MAP610_Advanced Counselling Skills II(Draft 1)-converted-converted

Closed questions can also provide ordinal data (which can be ranked). This often involves using a continuous rating scale to measure the strength of attitudes or emotions. For example, strongly agree / agree / neutral / disagree / strongly disagree / unable to answer. Questions should be few in number and simple to be understood and answered. They should directly cover the point of information. This technique has its limitations. However, it is very often used to obtain factual data Strengths • They can be economical. This means they can provide large amounts of research data for relatively low costs. Therefore, a large sample size can be obtained which should be representative of the population, which a researcher can then generalize from. • The respondent provides information which can be easily converted into quantitative data (e.g., count the number of 'yes' or 'no' answers), allowing statistical analysis of the responses. • The questions are standardized. All respondents are asked exactly the same questions in the same order. This means a questionnaire can be replicated easily to check for reliability. Therefore, a second researcher can use the questionnaire to check that the results are consistent. Limitations • They lack detail. Because the responses are fixed, there is less scope for respondents to supply answers which reflect their true feelings on a topic. Open Questions Open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words. Open-ended questions enable the respondent to answer in as much detail as they like in their own words. For example: “can you tell me how happy you feel right now?”

If you want to gather more in-depth answers from your respondents, then open questions will work better. These give no pre-set answer options and instead allow the respondents to put down exactly what they like in their own words. Strengths • Rich qualitative data is obtained as open questions allow the respondent to elaborate on their answer. This means the research can find out why a person holds a certain attitude. Limitations • Time-consuming to collect the data. It takes longer for the respondent to complete open questions. This is a problem as a smaller sample size may be obtained. • Time-consuming to analyse the data. It takes longer for the researcher to analyse qualitative data as they have to read the answers and try to put them into categories by coding, which is often subjective and difficult. However, Smith (1992) has devoted an entire book to the issues of thematic content analysis the includes 14 different scoring systems for open-ended questions. • Not suitable for less educated respondents as open questions require superior writing skills and a better ability to express one's feelings verbally. Open questions are often used for complex questions that cannot be answered in a few simple categories but require more detail and discussion. Questionnaire Design With some questionnaires suffering from a response rate as low as 5%, it is essential that a questionnaire is well designed. There are a number of important factors in questionnaire design. Aims Make sure that all questions asked address the aims of the research. However, use only one feature of the construct you are investigating in per item. Length

The longer the questionnaire, the less likely people will complete it. Questions should be short, clear, and be to the point; any unnecessary questions/items should be omitted. Pilot Study Run a small scale practice study to ensure people understand the questions. People will also be able to give detailed honest feedback on the questionnaire design. Question Order Questions should progress logically from the least sensitive to the most sensitive, from the factual and behavioural to the cognitive, and from the more general to the more specific. The researcher should ensure that the answer to a question is not influenced by previous questions. Terminology There should be a minimum of technical jargon. Questions should be simple, to the point and easy to understand. The language of a questionnaire should be appropriate to the vocabulary of the group of people being studied. Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different subpopulations of the population of interest. For example, the researcher must change the language of questions to match the social background of respondents' age / educational level / social class / ethnicity etc. Presentation Make sure it looks professional, include clear and concise instructions. If sent through the post make sure the envelope does not signify ‘junk mail.’ OBSERVATION Observational studies allow researchers to document behaviour in a natural setting and witness events that could not be produced in a lab. Observation is carried out through the use of one of the sense of organ of the body which is the eyes. Every good eye is expected to keep notice of

events as they happen in various fields as this would assist in making a good account of past events, present and can be used to further attend to future issues. Counsellors are expected to have ‘eagle eyes’ as their job requires the use of their sensory organs for diagnosis. During the class, observation as a topic was expressed in many terms as it relates to this field of work and this would be analysed in this assignment expressing this as it would lead to becoming a good counsellor. Observation allows researchers to experience a specific aspect of social life and get a first-hand look at a trend, institution, or behaviour. Participant observation involves the researcher joining a sample of individuals without interfering with that group’s normal activities in order to document their routine behaviour or observe them in a natural context. Often researchers in observational studies will try to blend in seamlessly with the sample group to avoid compromising the results of their observations. In this technique behaviour is studied through observation by a trained observer. The effectiveness of the technique depends upon the skilfulness of the observer. The observer is expected to observe well defined behaviours free from biases and prejudices. Observational techniques are useful in the study of students and individuals but their usefulness depends upon the manner and purpose with which they are conducted. Behavioural observation is a widely used method of behavioural assessment. Unlike other methods of behavioural assessment, most of which rely on people’s perceptions of behaviour, behavioural observation involves watching and recording the behaviour of a person in typical environments (e.g., classrooms). The assumption is therefore that data collected are more objective than are perceptions. Most methods of behavioural observation provide quantitative and objective data that can be used to determine current levels of behaviour, to set goals for behavioural improvement, and to measure change following intervention plans. Depending on the nature of the behaviours of concern, observers may be interested in any one or a combination of several characteristics related to the behaviour. The most common characteristic observed is frequency, or how often a behaviour occurs. Other characteristics include magnitude (how intense a behaviour is) and duration (how long a behaviour lasts). A behaviour change agent might be interested in reducing the frequency of a problem behaviour,

reducing its intensity, or reducing its duration. Regardless of which characteristic is observed, it is important to measure that characteristic consistently throughout the behaviour intervention process. Issues in Behavioural Observations Assessment Reactivity Because observers are in the physical presence of the client while collecting behavioural observation data, there is the potential for the procedure itself to change the client’s behaviour. This is referred to as assessment reactivity. Assessment reactivity can significantly affect the validity of observation data, so steps need to be taken to minimize its effects. The most common step addressed in the literature is to allow the client time to habituate to the observer’s presence and activities. Habituation refers to a process whereby a person, upon prolonged exposure to a stimulus, stops responding to that stimulus. In the case of behavioural observation, the stimulus is the observer and the response is the change in typical behaviour. Habituation can be achieved by allowing the client to get used to the observer’s presence before any data are collected. Habituation is easier to achieve if the observer is as unobtrusive as possible. Sitting slightly behind but to the side of the person being observed is sometimes helpful. Reliability Reliability refers to the consistency of results obtained from an assessment procedure, and it is important for the purposes of behavioural observation. There are several types of reliability, including internal consistency, test-retest, and inter-rater reliability. The first two are less applicable than the third for behavioural observation. With regard to test-retest reliability, for example, behaviours are not expected to remain stable over time, so low retest reliability is less a function of the instrumentation being used than the characteristics being assessed. Inter-rater reliability is an important concept in behavioural assessment, however. It is important that two observers agree on whether targeted behaviours are occurring. Strong inter-rater reliability depends heavily upon solid behavioural definitions and comprehensive training for behavioural observers. Defining Behaviours

Behavioural definitions should have several characteristics. They should be objective, clear, and complete. Objective means the definition should include only observable aspects of the behaviour. No inferences or judgments should be necessary when using the definition. The definition should be clear, meaning that it is understandable to any person who would want to conduct observations using the definition. Finally, the definition should be complete. It should delineate the bounds of the behaviour, so that decisions can be made about whether a particular behaviour represents an instance of the target behaviour being observed. Using Behavioural Observation Results Results of behavioural observations are typically used for three purposes related to intervention planning. First, they are used as a baseline of current levels of behaviour. A baseline tells the professionals involved what to expect in the future if no intervention is to occur with an individual. Baseline data are also used for the second purpose—namely, the formulation of goals. Goals should be based on current levels of behaviour. To not use baseline data in formulating goals is to risk setting goals that are unrealistic or too lenient. The third purpose for which results of behavioural observation are used is to measure outcomes. If initial observation data are used to determine baseline levels of behaviour and for goal setting, later data can be used as a measure of whether interventions are successful. If data are being collected on a problem behaviour, the behaviour should decrease in frequency, magnitude, or duration if an intervention is successful. Conversely, if data are collected on an appropriate behaviour, occurrences of the behaviour should increase. Behavioural observations are also conducted for research purposes. The data may be used to describe the behaviour of an individual or group, or they may be used to measure change in behaviour contingent upon some environmental manipulation or individual treatment. Sometimes in research, sophisticated coding schemes are used to categorize or describe the behaviours observed, but they typically involve the use of one or more of the methods described above. INTERVIEWS Interview technique is widely used by the psychologist for increasing counsellor’s understanding of the client. It enables the counsellor to obtain specific information and to explore behaviour or response in depth. In many respects, an interview resembles tests which has reliability, validity,

prediction and structure. The interview remains one of the most prevalent devices in clinical, industrial, counselling agencies, schools and correctional settings. This technique is important since this is scientific in nature. Interview is interaction between two or more people. The situations may differ. In some interviews it is one to one interaction, in others it might be that a single person is taking interview of many people at the same time, like family interviews that are conducted for therapy An interview is a conversation with a purpose. The purposes for which interviews are arranged are introductory, fact finding, evaluative, informative and therapeutic in nature. Another characteristic is the relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee. The occasion should be used for a friendly informal talk. The interviewee should be allowed to talk in a permissive atmosphere with confidence and freedom. “Interview is a method for gathering data or information about individual” (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2005). Thus interview is conversation with a purpose. Conversation may not have purpose and start anywhere and stop anywhere without assignment of specific role of individuals interacting. Although there are many types and purposes of interview, all share certain factors. Now we see some characteristic of interview method. Different Types of Interviews Interviews differ with respect to the purpose that is kept in view. If the purpose is to select a candidate for a post, it is an employment interview, but if the purpose is to gather some facts or verify them it will be called a fact finding interview. So interviews are classified on the basis of purpose. Interviews are categorized also on the basis of the nature of relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee. If in the interview the dominating figure is the counsellor, it is a counsellor centered interview and if it is the client, then the interview is client centered. Structured Interviews As the name implies the structured interviews are the ones in which interviewer asks a pre- planned set of questions in the same manner and sequence for each client. This method is used when same information is required from all interviewees or for getting information from the same client on other occasions. The questions that are asked are structured and standardised.

These are objective questions, irrespective of the fact who is being interviewed. These are followed by everyone. The sequence of the questions is also important. And to conduct this type of interview, it is necessary that the interviewer is properly trained in this skill. There are clear cut guidelines given how and in what sequence the questions should be asked. Unstructured interviews Unstructured interview is opposite to structured interview. The interviewer may have an idea about possible questions but depending upon the needs of the client, the order and sequence of questions can be changed, modified etc. by the interviewer. Certain questions which may not be very relevant or wrongly worded can be modified by the counsellor. During the interview if the counsellor finds that certain questions need to be added or deleted the counsellor may do so. Thus questions are asked as per the flow of communication. Due to this freedom in asking questions more spontaneous responses are given by the client. The major advantage of this method is flexibility. Example of this type is the interview that is conducted by the media on the opinion of the common man on certain issues. They address the issues that are important to the common man but that does not assure that the information that is gathered is always valid. They may just hide the information that does not fit to their belief system. However, unstructured interviews are less reliable and more prone to error than structured interviews. Semi-Structured Interview Many times semi structured method is used to minimize the disadvantages of both methods. It is a combination of structured and unstructured method. Certain questions are always asked, but there is freedom to add questions. Intake Interview The initial interview is the first meeting in which interviewer works with client to gather information about the problem with which the client has approached the counsellor. This interview includes presenting problem, general life situation, history and interpersonal functioning. Some time it is called as history interview.

The basic purpose of this interview is to get information about the client and their problems. In most of the cases the provisional diagnosis is made on the basis of this information. This is a one to one interview technique, in which the counsellor tries to gain as much information as possible which would help the counsellor to formulate the problem and understand the causes leading to the problem. SUMMARY Assessment is a fundamental component both of the counselling process and ethical client care. Although the assessment research literature promotes the use of multiple data collection methods and sources, current professional standards in the counselling field focus primarily on standardized instruments, with little attention given to qualitative assessment methods or the use of multiple methods and sources. The assessment process can encompass a variety of data collection methods, which can include both formal and informal instruments and strategies. Formal assessment methods generally involve psychometrically sound instruments that follow a standardized process, yield quantifiable data that are compared with established norms, and are linked to specific interventions (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2005). Examples include standardized tests, questionnaires, inventories, checklists, and rating scales. Informal methods, on the other hand, include unstructured or non-standardized instruments that provide qualitative information about a client, consider the client’s subjective experiences, and rely on clinical judgment and experience as the basis for results, such as clinical interviews. Counsellors may also use projective assessment techniques to generate qualitative information. Projective techniques involve clients answering open-ended questions about ambiguous material, such as ink blots, pictures, their own drawings, or sentence-completion exercises KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS • Autobiography - Autobiography in therapy or counselling, a technique in which a life history, written by the client from his or her own point of view, is used to obtain information regarding the client’s behavioural patterns and feelings.

• Case study - Case Study refers to in-depth investigation of a single individual, family, event, or other entity. Multiple types of data (psychological, physiological, biographical, environmental) are assembled, for example, to understand an individual’s background, relationships, and behaviour. Although case studies allow for intensive analysis of an issue, they are limited in the extent to which their findings may be generalized. • Questionnaire - Questionnaire is a set of questions or other prompts used to obtain information from a respondent about a topic of interest, such as background characteristics, attitudes, behaviours, personality, ability, or other attributes. A questionnaire may be administered with pen and paper, in a face-to-face interview, or via interaction between the respondent and a computer or website. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Write different types of interviews conducted? 2. Write a small questionnaire to find out the eating preferences of you friends. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. Write a note case study. 2. What are the types of questions in a questionnaire? 3. Write a note on interview technique. 4. What are the types of interviews? 5. Write a note on autobiography as a data collection technique.

B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Questionnaire is a: (A) Research method (B) Measurement technique (C) Tool for data collection (D) Data analysis technique 2. is a technique in which a life history, written by the client from his or her own point of view is used. (A) Autobiography (B) Case Study (C) Questionnaire (D) Interview 3. refers to in-depth investigation of a single individual, family, event, or other entity. (A) Autobiography (B) Case Study (C) Questionnaire (D) Interview

4. is a set of questions or other prompts used to obtain information from a respondent. (A) Autobiography (B) Case Study (C) Questionnaire (D) Interview 5. is the first meeting in which interviewer works with client to gather information about the problem with which the client has approached the counsellor. A) Autobiography (B) Case Study (C) Interview (D) Intake Interview Answer: 1 (C); 2 (A); 3 (B); 4 (C); 5 (D) SUGGESTED READINGS • Theories and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy by Gerald Coorey

• Introduction to Clinical Mental Health Counselling: Contemporary Issues by Joshua C. Watson, Michael K. Schmitt • An Introduction to Counselling by John McLeod • Counselling: A Comprehensive Profession by Samuel T. Gladding and Promila Batra • Handbook of Counselling Psychology edited by Steven D. Brown, Robert W

UNIT 10 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING STRUCTURE: 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 Definition of Psychological Tests 4 Application of Psychological Tests 5 Commonly Used Intelligence Tests 6 Commonly Used Personality Tests 7 Commonly Used Aptitude Tests 8 Commonly Used Interest Tests 9 Neuro-Psychological Tests 10 Summary 11 Key Words/ Abbreviations 12 Learning Activity 13 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 14 Suggested Readings LEARNING OBJECTIVES After this unit, you will • Have an understanding on Psychological testing • Know about commonly conducted tests

INTRODUCTION A test is a measurement device or technique used to quantify behaviour or aid in the understanding and predicting the behaviour. We all do appear for such tests many a times in our lives. The situations may differ, right from the interview that one faces as a child for the school admission till interview as a parent. We all have experiences of appearing for the test in the formal atmosphere, as for instance the job selection tests. These tests will be considered in detail in the next section. Thus tests in general do scrutinise and give us fair idea about the person’s performance for a particular position. This predicts the person’s behaviour in that situation. Many tests are devised specially with the purpose of getting the objective information from people in particular area. Also, specific tests have been devised over a period of time by different experts, which focused on a particular aspect of the person. For example tests were devised to understand the person’s ability to appreciate and understand music. The journey of the testing started from the objective evaluation of intelligence and reached very minute but essential aspects of daily life. A wide variety of tests have been devised for the purpose of recruitment during the second world war, since this was the immediate requirement after the economic recession. DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS What is a psychological test? This seems to be a difficult question to answer when one examines the plethora of published tests in the market and finds that they can differ in so many respects. While some psychological tests take only a few minutes to complete, others can take hours to administer. For some psychological tests, a respondent is required to provide only a simple yes/no answer; other tests are designed in such a way that a person must navigate and respond in a virtual reality environment. Some psychological tests can be administered to hundreds of people at one time and scored and interpreted by a computer, but other tests require face-to- face administration and individual scoring and interpretation that require years of training and experience.

In a clinical setting, a test may provide a sample of the behaviour that the client finds disturbing. For example, a client may suffer an irrational fear of an object that is not actually dangerous, such as harmless spiders. Because of the fear, the client cannot enter a darkened room or clean out cupboards because of the likelihood of confronting a spider. To assess the magnitude of the irrational fear, the tester may ask the client to approach a harmless spider being held in a glass case. The distance from the spider that induces a report of anxiety is taken as an indication of the severity of the client’s avoidance behaviour. This can be used to judge the effectiveness of any subsequent planned intervention to reduce the problem. After treatment the client should be able to approach the spider more closely than before. APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS Clinical and Counselling Assessment Clinical psychology is that branch of psychology that has as its primary focus the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behaviour. Clinical psychologists receive training in psychological assessment and psychotherapy and are employed in hospitals, public and private mental health centres, independent practice, and academia. Like clinical psychology, counselling psychology is a branch of psychology that is concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behaviour. Clinical psychologists tend to focus their research and treatment efforts on the more severe forms of behaviour pathology, whereas counselling psychologists focus more on “everyday” types of concerns and problems such as those related to marriage, family, academics, and career. Members of both professions strive to foster personal growth in their clients. Assessment, Careers, and Business Career Choice and Career Transition A whole world of tests is available to help in various phases of career choice. There are tests, for example, to survey interests, aptitudes, skills, or special talents. There are tests to measure attitudes toward work, confidence in one’s skills, assumptions about careers, perceptions regarding career barriers, even dysfunctional career thoughts. Historically, one variable considered closely related to occupational fulfilment and success is personal interests. It stands to

reason that what intrigues, engages, and engrosses would be good to work at. In fact, an individual’s interests may be sufficiently solidified by age 15 to be useful in course and career planning (Care, 1996). Further, evidence suggests that these interests will be stable over time (Savickas & Spokane, 1999). Measures of Interest If interest in one’s work promotes better performance, greater productivity, and greater job satisfaction, both employers and prospective employees should have much to gain from methods that can help individuals identify their interests and jobs tailored to those interests. For example, a company could design an employment campaign emphasizing job security if job security were found to be the chief interest of the successful workers currently holding similar jobs. Although there are many instruments designed to measure interests, our discussion focuses on the one with the longest history of continuous use, the Strong Interest Inventory (SII). Measures of Ability and Aptitude These are the tests which measure the person’s motivation to achieve and other aspects of achievement. Aptitude test refers to the ability of the person to learn new things. A person may have aptitude of different skills. It may be aptitude for teaching; it may be aptitude for learning music, etc. Ability and aptitude measures vary widely in topics covered, specificity of coverage, and other variables. The Wunderlich Personnel Test measures mental ability in a general sense. This brief (12-minute) test includes items that assess spatial skill, abstract thought, and mathematical skill. The test may be useful in screening individuals for jobs that require both fluid and crystallized intellectual abilities. COMMONLY USED INTELLIGENCE TESTS Intelligence test, series of tasks designed to measure the capacity to make abstractions, to learn, and to deal with novel situations. The above IQ tests consist of different types of questions, each testing a different component of intelligence. Usually the following components are tested:

• Verbal intelligence: the ability to understand, use and learn language. Quick understanding of text and a large vocabulary are indicators of a high verbal intelligence. • Numerical intelligence: the ability to calculate. Calculations are traditionally the most commonly used method of measuring intelligence. • Spatial intelligence: the ability to solve complex spatial problems. • Logical intelligence: the ability to reason. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test The most widely used intelligence tests include the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler scales. The Stanford-Binet is the American adaptation of the original French Binet- Simon intelligence test; it was first introduced in 1916 by Lewis Terman, a psychologist at Stanford University. The individually administered test, revised in 1937, 1960, and 1972, evaluates persons two years of age and older and is designed for use primarily with children. It consists of an age-graded series of problems whose solution involves arithmetical, memory, and vocabulary skills. The test is scored in terms of intelligence quotient, or IQ, a concept first suggested by German psychologist William Stern and adopted by Lewis Terman in the Stanford-Binet Scale. The IQ was originally computed as the ratio of a person’s mental age to his chronological (physical) age, multiplied by 100. Thus, if a child of 10 had a mental age of 12 (that is, performed on the test at the level of an average 12-year-old), then the child was assigned an IQ of (12/10) X 100, or 120. A score of 100, for which the mental age equalled the chronological age, was average; scores above 100 were above average, scores below 100 were below average. IQ is now computed on the basis of the statistical percentage of people who are expected to have a certain IQ. Intelligence test scores follow an approximately “normal” distribution, with most people scoring near the middle of the distribution curve and scores dropping off fairly rapidly in frequency away from the curve’s centre. For example, on the IQ scale about 2 out of 3 scores fall between 85 and 115 and about 19 out of 20 scores fall between 70 and 130. A score of about 130

or above is considered gifted, while a score below about 70 is considered mentally deficient or retarded. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children The Wechsler Intelligence Scale is an intelligence test that can be administered to both children and adults. Developed by Dr. David Wechsler, a clinical psychologist with Bellevue Hospital, in 1939, the tests measure one's ability to \"adapt and constructively solve problems in the environment,\" as Wechsler defined. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children is an individually administered test for children between the ages of 6 and 16. It can be completed without any reading or writing, and takes 65 to 80 minutes to complete. It generates an IQ score, which represents a child's cognitive ability. The test is divided into 15 subtests, 10 of which are from previous versions of the test. Supplemental subtests are used to accommodate children in rare cases or to make up for spoiled results due to interruptions or other causes. The WISC contains several of the subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale and has been revised five times into the fall 2014 version, the WISC-V. There are a total of five Primary Index Scores that make up the Full Scale IQ score: Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial, Fluid Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed. The Verbal Comprehension Index reflects the ability to access and apply word knowledge. The core subtests include Similarities (how to words are similar) and Vocabulary. • The Visual Spatial Index • The Fluid Reasoning Index • The Working Memory Index • The Processing Speed Index • Verbal Comprehension Index

Scores for this test are determined based on statistical values such as the mean (the average) and standard deviation (a calculation that determines a significant distance of a score from the average). Once a child’s performance on a subtest is compared to the normative sample, subtest scores are converted into scaled scores that serve as one of the universal metrics for this test. A scaled score of 10 is the mean and scaled scores that deviate 3 units reflect a standard deviation. Similar subtests are then combined into Primary Index Scales that have a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15. These numbers help determine the classification for performance. Classification of performance for scaled index scores are as follows: • Below Average – scaled score 1 to 5 • Low Average – scaled score 6 to 7 • Average – scaled score 8 to 11 • High Average – scaled score 12 to 13 • Superior – 14 to 15 • Very Superior – 16 to 20 Descriptors of performance for standard WISC score ranges are as follows: • Below Average – standard score below 79 • Low Average – standard score 80 to 89 • Average – 90 to 109 • High Average – 110 to 119 • Superior – 120 to 129 • Very Superior – above 13 The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most commonly used adult IQ test for measuring intelligence. A previous version of the test was known as the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (WBIS), which was published in 1939. This test was composed of elements of other intelligence tests such as the Binet-Simon scale which was the precursor to the Stanford- Binet Intelligence Scale. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is an intelligence test that was first published in 1955 and designed to measure intelligence in adults and older adolescents. The test was designed by psychologist David Wechsler who believed that intelligence was made up a number of different mental abilities rather than a single general intelligence factor. Scores are calculated on each of the four indices of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. They are then combined to create a Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ). Test takers will also be given a score on the General Ability Index (GAI), which uses the six subsets of the PRI and VCI: similarities, vocabulary, information, block design, matrix reasoning, and visual puzzles. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is normed so that 100 is the median score for the adult population. Scores of 90-109 are considered to be in the average range, and the average IQ of all high school graduates is 105. College graduates have an average IQ of 115, which means that people in the “high average” range of IQ, 110-119, have a good chance of succeeding in college. Scores of 120-129 are considered “superior,” and this is the average IQ range for most successful Ph.D. candidates. A full-scale IQ score of 130 or above on the WAIS-IV will qualify you for Mensa, the high IQ society for people in the top 2% of intelligence. The “low average” IQ range is 80-89, and people in this range will likely struggle with academics. Those scoring in the 71-80 range tend to exhibit what is called “borderline intellectual functioning.” Moderate retardation occurs from about 50-70, and severe retardation at IQs below 50. Raven’s Progressive Matrices Raven's Progressive Matrices (often referred to simply as Raven's Matrices) are multiple choice intelligence tests of abstract reasoning, originally developed by Dr. John C. Raven in 1936.[1] In

each test item, the subject is asked to identify the missing item that completes a pattern. Many patterns are presented in the form of a 4x4, 3x3, or 2x2 matrix, giving the test its name. A Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test is a test designed to measure your non-verbal, abstract and cognitive functioning. In the test, a candidate is presented with a matrix of 3x3 geometric designs, with one piece missing. The candidates' job is to choose the right diagram, from a set of eight answers, that completes a pattern in the matrix that you have to figure out. The questions and answers are all completely non-verbal. The Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test was developed in the 1930’s by J.C. Raven to research how genetic aspects and environmental aspects influence intelligence. The Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test is designed to have no cultural or ethnic bias, so it should measure only the genetic component of intelligence without the influence of environment. Today the test is widely used as a pre-employment assessment tool. The matrices are posed in three different forms for participants of different ability: • Standard Progressive Matrices: These were the original form of the matrices, first published in 1938. The booklet comprises five sets (A to E) of 12 items each (e.g., A1 through A12), with items within a set becoming increasingly difficult, requiring ever greater cognitive capacity to encode and analyse information. All items are presented in black ink on a white background. • Coloured Progressive Matrices: Designed for younger children, the elderly, and people with moderate or severe learning difficulties, this test contains sets A and B from the standard matrices, with a further set of 12 items inserted between the two, as set Ab. Most items are presented on a coloured background to make the test visually stimulating for participants. However the very last few items in set B are presented as black-on- white; in this way, if a subject exceeds the tester's expectations, transition to sets C, D, and E of the standard matrices is eased. • Advanced Progressive Matrices: The advanced form of the matrices contains 48 items, presented as one set of 12 (set I), and another of 36 (set II). Items are again presented in black ink on a white background, and become increasingly difficult as progress is made

through each set. These items are appropriate for adults and adolescents of above-average intelligence. Raven’s Progressive Matrices test is one of the most commonly used instruments to measure analogical reasoning, capacity for abstraction, and perception. The 60 questions allow us to evaluate the “g” factor of intelligence. This factor was proposed by Spearman, and it’s the more general mental and cognitive processes by which we give answers to everyday problems. COMMONLY USED PERSONALITY TESTS The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a psychological test that assesses personality traits and psychopathology. It is primarily intended to test people who are suspected of having mental health or other clinical issues. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory is considered a protected psychological instrument, meaning it can only be given and interpreted by a psychologist trained to do so. he MMPI-2 is designed with 10 clinical scales which assess 10 major categories of abnormal human behaviour, and four validity scales, which assess the person’s general test-taking attitude and whether they answered the items on the test in a truthful and accurate manner. he older MMPI-2 is made up 10 clinical subscales, which are a result of answering certain questions on the test in a specific manner: • Hypochondriasis (Hs) – • Depression (D) – • Hysteria (Hy) – • Psychopathic Deviate (Pd) – • Masculinity/Femininity (Mf) – • Paranoia (Pa) – • Psychasthenia (Pt) – • Schizophrenia (Sc) – • Hypomania (Ma) –

• Social Introversion (Si) – The 4 Validity Scales of the MMPI The MMPI-2 is not a valid measure of a person’s psychopathology or behaviour if the person taking the test does so in a way that is not honest or frank. A person may decide, for whatever reasons, to overreport (exaggerate) or underreport (deny) the behaviour being assessed by the test. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) contains four validity scales designed to measure a person’s test-taking attitude and approach to the test: • Lie (L) – • F– • Back F (Fb) – • K– Cattell's 16 Personality Factors According to Cattell, there is a continuum of personality traits. In other words, each person contains all of these 16 traits to a certain degree, but they might be high in some traits and low in others. While all people have some degree of abstractedness, for example, some people might be very imaginative while others are very practical. The following personality trait list describes some of the descriptive terms used for each of the 16 personality dimensions described by Cattell. • Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical • Apprehension: Worried versus confident • Dominance: Forceful versus submissive • Emotional Stability: Calm versus high-strung • Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained • Openness to Change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar • Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined • Privateness: Discreet versus open

• Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete • Rule-Consciousness: Conforming versus non-conforming • Self-Reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent • Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded. • Social Boldness: Uninhibited versus shy • Tension: Inpatient versus relaxed • Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting • Warmth: Outgoing versus reserved The Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator The Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator is a self-report inventory designed to identify a person's personality type, strengths, and preferences. The questionnaire was developed by Isabel Myers and her mother Katherine Briggs based on their work with Carl Jung's theory of personality types. Myers created the first pen-and-pencil version of the inventory during the 1940s, and the two women began testing the assessment on friends and family. They continued to fully develop the instrument over the next two decades. Taking the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator can provide a lot of insight into your personality, which is probably why the instrument has become so enormously popular. Even without taking the formal questionnaire, you can probably immediately recognize some of these tendencies in yourself. Projective Tests Projective tests are a type of personality test in which the individual must respond to ambiguous scenes, words or images or in some cases even draw. It differs from objective tests in that the answers can be very varied, there are no correct or incorrect answers. Although there are guidelines for correcting projective tests (and even extensive training is necessary), it can happen that two experts come to different conclusions from the same tests. This, however, is almost impossible in objective tests.

Common projective tests A. Rorschach Projective Test B. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) C. Expressive or graphical projective tests D. Projective test of the tree E. Projective test of the human figure F. Graphic projective test of the animal G. Projective Test Home – Tree – Person or HTP Test H. Projective family test I. Projective tests of the kinetic family J. Projective tests of the couple K. Projective tests person under rain L. Projective tests for children COMMONLY USED APTITUDE TESTS Aptitude tests are standardized instruments assessing specific cognitive, perceptual, or physical skills. These tests are frequently used in industry to inform decisions about hiring, placement, and advancement. In addition, aptitude tests are used in selection procedures for college, professional programs, and career planning. Aptitude tests are also useful for program evaluation and answering research questions based on scientific inquiry. In most cases, aptitude tests are administered in group format. The following are examples of commonly used aptitude tests: 1. Numerical Reasoning Test Numerical reasoning tests are standardized psychometric assessment tests that provide the employing organization with information about a candidate’s general numerical aptitude. These tests are designed to measure a candidate’s ability to make correct decisions or inferences from numerical or statistical data. It is intended to measure the ability to work with numerical data in a realistic workplace context. 2. Verbal Reasoning Test

This type of test may be employed to gauge your understanding of written texts and how factual your drawn conclusions are from the written material. You may be given a small passage of text and asked to give a False, True or Cannot Say reply to every statement. Verbal reasoning tests may help recruiters identify those candidates who can understand, analyse and make their own accurate conclusions from written materials, no matter what the industry they are working in. 3. In-Tray and E-tray Exercises In-Tray and E-Tray exercises are standardized psychometric assessment tests that provide the employing organization with information about a candidate’s general ability to manage and respond to a series of different tasks, to negotiate conflicting demands and analyse different priorities. 4. Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning tests are one of the most commonly used aptitude tests that come up during a job application. Inductive reasoning tests are standardized psychometric assessment tests that provide the employing organization with information about a candidate’s problem-solving abilities. This test is designed to measure a candidate’s ability to work flexibly with unfamiliar information and find solutions. People who perform well on inductive reasoning tests tend to have a greater capacity to think conceptually as well as analytically. 5. Mechanical Reasoning Tests Mechanical reasoning tests usually target and assess your depth of ability and competency with mechanical concepts. Also, they may help measure your innate capacity to make use of application engineering principles in order to come up with the correct answer. Usually, mechanical reasoning tests are used in the recruiting process of technical and engineering job positions. These tests may include problems relating to mechanical and engineering concepts and may be designed to gradually increase in difficulty while maintaining the same amount of time limitation. 6. Diagrammatic Reasoning Test

Also known as abstract reasoning tests, these tests’ usual purpose is gauging your ability to understand shapes, abstract ideas and how fast can you observe or extract rules from illustrations and apply them to new samples to come up with the correct answer. This test may be challenging since there will be no words or numbers, but only purely illustrations depicting different shapes, sequences, and patterns that may gradually increase in the level of difficulty. This type of aptitude test may be beneficial for some employers, as they will have a clear idea of the logical reasoning abilities of their employees that are not bound by linguistic or mathematical skills and knowledge. This test is commonly used when screening job applicants for positions that require decisive problem-solving abilities and initiative to work. 7. Spatial Reasoning Test Spatial reasoning tests are also called spatial awareness tests and may be used to measure your innate ability to clearly manipulate and remember shapes, still images and extract possible patterns that govern their sequence or their order. 8. Situational Judgement Test Situational judgment tests are one of the most commonly used aptitude tests that come up during a job application. Situational judgment tests are standardized psychometric assessment tests that provide the employing organization with information about a candidate’s general ability to choose the most appropriate action in workplace situations. These tests are designed to measure a candidate’s ability to handle situations that they could encounter in the job that they are applying for. 8. Mental Arithmetic Tests Mental arithmetic tests are standardized psychometric assessment tests that provide the employing organization with information about a candidate’s general numerical aptitude. These tests are designed to measure a candidate’s basic numeracy and can be categorized as a speed test. 9. Number Sequences

Number sequence tests, also called number series, are standardized psychometric assessment tests that provide the employing organization with information about a candidate’s general ability to logically reason with numbers. In this test, you are to find the missing number in a given sequence. This initial sequence has a defined pattern and you are to determine this pattern and thereby find the missing number. 10. Verbal Analogies Verbal analogies tests are standardized psychometric assessment tests (also used on SAT, GRE and other professional exams) that provide the employing organization with information about a candidate’s general verbal acuity and insight. Verbal analogies tests are designed to measure a candidate’s ability to recognize relationships between ideas, think methodically and fluency in the English language. 11. Vocabulary Tests Vocabulary Tests are standardized psychometric assessment tests that provide the employing organization with information about a candidate’s general vocabulary size. 12. Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Tests The Watson Glaser critical thinking test, also referred to as critical reasoning test, is a commonly used aptitude tests that comes up during a job application. Critical thinking tests are a widely used aptitude test for selecting candidates of graduate, professional and managerial level. 13. Syllogisms Syllogism tests are one of the most commonly used aptitude tests that come up during a job application. Syllogism tests are standardized psychometric assessment tests that provide the employing organization with information about a candidate’s deductive and logical reasoning skills. 14. Word Problem Tests Math word problem tests are used in aptitude tests as well as in SAT and ACT tests. Math word problem tests are standardized psychometric assessment tests that provide the employing

organization with information about a candidate’s general reading comprehension skills, ability to visualize information and numerical aptitude. 15. Logical Reasoning Logical reasoning tests are standardized psychometric assessment tests that provide the employing organization with information about a candidate’s general problem-solving ability. This type of test usually does not require numerical or verbal skills, but there are different variations out there that do. Logical reasoning tests are designed to assess a candidate’s ability at skills such as how to interpret patterns and/or the relationships between shapes. COMMONLY USED INTEREST TESTS An interest is a subjective attitude motivating a person to perform a certain task. It affords pleasure and satisfaction. It results in curiosity towards the object of interest, enthusiasm to be attached to the object, strength of will to face difficulties while engaged in the task of one’s interest, a definite change in behaviour in the presence of the object characterised by attention and concentration. The tools for measurement of interest are of two types – formal and informal. The formal methods are specialised and standardised measuring instruments such as interest inventories, interest test batteries. The informal methods include the person’s own statement, a record of his activities and observation by the parents and the teachers. The former i.e., the informal methods are usually supplemented by the informal methods. Three notable formal methods universally employed are: 1. Strong Vocational Interest Blank, 2. Kuder Preference Record, and 3. Thurstone’s Vocational Interest Schedule. A brief description of each is given below:

1. Strong Vocational Interest Blank: Prof. Strong of Stanford University California designed and standardised this check list. The check list contains 400 separate items. It is presented to the individual and he is simply asked to indicate whether he likes, dislikes or is indifferent, on a three point scale. The test reveals the interest maturity of the individual, his masculinity and of femininity, and his occupational level. The 400 items include 100 occupations, 49 recreations, 36 school subjects, 48 activities and 47 peculiar interests. As such it is useful for both educational and vocational guidance. 2. Kuder Preference Record: This has been prepared by G. Frederic Kuder. This test covers a wider field, comprising of nine separate scales of occupations, viz. mechanical, computational, scientific, persuasive, artistic, literary, musical, social and clerical. Kuder presupposes three major interests viz. mechanical, literary and artistic. So when the same task is presented to the subject, with three related activities, the subject will select the activity that relates one of the three interests that he possesses. A detailed scoring system is employed for analysis and interpretation. A percentile of 75 or above is considered significantly high. If a person goes beyond P 75 in any of the areas, all the occupations in that area are attractive for him. 3. Thurston’s Vocational Interest Schedule: This test has been devised by Thurstone. He administered a comprehensive test to 3400 college students who expressed their Likeness (L). Indifference (I) and Dislike (D) to each of the items in the test. He analysed the test scores and through the techniques of factor analysis, arrived at 8 factors of interest viz.; (i) Commercial Interest, (ii) Legal,

(iii) Athletic, (iv) Academic, (v) Descriptive, (vi) Biological, (vii) Physical Science, (viii) Art. Some less used interest tests are Hepner’s Vocational Interest Quotient and Lufburrow’s Interest Blank. The latter is of the same design as Strong’s Blank. It gives eleven families instead of nine, viz. Artistic, Commercial, Constructions, Industrial, Scientific, Humanistic literary, Transpositional, Mechanical and Technical. Clecton’s vocational Interest Inventory deal with 9 groups of occupations and contains 630 items. The subject is to answer 40 questions and list his interests. There are two more inventories which are specially prepared for women. Manson’s Occupational Interest Bank is for guiding women. Stewart and Brainard have prepared specific Interest Inventories of types, one each for girls, women, boys and men. Any type (say for girls) contains 20 groups of five questions dealing with no different interests. NEURO-PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS Neuropsychological tests are specifically designed tasks used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular brain structure or pathway. They usually involve the systematic administration of clearly defined procedures in a formal environment. Neuropsychological tests are typically administered to a single person working with an examiner in a quiet office environment, free from distractions. As such, it can be argued that neuropsychological tests at times offer an estimate of a person's peak level of cognitive performance. Neuropsychological tests are a core component of the process of conducting neuropsychological assessment.

Most neuropsychological tests in current use are based on traditional psychometric theory. In this model, a person's raw score on a test is compared to a large general population normative sample, that should ideally be drawn from a comparable population to the person being examined. Normative studies frequently provide data stratified by age, level of education, and/or ethnicity, where such factors have been shown by research to affect performance on a particular test. This allows for a person's performance to be compared to a suitable control group, and thus provide a fair assessment of their current cognitive functioning. SUMMARY Psychometric tests are a standard and scientific method used to measure individuals' mental capabilities and behavioural style. Psychometric tests are designed to measure candidates' suitability for a role based on the required personality characteristics and aptitude (or cognitive abilities). Psychometric tests are by no means a new concept; they have been used since the early 20th century, when they were originally used only for the purposes of educational psychology. It was in 1905 that Alfred Binet introduced the first 'intelligence test'. They have since evolved to become a common feature of the selection process - particularly within large, competitive organizations, which prefer these types of test as they can assess each candidate on their acquired skills rather than educational background. The term 'psychometric' is coined from the Greek words for mental and measurement. There are three main areas that the tests explore: your capabilities, aptitude for the job, and to determine whether your personality fits in with the vision of the organisation you are hoping to join. Essentially, the tests are looking to evaluate your intelligence, aptitude and personality, as well as how you handle pressure and your working style. KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS • ability test- Any test which measures a mental or physical competence to perform certain actions and is used to infer native capacity to learn or to perform. Such tests are usually referenced to specific age or group norms and are sometimes used to predict future academic

or vocational achievement. Examples include all intelligence tests, the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), and the Raven Progressive Matrices Test. • achievement test- Any test which measures a mental or physical competence to perform certain actions and is used to infer learning, usually in a particular setting such as a school or vocational training program. Such tests are usually referenced to specific age or group norms and are sometimes used to predict future academic or vocational achievement. The Iowa Tests of Basic Educational Skills are an example. Achievement tests may measure ability/competence or performance. • behavioral assessment- A research methodology designed to examine a target behaviour critically with consideration of the environmental antecedents and consequences that serve to produce and maintain the behaviour. • intelligence test- Any test that claims to measure general abilities or capacity to learn. The best known intelligence tests are the Wechsler scales of intelligence and the Stanford-Binet intelligence test. Both are individually administered tests which measure a variety of skills and make inferences about likely educational achievement and capacities to learn. • mental status examination- A comprehensive mental examination intended to include a global assessment of a subject’s personality, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural states. This usually includes an interview, taking a history, psychological testing, and gathering all other sources of available information in order to make a diagnosis and a prognosis and formulate a treatment plan. • neuropsychological assessment- Cognitive evaluation approached from a clinical neuropsychology perspective. It includes the assessment of different cognitive areas such as attention, memory, language, visual-perceptual processing, constructive skills, praxis abilities, spatial abilities, and executive functions. Usually, neuropsychological assessment has one or several of the following purposes: (1) to pinpoint a patient’s cognition frequently but not necessarily after an abnormal brain condition, in order to describe the pattern of impairments that may have occurred, that is, to pinpoint his/ her current cognitive status; (2) to analyze current symptoms and signs, in order to identify fundamental syndromes; (3) to suggest potential underlying pathological processes; (4) to suggest rehabilitative and compensatory strategies; (5) to provide additional information for a differential diagnosis.

• personality test- A group of procedures designed to quantify or classify some aspect of personality in an individual. Personality tests are used for psychological research, clinical assessment, and psycho-diagnosis and in screening and selection of job candidates for many occupations. • rating scale- A measurement scale using categories or descriptive phrases to represent quantitative values; often used in social science research to measure attitudes, perceptions, or performance levels. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Explain in detail the different Wechsler Intelligence Scales used? 2. Explain in detail the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)? UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. What is intelligence test? 2. What is personality test? 3. What are some of the attitude test? 4. What are some of the interest tests? 5. What is the application of psychological testing B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Cattell Propounded gf-gc theory of intelligence mainly based on–

(A) First order factors of abilities (B) Second order factors of abilities (C) Third order factors of abilities (D) Higher order factors of abilities 2. The chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance is called (A) Intelligence Quotient (B) Maturation (C) Mental age (D) None of the above 3. People with moderate mental retardation would have an IQ in the range of; (A) 10 to 19 (B) 35 to 54 (C) 55 to 70 (D) 20 to 34 4. Lana is friendly, always willing to help others and compassionate. We would expect Lana to score highly on: (A) extraversion (B) agreeableness

(C) neuroticism (D) openness to experience 5. Projective tests claim to reveal information about: (A) career aptitude (B) intellectual attainment (C) unconscious processes (D) parenting style Answer. 1. (B); 2 (C); 3 (B); 4 (B); 5 (C) SUGGESTED READINGS 1. Simon, L. (2000). Psychotherapy: Theory, practice, modern and postmodern influences. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. 2. Sundel, M. & Sundel, S. S. (2004). Behavior change in the human services: Behavioral and cognitive principles and applications (5th ed.). Thousand 3. Dryden, W. (2007). Dryden’s handbook of individual therapy (5th ed.). New Delhi, India: Sage. 4. Feltham, C. (Ed.) (1999). Controversies in psychotherapy and counseling. New Delhi, India: Sage. 5. Counselling: A Comprehensive Profession by Samuel T. Gladding and Promila Batra

6. Handbook of Counselling Psychology edited by Steven D. Brown, Robert W. Lent 7. Theories and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy by Gerald Coorey 8. Counselling: A Comprehensive Profession by Samuel T. Gladding and Promila Batra

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