another. Together, the development of both of these factors reflects the changes in a child’s emotions and relationships with others that occur throughout childhood. Emotional Self-Regulation During a child’s life, he or she goes from looking at emotions from an external point of view to an internal point of view. As children develop advanced language skills, they develop the 111 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
ability to regulate emotions. Emotional self-regulation refers to children’s ability to monitor, evaluate, and modify their emotional reactions in any given situation. It is a skill that develops over time, and involves both responding to situations with emotions that are socially acceptable and developing the ability to withhold emotions or delay spontaneous reactions when necessary. A child’s temperament has a large impact on emotional self-regulation: children who are more negatively focused tend to have a more difficult time with regulation than those who are focused on the positive aspects of life. Empathy The development of empathy is a crucial part of emotional and social development in childhood. The ability to identify with the feelings of another person helps in the development of prosocial (socially positive) and altruistic (helpful, beneficent, or unselfish) behavior. Altruistic behavior occurs when a person does something in order to benefit another person without expecting anything in return. Empathy helps a child develop positive peer relationships; it is affected by a child’s temperament, as well as by parenting style. Children raised in loving homes with affectionate parents are more likely to develop a sense of empathy and altruism, whereas those raised in harsh or neglectful homes tend to be more aggressive and less kind to others. Developing Relationships Play is one way in which children develop relationships with others. Several types of play exist, and each type builds upon the last in a three-step process. Non-social or solitary play occurs in the beginning of childhood, when children spend most time alone with preferred playthings. It then shifts to parallel play, when children begin to take an interest in other children but prefer to play alone and side-by-side. Children engaged in parallel play will sit next to one another during a play session, but each will engage in his or her own activity. Finally, there is associative and cooperative play in which children begin to engage with one another, exchanging and sharing toys and creating games together. Intersubjectivity Intersubjectivity refers to the psychological relation between people; in child development, it refers to the very rapid cultural development of newborn infants. Research suggests that as babies, humans are biologically wired to coordinate their actions with others; this ability to sync with others facilitates cognitive and emotional learning through social interaction. Additionally, the most socially productive relationship between children and adults is bidirectional, where both parties actively define a shared culture. Emphasis is placed on the idea that children are actively involved in how they learn, using intersubjectivity. Theory of Mind 112 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory of mind. Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar for them, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop theory of mind, they can recognize that others may have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005). EMOTIONAL DEVELOMENT DURING ADOLSCENCE Adolescence is a period of personal and social identity formation, in which different roles, behaviours, and ideologies are explored. Adolescence is the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood; the typical age range is from 12 to 18 years, and this stage of development has some predictable psychosocial milestones. In the United States, adolescence is seen as a time to develop independence from parents while remaining connected to them. With adolescence comes an additional struggle for autonomy and increased time spent with peers and less time spent with the family. Adolescents become less emotionally dependent on their parents, but this emotional autonomy often emerges after a period of conflict and increased experience of negative emotions. Young adolescents often experience more negative affect than younger children, but the negative affect often decreases during the high school years. However, girls often experience a longer period of elevated negative affect than boys. Adolescents tend to experience more extreme emotions, both negative and positive, than their parents even in response to the same event. The rise in negative emotional experiences during early adolescence emerges in conjunction with the capacity for abstract thinking. Adolescents often experience emotional distress in response to ambiguous and imagined romantic exchanges, and their capacity to experience complex and diverse emotions further promotes the development of abstract thinking. As adolescents grapple with increasingly abstract and complex social problems, they often seek a stable peer group as the context for emotional management. Positive peer relationships emerge from the recognition of equality and the tendency to offer emotional support. Adolescents who are not accepted by their peers face numerous risks, including school dropout and delinquency. Even adolescents who are accepted by peers and have close friends often show an increase in negative emotions such as anger and anxiety in the peer context during adolescence. Overall, positive and supportive peer relations during adolescence promote healthy emotional development and mental health as the adolescent enters adulthood. Dating relationships also become prominent during adolescence, but young adolescents may still have difficulty understanding that one person can evoke different and conflicting emotional responses. Therefore, dating during adolescence is often characterized by extreme 113 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
emotional variability. Dating partners are also prone to experiencing jealousy, particularly when they make errors in determining the intent of their partner’s actions. Identity development is important for adolescents as they approach adulthood. When adolescents or young adults are exploring many identity options, they often have high levels of anxiety but show interest in exploring those options. Adolescents who make an early commitment to a particular identity, usually an identity promoted by their family, have low levels of anxiety and do not experience much conflict in their family relationships. Adolescents who are not exploring identity options tend to have low levels of motivation and often appear bored or apathetic. They have poorer peer relationships and are at greatest risk for mental-health problems during adulthood. Finally, young adults who have achieved a stable sense of identity tend to be more empathetic and are more successful at managing their emotions. Adolescent Identity Exploration Adolescence is the period of life known for the formation of personal and social identity. Adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self. Different roles, behaviors, and ideologies must be tried out to select an identity, and adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erik Erikson referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents provide them with; other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is common, as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives. Adolescents tend to be rather egocentric; they often experience a self-conscious desire to feel important in peer groups and receive social acceptance. Because choices made during adolescence can influence later life, higher levels of self-awareness and self-control in mid- adolescence will contribute to better decisions during the transition to adulthood. Three general approaches to understanding identity development include self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem. Self-Concept Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness. This leads to greater awareness of others as well as one’s own thoughts and judgments. Adolescents develop the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities and consider multiple possibilities at once. They can conceptualize multiple possible selves that they could become, as well as long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices. Adolescents can begin to qualify their traits when asked to describe themselves. Differentiation occurs as an adolescent recognizes and distinguishes the contextual factors that influence their own behavior and the perceptions of others. Differentiation becomes fully developed by mid-adolescence. 114 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
The recognition of inconsistencies in the self-concept is a common source of distress during these years; however, this distress may benefit adolescents by encouraging further development and refinement of their self-concept. Sense of Identity Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self that is stable across circumstances and includes past experiences and future goals. Erikson determined that “identity achievement” resolves the identity crisis in which adolescents must explore different possibilities and integrate different parts of themselves before committing to their chosen identity. Adolescents begin by defining themselves based on their membership in a group and then focus in on a personal identity. Self-Esteem Self-esteem consists of one’s thoughts and feelings about one’s self-concept and identity. In the United States, children who are raised female are often taught that their sense of self is highly linked to their relationships with others; therefore, many adolescent girls enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends. The most important function of friendship here is having someone who can provide social and moral support. Children who are raised as male, on the other hand, are often taught to value such things as autonomy and independence; therefore, many adolescent boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority. High self-esteem is often derived from their ability to successfully influence their friends. Psychological Changes During puberty, adolescents experience changes in the levels of certain neurotransmitters (such as dopamine and serotonin) in the limbic system. This affects the way in which they experience emotions, typically making them more emotional than younger children and adults and more sensitive to rewards and stress. Other cognitive developments have an impact on identity formation as well. When adolescents are able to think abstractly and reason logically, they have an easier time exploring and contemplating possible identities. When adolescents have advanced cognitive development and maturity, they tend to resolve identity issues more easily than peers who are less cognitively developed. Parental Relationships As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents, the type of relationship that adolescents have with their parents still plays a significant role in identity formation. Warm and healthy parent-child 115 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
relationships have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school-behavior problems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005). When a solid and positive relationship exists, adolescents are more likely to feel freedom in exploring identity options. However, when the relationship is not as close or supportive and/or the adolescent fears rejection from the parent, the adolescent is more likely to feel less confident in forming a separate, personal identity. MOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT DURING ADULTHOOD Traditionally, middle adulthood has been regarded as a period of reflection and change. In the popular imagination (and academic press) there has been reference to a “mid-life crisis.” There is an emerging view that this may have been an overstatement—certainly, the evidence on which it is based has been seriously questioned. However, there is some support for the view that people do undertake a sort of emotional audit, reevaluate their priorities, and emerge with a slightly different orientation to emotional regulation and personal interaction in this time period. Why, and the mechanisms through which this change is affected, are a matter of some debate. We will examine the ideas of Erikson, Baltes, and Carstensen, and how they might inform a more nuanced understanding of this vital part of the lifespan. Psychosocial Development in Midlife What do you think is the happiest stage of life? What about the saddest stages? Perhaps surprisingly, Blanchflower & Oswald (2008) found that reported levels of unhappiness and depressive symptoms peak in the early 50s for men in the U.S., and interestingly, the late 30s for women. In Western Europe, minimum happiness is reported around the mid-40s for both men and women, albeit with some significant national differences. Stone, Schneider and Bradoch (2017), reported a precipitous drop in perceived stress in men in the U.S. from their early 50s. There is now a view that “older people” (50+) may be “happier” than younger people, despite some cognitive and functional losses. This is often referred to as “the paradox of aging.” Positive attitudes to the continuance of cognitive and behavioural activities, interpersonal engagement, and their vitalizing effect on human neural plasticity, may lead not only to more life, but to an extended period of both self-satisfaction and continued communal engagement. The Stage-Crisis View and the Midlife Crisis In 1977, Daniel Levinson published an extremely influential article that would be seminal in establishing the idea of a profound crisis which lies at the heart of middle adulthood. The concept of a midlife crisis is so pervasive that over 90% of Americans are familiar with the term, although those who actually report experiencing such a crisis is significantly lower (Wethington, 2000). Levinson’s theory is known as the stage-crisis view. He argued that each stage overlaps, consisting of two distinct phases—a stable phase, and a transitional phase into the following 116 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
period. The latter phase can involve questioning and change, and Levinson believed that 40- 45 was a period of profound change, which could only culminate in a reappraisal, or perhaps reaffirmation, of goals, commitments and previous choices—a time for taking stock and recalibrating what was important in life. Crucially, Levinson would argue that a much wider range of factors, involving, primarily, work and family, would affect this taking stock – what he had achieved, what he had not; what he thought important, but had brought only a limited satisfaction. In 1996, two years after his death, the study he was conducting with his co-author and wife Judy Levinson, was published on “the seasons of life” as experienced by women. Again, it was a small scale study, with 45 women who were professionals / businesswomen, academics, and homemakers, in equal proportion. The changing place of women in society was reckoned by Levinson to be a profound moment in the social evolution of the human species, however, it had led to a fundamental polarity in the way that women formed and understood their social identity. Levinson referred to this as the “dream.” For men, the “dream” was formed in the age period of 22-28, and largely centered on the occupational role and professional ambitions. Levinson understood the female “dream” as fundamentally split between this work-centered orientation, and the desire/imperative of marriage/family; a polarity which heralded both new opportunities, and fundamental angst. Levinson found that the men and women he interviewed sometimes had difficulty reconciling the “dream” they held about the future with the reality they currently experienced. “What do I really get from and give to my wife, children, friends, work, community-and self?” a man might ask (Levinson, 1978, p. 192). Tasks of the midlife transition include: 1. Ending early adulthood; 2. Reassessing life in the present and making modifications if needed; and 3. Reconciling “polarities” or contradictions in ones sense of self. Perhaps early adulthood ends when a person no longer seeks adult status but feels like a full adult in the eyes of others. This “permission” may lead to different choices in life—choices that are made for self-fulfillment instead of social acceptance. While people in their 20s may emphasize how old they are (to gain respect, to be viewed as experienced), by the time people reach their 40s, they tend to emphasize how young they are (few 40 year olds cut each other down for being so young: “You’re only 43? I’m 48!!”). This new perspective on time brings about a new sense of urgency to life. The person becomes focused more on the present than the future or the past. The person grows impatient at being in the “waiting room of life,” postponing doing the things they have always wanted to do. “If it’s ever going to happen, it better happen now.” A previous focus on the future gives way to an emphasis on the present. Neugarten (1968) notes that in midlife, people no 117 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
longer think of their lives in terms of how long they have lived. Rather, life is thought of in terms of how many years are left. If an adult is not satisfied at midlife, there is a new sense of urgency to start to make changes now. Changes may involve ending a relationship or modifying one’s expectations of a partner. These modifications are easier than changing the self (Levinson, 1978). Midlife is a period of transition in which one holds earlier images of the self while forming new ideas about the self of the future. A greater awareness of aging accompanies feelings of youth, and harm that may have been done previously in relationships haunts new dreams of contributing to the well-being of others. These polarities are the quieter struggles that continue after outward signs of “crisis” have gone away. Levinson characterized midlife as a time of developmental crisis. However, like any body of work, it has been subject to criticism. Firstly, the sample size of the populations on which he based his primary findings is too small. By what right do we generalize findings from interviews with 40 men, and 45 women, however thoughtful and well conducted? Secondly, Chiriboga (1989) could not find any substantial evidence of a midlife crisis, and it might be argued that this, and further failed attempts at replication, indicate a cohort effect. The findings from Levinson’s population indicated a shared historical and cultural situatedness, rather than a cross-cultural universal experienced by all or even most individuals. Midlife is a time of revaluation and change, that may escape precise determination in both time and geographical space, but people do emerge from it, and seem to enjoy a period of contentment, reconciliation and acceptance of self. SUMMARY 1. Emotional development is essentially the way emotions change or remain constant across the human lifespan. 2. Emotional self-regulation refers to a child’s ability to change his or her emotional state to either match that of others (social), or make the child more comfortable in a particular situation (social and personal). 3. Inter-subjectivity refers to the psychological relation between people; in child development, it refers to the very rapid cultural development of new-born infants. 4. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own; this is known as theory of mind. 5. Adolescence is the period of life known for the formation of personal and social identity. Adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self. Erik Erikson referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus 118 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” 6. Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities and identities at once. 7. Changes in the levels of certain neurotransmitters (such as dopamine and serotonin) influence the way in which adolescents experience emotions, typically making them more emotional and more sensitive to stress. 8. When adolescents have advanced cognitive development and maturity, they tend to resolve identity issues more easily than peers who are less cognitively developed. 9. As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important; despite this, relationships with parents still play a significant role in identity formation. KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS • Adolescence- The period of transition from childhood to adulthood and all the physical, mental, social, and cultural changes that mark it. • Adulthood- The period in which physical and mental growth slows and nears its peak. • Menarche- The onset of menstruation in human females; the beginning of the menstrual period. • Puberty- The age at which a person is first capable of sexual reproduction. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Write about emotional development in infancy. 2. Write about emotional development in toddlerhood and early childhood. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) 119 A. Descriptive Questions CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
1. A child learns different emotions are it grows. Explain the concept of emotional development. 2. As a child grows the number of emotions it experiences all increase. Explain how this process takes place. 3. Emotions help us connect with each other. Logic connects us with facts. Are you can emotional person or logical person? Elaborate 4. An adolescent person has many emotional outbursts. Explain what leads to emotional instability in adolescents. 5. As children leave homes (for studies or job or marriage) parents feel lonely. How can they support themselves through this phase? B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. Biological based emotions and tendencies that are evident in early childhood represent [a] Trait [b] Type [c] Temperament [d] Style 2. is essentially the way emotions change or remain constant across the human lifespan. [a] Life Span development [b] Social Development [c] Cognitive Development [d] Emotional Development 3. is the way in which humans learn to interact with one another. [a] Life Span development [b] Social Development [c] Cognitive Development 120 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
[d] Emotional Development 4. refers to a child’s ability to change his or her emotional state to either match that of others (social), or make the child more comfortable in a particular situation (social and personal). [a] Emotional Self-regulation [b] Social Development [c] Cognitive Development [d] Emotional Development 5. consists of one’s thoughts and feelings about one’s self-concept and identity. [a] Self-Image [b] Self-Esteem [c] Ideal Image [d] Inferiority complex Answer 1 [c] 2 [d] 3 [b] 4 [a] 5 [b] REFERENCE • Santrock, J.W. (2006). A Topical Approach to Life Span Development. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. • Berk, L.E. (2003). Child Development. New Delhi: Pearson Education. • Bee, H. and Boyd, D. (2002). Life Span Development. Boston, M.A: Allyn and Bacon. • Bukatko, D. and Daehler, M.W. (2001). Child Development: A Thematic Approach. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. • Newman, B.M. and Newman, P.R. (1999). Development through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company. • Morgan, L. and Kunkel, S. (1998). Aging: The Social Context. London: Pine Forge Press. 121 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
• Hetherington, M.E. and Parke, R.D. (1993). Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint. New York: McGraw Hill. • Berk, L. E. (2017). Exploring Lifespan Development (4th Ed.) Pearson Publisher. • Sigelman, C. K. and Rider, E. A. (2017). Life Span Human Development (9th Ed.). Wadsworth Publisher. • Broderick, P. C. and Blewitt, P. (2014). Life Span, The Human Development for Helping Professionals (4th Ed.) Pearson Higher Ed USA. • Alan Slater, & J. Gavin Bremner (2017). An Introduction to Developmental Psychology (3rd ed.). Wiley. • A. Gines, Et Al (1998) Rex Book Store Inc. • Margaret Harris, & George Butterworth (2012). Developmental Psychology: A Student's Handbook. Psychology Press • Peter Mitchell, & Fenja Ziegler (2013). Fundamentals of Developmental Psychology. Psychology Press. 122 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT 10 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Structure Learning Objectives Introduction Healthy Social Development Social Development during Childhood Social Development during Adolescence Cultural and Societal Influences on Adolescent Development Parental Relationships Peer Relationships Community, Society, and Culture Social Development in Adulthood Summary Key Words/ Abbreviations Learning Activity Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) Reference LEARNING OBJECTIVES After this unit, you will be able to, • Describe the meaning of social development • Explain the nature of healthy social development • Explore the nature of social development during childhood • Explore the nature of social development in adolescence • Explore the nature of social development in adulthood INTRODUCTION Social development refers to the process by which a child learns to interact with others around them. As they develop and perceive their own individuality within their community, they also gain skills to communicate with other people and process their actions. Social development most often refers to how a child develops friendships and other relationships, as well how a child handles conflict with peers. 123 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
HEALTHY SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Social development can actually impact many of the other forms of development a child experiences. A child’s ability to interact in a healthy way with the people around her can impact everything from learning new words as a toddler, to being able to resist peer pressure as a high school student, to successfully navigating the challenges of adulthood. Healthy social development can help your child: Develop language skills. An ability to interact with other children allows for more opportunities to practice and learn speech and language skills. This is a positive cycle, because as communication skills improve, a child is better able to relate to and react to the people around him. Build self-esteem. Other children provide a child with some of her most exciting and fun experiences. When a young child is unable to make friends it can be frustrating or even painful. A healthy circle of friends reinforces a child’s comfort level with her own individuality. Strengthen learning skills. In addition to the impact social development can have on general communication skills, many researchers believe that having healthy relationships with peers (from preschool on up) allows for adjustment to different school settings and challenges. Studies show that children who have a hard time getting along with classmates as early as preschool are more likely to experience later academic difficulties. Resolve conflicts. Stronger self-esteem and better language skills can ultimately lead to a better ability to resolve differences with peers. Establish positive attitude. A positive attitude ultimately leads to better relationships with others and higher levels of self-confidence. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT DURING CHILDHOOD Influence of Parenting Style on Child Development There are four main parenting styles that most parents fall into: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved/neglectful. Authoritative 124 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Authoritative parenting is generally regarded as the most successful approach to parenting because of its high level of involvement and balanced levels of control. Authoritative parents set realistic expectations and consistent limits for their children, and provide them with fair or natural consequences. Natural consequences are those that occur as a natural result of the child’s behavior (or lack of a particular behavior), with no intervention required; for example, if a child touches a hot stove and is burned by the heat, the burn is a natural consequence. Authoritative parents express warmth and affection, listen to their child’s point of view, and provide opportunities for independence. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them, and they are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases— for example, temporarily relaxing bedtime rules to allow for a nighttime swim during a family vacation. Of the four parenting styles, the authoritative style is the one that is most encouraged in modern American society. American children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills and work well with others. However, effective parenting styles vary as a function of culture, and the authoritative style is not necessarily preferred or appropriate in all cultures. Authoritarian In the authoritarian style, parents put a high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. These parents exhibit a large amount of control over their child’s decisions and behavior. Authoritarian parents set rigid rules with firm consequences; in contrast to the authoritative style, authoritarian parents probably would not relax bedtime rules during a vacation because they consider the rules to be set, and they expect obedience at all times. Children who grow up in authoritarian homes often become anxious or withdrawn or suffer from self-esteem problems. Due to gender socialization, those raised as male may experience anger problems, while those raised as female may become dependent upon others for approval. Although these children may do poorly in school, they do not tend to engage in antisocial behavior for fear of their parents’ reaction. However, it is important to keep in mind cultural differences: different cultures respond better to different parenting styles than others (Russell, Crockett, & Chao, 2010). For instance, first-generation Chinese American children raised by authoritarian parents did just as well in school as peers who were raised by authoritative parents (Russell et al., 2010). Permissive Permissive parenting tends to be warm and loving but lacks follow-through on setting limits or rules. Permissive parents tend to be overindulgent, make few demands, rarely use punishment, and allow their children to make their own decisions, regardless of the consequences. They tend to be very nurturing and loving and may play the role of friend 125 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
rather than parent. These parents might be caught up in their own lives and therefore inattentive (although not neglectful) and exhibit little control over their children. Children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades (Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987). The permissive style may also contribute to other risky or impulsive behaviors such as alcohol abuse (Bahr & Hoffman, 2010), risky sexual behavior, especially among female children (Donenberg, Wilson, Emerson, & Bryant, 2002), and increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children (Parent et al., 2011). However, there are some positive outcomes associated with children raised by permissive parents: many tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression (Darling, 1999). Uninvolved/Neglectful With the uninvolved style of parenting, the parents are indifferent and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don’t respond to their child’s needs and make relatively few demands. This could be because of severe depression, substance abuse, or other factors such as the parents’ extreme focus on work. Neglectful parents may look to their children for support and guidance, and these children often end up “parenting their parents.” These parents may provide for the child’s basic needs, but little else; in more extreme forms of neglect, basic needs may not be cared for at all or children may be placed in harmful situations. These children, much like those raised in permissive homes, tend to have myriad problems, but often the problems are often much more serious. Children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, and anxious; perform poorly in school; and are at an increased risk of substance abuse (Darling, 1999). Cultural and Societal Influences on Child Development Culture plays an important role in influencing childhood development, and what is considered “normal” varies greatly from one culture to the next. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE Cultural and Societal Influences on Adolescent Development The influence of parental and peer relationships, as well as the broader culture, shapes many aspects of adolescent development. The relationships adolescents have with their peers, family, and members of their social sphere play a vital role in their development. Adolescence is a crucial period in social development, as adolescents can be easily swayed by their close relationships. Research shows there are four main types of relationships that influence an adolescent: parents, peers, community, and society. 126 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Parental Relationships When children go through puberty in the United States, there is often a significant increase in parent-child conflict and a decrease in cohesive familial bonding. Arguments often concern new issues of control, such as curfew, acceptable clothing, and the right to privacy. Parent- adolescent disagreement also increases as friends demonstrate a greater impact on the child; this is especially true when parents do not approve of new friends’ values or behaviors. While adolescents strive for freedom, the unknowns can be frightening for parents. Although conflicts between children and parents increase during adolescence, they are often related to relatively minor issues. Regarding more important life issues, many adolescents will still share the same attitudes and values as their parents. Adolescents who have a good relationship with their parents are less likely to engage in various risky behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, fighting, and/or unprotected sex. Peer Relationships As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). The level of influence that peers can have over an adolescent makes these relationships particularly important in personal development. As children begin to create bonds with various people, they start to form friendships; high quality friendships may enhance a child’s development regardless of the particular characteristics of those friends. Adolescents associate with friends of the opposite sex much more than in childhood and tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics. Peer groups offer members of the group the opportunity to develop social skills such as empathy, sharing, and leadership. Peer groups can have positive influences on an individual, such as academic motivation and performance; however, they can also have negative influences, such as peer pressure to engage in drug use, drinking, vandalism, stealing, or other risky behavior. Susceptibility to peer pressure increases during early adolescence, and while peers may facilitate positive social development for one another, they may also hinder it. Emotional reactions to problems and emotional instability—both characteristic of the hormonal changes in adolescence—have been linked with physical aggression among peers. Research has linked both physical and relational aggression to a vast number of enduring psychological difficulties, including depression. Community, Society, and Culture There are certain characteristics of adolescent development that are more rooted in culture than in human biology or cognitive structures. Culture is learned and socially shared, and it affects all aspects of an individual’s life. Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and belief-system development, for instance, are all likely to vary based on culture. Furthermore, many distinguishing characteristics of an individual (such as dress, employment, recreation, and language) are all products of culture. 127 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Many factors that shape adolescent development vary by culture. For instance, the degree to which adolescents are perceived as autonomous, or independent, beings vary widely in different cultures, as do the behaviors that represent this emerging autonomy. The lifestyle of an adolescent in a given culture is also profoundly shaped by the roles and responsibilities he or she is expected to assume. The extent to which an adolescent is expected to share family responsibilities, for example, is one large determining factor in normative adolescent behavior. Adolescents in certain cultures are expected to contribute significantly to household chores and responsibilities, while others are given more freedom or come from families with more privilege where responsibilities are fewer. Differences between families in the distribution of financial responsibilities or provision of allowance may reflect various socioeconomic backgrounds, which are further influenced by cultural norms and values. Adolescents begin to develop unique belief systems through their interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments. These belief systems encompass everything from religion and spirituality to gender, sexuality, work ethics, and politics. The range of attitudes that a culture embraces on a particular topic affects the beliefs, lifestyles, and perceptions of its adolescents, and can have both positive and negative impacts on their development. In the United States and many other parts of the world, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) youth face much discrimination and bullying by their peers based on the broader cultural attitudes about LGBTQ issues; many are ostracized from peer groups because they are seen to be breaking culturally based gender norms. This can have a tremendous impact on the development of queer or transgender adolescents, increasing their risk for depression, anxiety, and even suicide. Similarly, early-maturing girls may suffer teasing or sexual harassment related to their developing bodies, contributing to a higher risk of depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTHOOD Relationships in Adulthood Positive relationships with significant others in our adult years have been found to contribute to a state of well-being (Ryff & Singer, 2009). Most adults in the United States identify themselves through their relationships with family—particularly with spouses, children, and parents (Markus et al., 2004). While raising children can be stressful, especially when they are young, research suggests that parents reap the rewards down the road, as adult children tend to have a positive effect on parental well-being (Umberson, Pudrovska, & Reczek, 2010). Having stable intimate relationships has also been found to contribute to well-being throughout adulthood (Vaillant, 2002). A lack of positive and meaningful relationships during adulthood can result in what Erikson termed the crisis of intimacy vs. isolation in his theory of psychosocial development. In young adulthood (i.e., 20s and early 30s), people tend to be concerned with forming 128 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
meaningful relationships; young and middle-aged adults are subject to loneliness if they are unable to form meaningful relationships with family, friends, or community. Crises of Adulthood Both early and middle adulthood come with particular challenges; these challenges are at times referred to as “quarter-life crises” and” mid-life crises,” respectively. A quarter-life crisis typically occurs between the ages of 25 and 30. It often revolves around the challenges that arise from young adults newly living life on their own and feeling overwhelmed with new responsibilities; it can also happen after the birth of a child or if a person graduates from college and cannot find a job in their chosen field. In this stage of life, young people may worry about their future, wonder if they’ve made poor choices, or wonder what life might hold for them now. The main triggers for a mid-life crisis include problems with work, trouble in a marriage, children growing up and leaving the home, or the aging or death of a person’s parents. This is likely to occur during Erikson’s stage of generativity vs. stagnation, a time when people think about the contribution they are making to the world. Generativity involves finding one’s life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children; those who do not master this task may experience a feeling of stagnation. Individuals having a mid-life crisis may experience some of the following: • a search for an undefined dream or goal; • a deep sense of regret for goals not accomplished; • a fear of humiliation among more successful colleagues; • a desire to achieve a feeling of youthfulness; • a need to spend more time alone or with certain peers. Some who experience a quarter- or mid-life crisis struggle with how to cope and may engage in harmful behaviors, such as abuse of alcohol or drugs or excessive spending of money. Others may experiment with different aspects of their personality, explore new hobbies, or otherwise seek out change in their lives. Finding Meaning Through Work Many adults find meaning in and define themselves by what they do—their careers. Earnings peak for many during adulthood, yet research has found that job satisfaction is more closely tied to work that involves contact with other people, is interesting, provides opportunities for 129 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
advancement, and allows some independence (Mohr & Zoghi, 2006) than it is to salary (Iyengar, Wells, & Schwartz, 2006). Erikson’s stage of generativity vs. stagnation revolves around a person’s sense of their contribution to the world. Generativity is about making life productive and creative so that it matters to others, especially those in the next generation. According to Erikson, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation—a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity. The central tasks during middle adulthood can include expressing love through more than sexual contacts, maintaining healthy life patterns, helping growing and grown children to be responsible adults, relinquishing a central role in the lives of grown children, creating a comfortable home, being proud of one’s accomplishments, taking care of aging parents, adjusting to the physical changes of middle age, and using leisure time creatively. SUMMARY 1. Social development is the way in which humans learn to interact with one another. 2. The ability to empathize, or identify with the feelings of another person, helps aid in the development of prosocial (socially positive) and altruistic (helpful, beneficent, or unselfish) behaviour. 3. Parenting has an huge impact on the social development of a child 4. Authoritative parents set realistic expectations for their children, and they provide their children with fair (or natural) consequences. Of the four parenting styles, this style is most encouraged in modern American society. 5. Authoritarian parents tend to be very strict parents, whereas permissive parents tend to be warm and loving but do not set appropriate limits or rules. 6. Neglectful parents are often uninvolved or indifferent; they don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands. This parenting style has been associated with the most negative outcomes for children. 7. Play is one way in which children develop relationships with others. Several types of play exist, and each type builds upon the last in a three-step process. 8. The relationships adolescents have with their peers, family, and members of their social sphere play a vital role in their development. 9. As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important. Adolescence can be a time of increased conflict between parents and their children. 130 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
10. Peer groups offer their members the opportunity to develop social skills; however, they can also be the source of negative influences, such as peer pressure. Culture is learned and socially shared and affects all aspects of an individual’s life. 11. Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and belief-system development are all things that are likely to vary by culture. 12. Adolescents develop unique belief systems through their interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments. The attitudes that a culture holds on a particular topic can have both positive and negative impacts on adolescent development. KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS • Norms- Norms are that which is regarded as normal or typical; a rule that is enforced by members of a community. • Adolescence- Adolescence is the transitional period of physical and psychological development between childhood and maturity. • peer pressure- Peer pressure refers to encouragement by others in one’s age group to act or behave in a certain way. • Puberty- Puberty is the period during which a person first becomes capable of sexual reproduction. • Constructive- Carefully considered and meant to be helpful. • Contradiction- Contradiction is a logical incompatibility among two or more elements or propositions. • Generativity- Generativity is contributing to the development of others and of future generations; productivity and creativity; the act of helping society move forward. • Menopause- Menopause is the ending of menstruation; the time in a woman’s life when this happens. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Explain in detail the different types of parenting and how they influence an individual’s social development? 2. What are the various social factors that influence development of adolescents? 131 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. Elaborate on the various aspects that you would consider to say that the child is developing socially? 2. Parenting plays an important role to ensure health social development in children. Elaborate?? 3. What would you describe as the parenting style that you have seen in your house? Explain what rules you would follow and what punishment you would receive for breaking them 4. One parent is the discipline maintainer and other is the pampering one. Who played this role in your family and what behaviours supported their role? 5. As adults grow old, the responsibilities increase. How do these responsibilities set up challenges for individual? B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. ‘Behaviour can be influenced by social and cultural factor’, the perspective of psychology emphasizes it. [a] Developmental Perspective [b] Biological Perspective [c] Humanistic Perspective [d] Socio-cultural Perspective 2. is considered to be most effective. [a] Neglected Parenting [b] Authoritarian Parenting [c] Authoritative Parenting [d] Permissive Parenting 3. tends to be warm and loving but lacks follow-through on setting limits or rules. [a] Neglected Parenting 132 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
[b] Authoritarian Parenting [c] Authoritative Parenting [d] Permissive Parenting 4. offer members of the group the opportunity to develop social skills such as empathy, sharing, and leadership. [a] Peer Groups [b] Parents [c] Society [d] Culture 5. are that which is regarded as normal or typical; a rule that is enforced by members of a community. [a] Norms [b] Culture [c] Beliefs [d] Values Answer 1 [d] 2 [c] 3 [d] 4 [a] 5 [a] REFERENCE • Santrock, J.W. (2006). A Topical Approach to Life Span Development. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. • Berk, L.E. (2003). Child Development. New Delhi: Pearson Education. • Bee, H. and Boyd, D. (2002). Life Span Development. Boston, M.A: Allyn and Bacon. • Bukatko, D. and Daehler, M.W. (2001). Child Development: A Thematic Approach. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. • Newman, B.M. and Newman, P.R. (1999). Development through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company. 133 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
• Morgan, L. and Kunkel, S. (1998). Aging: The Social Context. London: Pine Forge Press. • Hetherington, M.E. and Parke, R.D. (1993). Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint. New York: McGraw Hill. • Berk, L. E. (2017). Exploring Lifespan Development (4th Ed.) Pearson Publisher. • Sigelman, C. K. and Rider, E. A. (2017). Life Span Human Development (9th Ed.). Wadsworth Publisher. • Broderick, P. C. and Blewitt, P. (2014). Life Span, The Human Development for Helping Professionals (4th Ed.) Pearson Higher Ed USA. • Alan Slater, & J. Gavin Bremner (2017). An Introduction to Developmental Psychology (3rd ed.). Wiley. • Gines, Et Al (1998) Rex Book Store Inc. • Margaret Harris, & George Butterworth (2012). Developmental Psychology: A Student's Handbook. Psychology Press • Peter Mitchell, & Fenja Ziegler (2013). Fundamentals of Developmental Psychology. Psychology Press 134 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT 11 AGING Structure Learning Objectives Introduction Ageing Process Socio Cultural Aspects of Ageing Ageing in India Summary Key Words/ Abbreviations Learning Activity Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) Reference LEARNING OBJECTIVESS After this unit, you will be able to, • Explain the process of aging • Explore the social and cultural aspects of ageing • Identify the different challenges faced due to ageing • Explore the nature of ageing in India INTRODUCTION The distinction between childhood and adulthood varies significantly among cultural and social groups. The personal and social significance of the passage of years is shaped by the cultural age system. All societies divide the lifespan into recognised stages. These life stages or periods are marked by certain physical, psychological and social milestones. The life stages are commonly identified as 1. Prenatal stage (from conception until birth), 2. Infancy (from birth to the end of second year of life), 3. Early childhood (ages three to six years), 4. Middle childhood (six years until puberty), 5. adolescence (start of puberty to adulthood), 6. Young adulthood (ages twenty to forty), 135 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
7. Middle adulthood (ages forty to sixty-five) and 8. Later adulthood or old age (sixty-five and older). Early adulthood is the stage of our life between the ages of about 20-40 years old. People in this age group are typically vibrant, active and healthy, and are focused on friendship, romance, child bearing and careers. It is the first stage of adulthood in which the body physically changes and is one of the hardest times in our lives after teenage years. In this stage, a person may continue to add a bit of height and weight to her teenage frame. The human body also continues to undergo significant hormonal changes. Early adulthood is followed by middle adulthood. From psychological and social perspectives, this is the stage where, the person either reaps the benefits of the efforts of the earlier stages, or, has to bear the consequences of his actions in the previous life stages. The person takes important decisions for hid preceding as well as succeeding generations in this stage. This is also the most stable stage in a person’s life from social and financial perspective. In middle adulthood, an important challenge is to develop a genuine concern for the welfare of future generations and to contribute to the world through family and work. Midlife is also viewed as a period of creativity and significant contribution to society. It is found that the best works of scientists, writers and artists are produced during the late forties and early fifties. Middle adulthood is the second stage of adulthood in which one of the most noticeable change is loss of elasticity in the skin, especially in the face. This results in lines and wrinkles that are seen as one of the first signs of ageing. Middle adulthood is followed by late adulthood. Late adulthood or old age is the period of life in every individual that follows the period of his or her life after he/she turns 65 years of age. Old age consists of ages nearing or surpassing the average life span of human beings, and thus the end of the human life cycle. This period is marked by the process of growing old, resulting in part from the failure of body cells to function normally or to produce new body cells to replace those that are dead or malfunctioning. AGEING PROCESS Ageing is a process that accumulates changes in organisms or objects over time. Human ageing process involves multidimensional changes on physical, psychological, cultural and social levels. 136 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
As soon as an individual is born, their body begins to age. This process continues throughout our life. Ageing is not simply about old age. It is the lifelong process by which we define the social, mental, and biological stages in our lives. A new-born baby is developing new cells and shedding dead cells daily. The “peach fuzz” hair is replaced with new hair that is stronger and more coloured. The skin begins to adapt to the “out-of-umbilical-fluid” environment. Bodies continue to grow in the toddler years into puberty and adolescence. Constant changes take place in the body until the height, determined by genetics, is reached. Then the body starts to spread a little here and there, taking a new shape of body style in the adult years. Changes in our body are sometimes described as deterioration, such as grey hair, wrinkles, loss of hearing, the need for bifocals. These are just normal changes as the body progresses. A person over the age of 50 can still be vital and healthy. Hardening of the arteries, bone density loss, and slowing metabolism are more signs of the normal ageing process. Ageing retardation could stretch out our entire life cycle like a rubber band, extending the time we spend in infancy, childhood, adolescence, prime, and senior years. Yet there is always the risk of a serious rift between the maturity of the body/mind and the expectations and requirements of life. The ageing process in humans is a complex biochemical process which includes all the changes taking place socially, psychologically and physically. The process of ageing in the human body is inevitable and there are many signs of ageing occurring both within and outside the human body. Ageing, also known as senescence, is a process that every human being goes through, but the ageing process in women slightly differs from the ageing process in men. As we age, there are a number of changes taking place in the various systems of the human body, which may, at times cause age-related problems and disorders. During middle adulthood, the two primary long-term relationships characteristic are cohabitation and marriage. Cohabitors are unmarried people living together in a sexual relationship, often state their reason for cohabiting as either a trial for marriage or an alternative to marriage. Middle adulthood refers to the people who are experiencing changes and development in their central lives. It is basically about the midlife transition or the period of life beyond young adulthood but before the commencement of old age. Elder care can be thought of as an umbrella of care and services for the frail elderly. These include a broad range of services including: meals and socialisation, personal care, light housekeeping, residential facilities, and adult day care. 137 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
SOCIO CULTURAL ASPECTS OF AGING Social Isolation Social isolation is common in elderly populations and refers to a complete or near-complete lack of contact with other people. Human beings, by nature, are social creatures. Throughout the socialization process, we become accustomed to living in groups and interacting with others. Individuals in every society, however, at times must cope with social isolation, which is defined as a complete or near-complete lack of contact with others in society. Social isolation is usually involuntary, making it distinct from the isolating tendencies some individuals may have that lead them to purposefully distance themselves from others. Social isolation is also distinct from loneliness. Loneliness is a subjective experience associated with a temporary lack of contact with other humans. Social isolation, by contrast, can be objectively measured in terms of a person’s social contacts and relationships. Social isolation is a larger problem for elders now than in the past, due to the decreasing size of families in Western countries. In the past, elders were not at increased risk for social isolation because they would move in with their children. Now, many elders are moved into elder homes with less frequent contact with their children. However, many elder homes and retirement facilities are working to combat social isolation by increasing programming for their residents. Prejudice Ageism is the discrimination of groups because of their age, and applies especially to the elderly. Ageism Ageism is the stereotyping and discrimination against individuals or groups because of their age. Ageism can be applied to discrimination against any age group, such as discrimination against teenagers, but this section will focus on ageist discrimination against seniors. The term was coined in reference to discriminatory practices against the elderly by gerontologist Robert Neil Butler. He coined the term by intentionally mirroring it after other forms of discrimination, such as sexism or racism. Stereotypes of the Elderly Many people are prejudiced against seniors, beginning with the common stereotypes of older adults. Old people are frequently assumed to be in poor physical or mental health and lack psychological agility. It is a common presumption that, as people age, they become more 138 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
inflexible and conservative in their opinions. Older adults are frequently presumed to be poor drivers. In fact, studies have demonstrated that older drivers, up until the age of about 75, are actually safer drivers than young drivers. Elderly Prejudice in the Workplace Older adults commonly encounter prejudice in the workplace. It is frequently assumed that an elderly person is mentally inept and incompetent. Employment discrimination, or the presence of discrimination against a targeted group in the workplace, manifests in two different ways vis-à-vis elderly workers. Individuals who began working for a company in their younger years can be pushed out as they age. This process refers to company management redirecting clients away from the older employees and toward the younger employees. Health Problems Although health problems rise when one comes into older age, social effects also exacerbate of medical ailments by the elderly. Heart Disease Because of the prevalence of heart disease and cancer among the elderly, many American hospitals have developed programs to treat seniors with these particular afflictions. Geriatrics is the field of medicine that specializes in treating older adults. Cardio geriatrics refers to the branch of healthcare that treats heart disease in older adults. Heart disease is common in seniors because as one ages, one’s heart muscle begins to weaken and change in adverse ways. As the heart ages, one can develop arteriosclerosis, or the stiffening of arteries due to the accumulation of fatty buildup, or plaque, along the walls of the arteriesm, restricting blood circulation. Arteriosclerosis is common to older adults that contributes to congestive heart failure. This is the condition defined by the inability of the heart to provide adequate blood flow to the body. Cancer Other than cardiovascular diseases, cancer is the most common, serious illness faced by the elderly. While anyone can develop cancer, the risk of getting certain cancers increases with age. Breast, colorectal, prostate, pancreatic, lung, bladder, and stomach cancers are especially linked to aging. Cancer can be even more difficult to treat in the elderly than in younger patients because treatment can be stressful on the body. Treating cancer involves some combination of radiation, chemotherapy, or surgery, all of which are more stressful on an aged body than a younger body. Recognition of the stress that treatment may have on an older body limits the options available for treatment. Neuropsychological Disorders 139 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Older adults are also more susceptible to certain neuropsychological disorders, such as dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, that are virtually unseen in younger populations. Dementia is a serious loss of global cognitive ability in a previously unimpaired person— beyond what might be expected from normal aging. It may be static—the result of a unique brain injury—or progressive—resulting in long-term decline due to damage or disease in the body. Dementia is not a single disease, but rather a syndrome that is associated with a variety of different diseases, such as Alzheimer’s. Symptoms of Alzheimer’s include confusion, irritability, aggression, mood swings, difficulty with language, and memory loss. Ageing and Mental Health An important aspect of healthy ageing is the promotion of good mental health and well-being in later life. It is often assumed that quality of life decreases with age but this is not necessarily true. Studies show that for many people, particularly women, life satisfaction increases as they grow older31. However, there has been little evidence of a “joined up” approach to mental health promotion for older people. Within mental health policy, older people are often neglected. Mental health initiatives have tended to target “adults of working age” (meaning adults up to the age of 65)33 and children and young people. This has resulted in uneven progress in mental health developments for people of different ages. This inequality is now starting to be recognised but more work is needed to ensure that mental health programmes address older people’s needs and interests. The number of older people will increase in the years to come. Older persons often experience a complex situation, undergoing somatic, mental and social changes while adapting to the aging process. Coupled with these developmental tasks, a large proportion of the older population may also be struggling with psychological distress. AGEING IN INDIA Ageing in India is exponentially increasing due to the impressive gains that society has made in terms of increased life expectancy. With the rise in elderly population, the demand for holistic care tends to grow. By 2025, the geriatric population is expected to be 840 million in the developing countries. It is projected that the proportion of Indians aged 60 and older will rise from 7.5% in 2010 to 11.1% in 2025 [2]. In 2010, India had more than 91.6 million elderly and the number of elderly in India is projected to reach 158.7 million in 2025. An aging population puts an increased burden on the resources of a country and has raised concerns at many levels for the government in India. The aging population is both medical and sociological problem. The elderly population suffers high rates of morbidity and mortality due to infectious diseases. The demographic transition in India shows unevenness and complexities within different states. This has been attributed to the different levels of socio-economic development, cultural norms, and political contexts. Hence it will be a 140 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
herculean task for policy makers to address the geriatric care that will take into account all these determinants. Care for the elderly is fast emerging as a critical element of both the public and private concern. The apparent success of the medical science is invariably accompanied by several social, economic and psychological problems in older persons, in addition to the medical problems. It needs to be understood that many of these problems require lifelong drug therapy, physical therapy and long-term rehabilitation. The elderly tend to be cared for in a variety of settings: home, nursing home, day-care centre, geriatric out-patient department, medical units or intensive care unit depending on the nature of the clinical problem. Care of elderly necessitates addressing several social issues. The needs and problems of the elderly vary significantly according to their age, socioeconomic status, health, living status and other such background characteristics. Their social rights are neglected and they are profusely abused which goes unreported. Lack of Infrastructure With increasing longevity and debilitating chronic diseases, many elder citizens will need better access to physical infrastructure in the coming years. Lack of physical infrastructure is a major deterrent to providing comfort to the aged. Many elder citizens need better access to physical infrastructure, both in their own homes and in public spaces. Unattended chronic disease, unaffordable medicines and treatment and malnutrition are part of old age life in India as there is no system of affordable health care. Emphasis on geriatrics in the public health system is limited with few dedicated geriatric services. The other issues of the public health system are lack of infrastructure, limited manpower, poor quality of care and overcrowding of facilities due to insufficient focus on elderly care. Changing Family Structure The traditional Indian society with an age-old joint family system has been instrumental in safeguarding the social and economic security of the elderly people. The traditional norms and values of Indian society also laid stress on showing respect and providing care for the elderly. However with the emerging prevalence of nuclear family set-ups in recent years, the elderly are likely to be exposed to emotional, physical and financial insecurity in the years to come. There is an upward trend in the living arrangement pattern of elderly staying alone or with spouse only from 9.0% in 1992 to 18.7% in 2006. Family care of the elderly seems likely to decrease in the future with the economic development of the nation and modernization. Lack of Social Support The elderly in India are much more vulnerable because of the less government spending on social security system. The elderly in urban area rely primarily on hired domestic help to 141 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
meet their basic needs in an increasingly-chaotic and crowded city. Social isolation and loneliness has increased. Insurance cover that is elderly sensitive is virtually non- existent in India. In addition, the pre-existing illnesses are usually not covered making insurance policies unviable for the elders. Pension and social security is also restricted to those who have worked in the public sector or the organized sector of industry. In a study by Lena et al., almost half of the respondents felt neglected and sad and felt that people had an indifferent attitude towards the elderly. It was also found that 47% felt unhappy in life and 36.2% felt they were a burden to the family. Social Inequality Elderly are a heterogeneous section with an urban and rural divide. They are less vulnerable in rural areas as compared to their urban counterparts, due to the still holding values of the joint family system. All the elderly are not seen in the same view as the needs and problems of elderly are rejected to a vast extent as government classifies these people based on caste and other socio cultural dimensions. In a case study, it was found that a major proportion of the elderly women were poorer; received the lowest income per person; had the greatest percentage of primary level education; recorded the highest negative emotional psychological conditions; were the least likely to have health insurance coverage and they recorded the lowest consumption expenditure. Availability, Accessibility and Affordability of Health Care Due to the ever increasing trend of nuclear families, elder care management is getting more difficulty especially for working adult children who ٽnd themselves responsible for their parents’ well-being. Managing home care for the elderly is a massive challenge as multiple service providers – nursing agencies, physiotherapists and medical suppliers – are small, unorganized players who extend sub-optimal care. In India, health insurance coverage is essentially limited to hospitalization. The concept of geriatric care has remained a neglected area of medicine in the country. Economic Dependency As per the 52nd round of National Sample Survey Organization, nearly half of the elderly are fully dependent on others, while another 20 % are partially dependent for their economic needs. About 85% of the aged had to depend on others for their day to day maintenance. The situation was even worse for elderly females. The elders living with their families are largely contingent on the economic capacity of the family unit for their economic security and well-being. Elderly often do not have financial protection such as sufficient pension and other form of social security in India. The single most pressing challenge to the welfare of older person is poverty, which is a multiplier of risk for abuse. Also due to their financial dependence, elderly persons though are most vulnerable to infections have low priority for own health. Migration of younger generation, lack of proper 142 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
care in the family, insufficient housing, economic hardship and break-up of joint family have made the old age homes seem more relevant even in the Indian context SUMMARY 1. The process of ageing in the human body starts at middle age around 45. The process and its effects depend on both, the genetic as well as environmental factors and hence, some of the aspects of the ageing process may differ from person to person. 2. Ageing causes some amount of reduction in the rate of human cell multiplication (cellular senescence) and also causes some of the cells to function inappropriately. 3. It also interferes with the growth and development of the body tissues which leads to the development of various immune system related disorders. 4. Heredity, diet, exercise, social involvement, and spirituality all play a large part in a person’s physical wellbeing. 5. Eating right and exercising will keep one’s body healthier and may stave off some of the effects of ageing, or at least slow the ageing process. 6. Obviously, aging presents serious concerns about health. A person’s body is more likely to encounter disease as he or she ages. 7. Frequently, preexisting medical ailments are exacerbated by social determinants of health. Social determinants of health are the extra-biological factors that influence how individuals experience their own health. For example, congestive heart failure does not necessarily kill someone. 8. However, the patient with congestive heart failure is most likely going to be put on a complicated medication regime. Congestive heart failure combined with dementia—or even normal forgetfulness associated with aging—makes adhering to a strict regimen difficult for many older adults. 9. The elderly are frequently dependent on younger adults for assistance. The types of care to which the elderly have access can have serious medical consequences. 10. However, it is not also seen that the elderly person is in a supportive environment. Many elderly suffer from isolation, lack of social and financial support, neglect and lack of supportive infrastructure. 11. In India, as the population is ageing, we need to address these impeding issues so that our elderly community can live independently with dignity. 143 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS • ageism: The treating of a person or people differently from others based on assumptions or stereotypes relating to their age. • dementia: A progressive decline in cognitive function due to damage or disease in the brain—beyond what might be expected from normal aging. Areas particularly affected include memory, attention, judgement, language and problem solving. • social isolation: Social isolation refers to a complete or near-complete lack of contact with society. It is usually involuntary, making it distinct from isolating tendencies or actions taken by an individual who is seeking to distance himself from society. • Stereotype: Stereotype is a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Write a note on challenges faced during ageing. 2. Write a note on Ageing in India. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. Everybody wishes not live longer. Nobody wishes to grow old. Do you agree? Elaborate. 2. You must have seen you parents or grandparents complaining of health complications accompanied because of age? What are some of the health concerns you have heard of? 3. Elderly people are often lonely and most of the limes socially isolated. 4. Indian population is ageing. What according to you would be scenario of Indian population pyramid after 50 years? 5. Identify social isolation with respect to ageing and what are the steps that can be taken to help them come out of it? B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. The treating of a person or people differently from others based on assumptions or stereotypes relating to their age are called 144 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
[a] Stereotype [b] Social Isolation [c] Ageism [d] Ageing 2. A progressive decline in cognitive function due to damage or disease in the brain is called [a] Dementia [b] Memory loss [c] Head trauma [d] Ageing 3. refers to a complete or near-complete lack of contact with society. [a] Stereotype [b] Social Isolation [c] Ageism [d] Ageing 4. is a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing. [a] Stereotype [b] Social Isolation [c] Ageism [d] Ageing 5. Later adulthood is the period between the ages 145 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
[a] 65 and above [b] 40 to 65 years [c] 25 to 40 years [d] 80 years and above Answer 1 [c] 2 [a] 3 [b] 4 [a] 5 [a] REFERENCE • Santrock, J.W. (2006). A Topical Approach to Life Span Development. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. • Berk, L.E. (2003). Child Development. New Delhi: Pearson Education. • Bee, H. and Boyd, D. (2002). Life Span Development. Boston, M.A: Allyn and Bacon. • Bukatko, D. and Daehler, M.W. (2001). Child Development: A Thematic Approach. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. • Newman, B.M. and Newman, P.R. (1999). Development through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company. • Morgan, L. and Kunkel, S. (1998). Aging: The Social Context. London: Pine Forge Press. • Hetherington, M.E. and Parke, R.D. (1993). Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint. New York: McGraw Hill. • Berk, L. E. (2017). Exploring Lifespan Development (4th Ed.) Pearson Publisher. • Sigelman, C. K. and Rider, E. A. (2017). Life Span Human Development (9th Ed.). Wadsworth Publisher. • Broderick, P. C. and Blewitt, P. (2014). Life Span, The Human Development for Helping Professionals (4th Ed.) Pearson Higher Ed USA. • Alan Slater, & J. Gavin Bremner (2017). An Introduction to Developmental Psychology (3rd ed.). Wiley. • Gines, Et Al (1998) Rex Book Store Inc. • Margaret Harris, & George Butterworth (2012). Developmental Psychology: A Student's Handbook. Psychology Press • Peter Mitchell, & Fenja Ziegler (2013). Fundamentals of Developmental Psychology. Psychology Press 146 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
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