MAP 604 4-5

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2 M.A.(Psy) Research Methods and Statistics-I Course Code: MAP 604 Semester: First e-Lesson: 3 SLM Unit: 4-5 https://images.app.goo.gl/ibaW7YhjJ7LmSLJV6 www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

RESEARCH METHODS 33 AND STATISTICS-I OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION Understand the basic concept and importance of In this unit basic concept and importance research, the basics of research design and of experimental design, highlighting the evaluate types of research designs concept of independent and dependent variable. Understand and evaluate the process of research and sampling. The unit further discusses the research process , problem solving and Understand the concepts and explore the types formulation, review of Literature and of reliability and validity and evaluate the data hypothesis building and its types. analysis. Understand and explore Correlation and Regression and parametric and nonparametric test www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAMPAP60640)4) INASlTlITrUigThEt OarFeDrIeSsTAerNvCeEdAwNitDhOCNUL-INDEOLLEARNING

TOPICS TO BE COVERED 4 > Nature and importance of Experimental Design > Research process -Problem identification and formulation -Review of Literature -Hypothesis building and its types https://images.app.goo.gl/qhiaHBQmdQUHqGr8A www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 5 Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the different conditions (or IV levels) in an experiment. Experimental designs are often touted as the most “rigorous” of all research designs or, as the “gold standard” against which all other designs are judged. Thus we can say that an experiment is a type of research method in which you manipulate one or more independent variables and measure their effect https://images.app.goo.gl/pWur9DJmeqeD6hFR9 on one or more dependent variables. Or Experimental design means creating a set of procedures to test a hypothesis. Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL www.cuidol.in

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 6 Defining the experimental design consists of the following steps: 1. Identify the experimental unit. 2. Identify the types of variables. 3. Define the treatment structure. 4. Define the design structure. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONCEPTS OF EXPERIMENTAL 7 DESIGN • Experimental (or Sampling) Unit : The first step in detailing the data collection protocol is to define the experimental unit. • An experimental or sampling unit is the person or object that will be studied by the researcher. This is the smallest unit of analysis in the experiment from which data will be collected. • For example, depending on the objectives, experimental or sampling units can be individual persons, students in a classroom, the classroom itself, an animal or a litter of animals, a plot of land, patients from a doctor's office, and so on. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

CONCEPTS OF EXPERIMENTAL 8 DESIGN  Types of variables : A data collection plan considers how four important variables: background, constant, uncontrollable, and primary, fit into the study. • It is important to consider all the relevant variables (even those variables that might, at first, appear to be unnecessary) before the final data collection plan is approved in order to maximize confidence in the final results.  Treatment Structure The treatment structure consists of factors that the researcher wants to study and about which the researcher will make inferences. The primary factors are controlled by the researcher and are expected to show the effects of greatest interest on the response variable(s). For this reason, they are called primary factors. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN 9 There are some uniqueness of Experimental research design : 1. Experimental design is unique un two important respects:- a) Only type of research that attempts to influence a particular variable b) Best type of research for testing hypotheses about cause and effect relationships 2. Experimental research looks at the following variables:- a) Independent variables (treatment) b) Dependent variable (outcome) www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

FEATURES OF A GOOD 10 RESEARCH DESIGN 1. A good research design should be flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical. 2. Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed is considered a good design. 3. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many investigations. 4. a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem. 5.Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES 11 In Experimental designs Variables are an important part of an eye tracking experiment. A variable is anything that can change or be changed. In other words, it is any factor that can be manipulated, controlled for, or measured in an experiment. There are main two types of experimental Variables in experimental design:- 1. Independent Variables 2. Dependent Variables www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES 12 1. Independent Variables (IV) : An independent variable is defines as the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment. It represents the cause or reason for an outcome. • Independent variables are the variables that the experimenter changes to test their dependent variable. •A change in the independent variable directly causes a change in the dependent variable. Or we can say that the variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to measure. It refers to the condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated by the investigator. It is the presumed cause. 2. Dependent Variables (DV) : These are the factor that you observe or measure. As you vary your independent variable you watch what happens to your dependent variable. Or the variable that depends on other factors that are measured. These variables are expected to change as a result of an experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables. It is the presumed effect. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

13 Here is some Examples of Independent and Dependent variable in Experimental designs www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 14 INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES www.cuidol.in https://i.pinimg.com All right are reserved with CU-IDOL Unit-4,5(MAP 604)

RESEARCH PROCESS 15 The research process involves identifying, locating, assessing, and analyzing the information you need to support your research question, and then developing and expressing your ideas. These are the same skills you need any time you write a report, proposal, or put together a presentation. https://images.app.goo.gl/rRWtJKmEtCWSfLcVA www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

RESEARCH PROCESS 16 www.cuidol.in https://i.pinimg.com All right are reserved with CU-IDOL Unit-4,5(MAP 604)

STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS 17 1. Selecting the research area. 2. Formulating research aim, objectives and research questions or developing hypotheses. 3. Conducting the literature review. 4. Selecting methods of data collection. 5. Collecting the primary data. 6. Data analysis and Reaching conclusions 7. Completing the research. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

RESEARCH PROBLEM 18 • A statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. •In some social science disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the form of a question Basic characteristics of research problem: For your research problem to be effective, make sure that it has these basic characteristics: 1. Reflecting on important issues or needs; 2. Basing on factual evidence (it’s non-hypothetical); 3. Being manageable and relevant; 4. Suggesting a testable and meaningful hypothesis (avoiding useless answers). www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

RESEARCH PROBLEM 19 In Research process problem identification is very a very important step or element. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION Problem Identification consists of: 1. Clearly identifying the root cause of a problem. 2. Developing a detailed problem statement that includes the problem’s effect on a population’s health. 3. Identifying the true, underlying problem 4. Framing the problem accurately www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

RESEARCH PROBLEM 20 Problem Identification is very important because , You need to make sure you are identifying the true, underlying problem causing the public health issue—and this is not always obvious. www.cuidol.in https://www.cdc.gov All right are reserved with CU-IDOL Unit-4,5(MAP 604)

RESEARCH PROBLEM 21 PROBLEM FORMULATION The problem formulation consists of just one sentence and should make it clear to everyone what research problem, you aim to address and to whom and where it is relevant. In other words, the problem formulation is the heart (or core) of your thesis to which you should always return if you lose track during your further research and writing process. OR We can say that :- The process in which a problem situation is described or modeled, problem structure. It is the process of determining the constituent parts of a problem: its important factors and variables, and the interrelationships between them. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

RESEARCH PROBLEM 22 The Formulation of a research problem consists of the following steps: 1. Identify a broad area of your interest. 2. Dissect the broad area into sub- areas 3. Select one of the sub-area 4. Raise research questions 5. Formulate the objectives 6. Review its context or environment 7. Explore its nature 8. Determine variable relationships 9. Anticipate the possible consequences of alternative approaches www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

Review the Literature 23 Now that the problem has been identified and formulate, then the researcher must learn more about the topic under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

Review the Literature 24 A literature review involves collecting, evaluating and analyzing publications (such as books and journal articles) that relate to your research question. There are five main steps in the process of writing a literature review: • search for relevant literature • Evaluate sources • Identify themes, debates and gaps • Outline the structure • Write your literature review A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources – it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

Review the Literature 25 The purpose of a literature review 1. Provide foundation of knowledge on topic 2. Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication and give credit to other researchers 3. Identify inconstancies: gaps in research, conflicts in previous studies, open questions left from other research 4. Identify need for additional research (justifying your research) 5. Identify the relationship of works in context of its contribution to the topic and to other works 6. Place your own research within the context of existing literature making a case for why further study is needed. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

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SOURCES OF REVIEW 27 OF LITERATURE • A primary source is an original object or • A secondary source is something written document -- the raw material or first-hand about a primary source. Secondary sources information, source material that is closest to include comments on, interpretations of, or what is being studied. Scientific and other peer discussions about the original material. reviewed journals are excellent sources for primary research. • Secondary source materials can be articles in newspapers or popular magazines, book or • Primary sources vary by discipline and can movie reviews, or articles found in scholarly include historical and legal documents, eye journals that evaluate or criticize someone witness accounts, results of an experiment, else's original research. statistical data, pieces of creative writing, and art objects. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

HYPOTHESIS BUILDING 28 A hypothesis is a prediction you create prior to running an experiment. The common format is: If [cause], then [effect], because [rationale]. In the world of experience optimization, strong hypotheses consist of three distinct parts: a definition of the problem, a proposed solution, and a result. https://help.optimizely.com/@api/deki/files/ www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

29 https://www.enago.com/academy/ www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

HYPOTHESIS BUILDING 30 Steps of building a hypothesis 1. Ask a question Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project. Do students who attend more lectures get better exam results? 2. Do some preliminary research Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what your research will find. At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to identify which variables you will study and what you think the relationships are between them. 3. Formulate your hypothesis Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence. Attending more lectures leads to better exam results. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

HYPOTHESIS BUILDING 31 4. Refine your hypothesis You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain: •The relevant variables •The specific group being studied •The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis 5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if…then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable. If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will improve. In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables. The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their exam scores. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

HYPOTHESIS BUILDING 32 If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find between them. First-year students who attended most lectures will have better exam scores than those who attended few lectures. 6. Write a null hypothesis If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing, you will also have to write a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H0, while the alternative hypothesis is H1 or Ha. H0: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has no effect on their final exam scores. H1: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their final exam scores. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

HYPOTHESIS BUILDING 33 Importance of a Testable Hypothesis To devise and perform an experiment using the scientific method, you need to make sure that your hypothesis is testable. To be considered testable, some essential criteria must be met: 1. There must be a possibility to prove that the hypothesis is true. 2. There must be a possibility to prove that the hypothesis is false. 3. The results of the hypothesis must be reproducible. 4. Without these criteria, the hypothesis and the results will be vague. As a result, the experiment will not prove or disprove anything significant. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

HYPOTHESIS BUILDING 34 TYPES OF HYPOTHESES • Simple Hypothesis It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent variable. For example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here, eating more vegetables is an independent variable, while losing weight is the dependent variable. • Complex Hypothesis It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more independent variables. Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing skin, reduces the risk of many diseases such as heart disease, high blood pressure, and some cancers. • Directional Hypothesis It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome. The relationship between the variables can also predict its nature. For example- children aged four years eating proper food over a five year period are having higher IQ level than children not having a proper meal. This shows the effect and the direction of effect. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

HYPOTHESIS BUILDING 35 • Non-directional Hypothesis It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists between two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the relationship. • Null Hypothesis It provides the statement which is contrary to hypothesis. It’s a negative statement, and there is no relationship between independent and dependent variable. The symbol is denoted by “HO”. www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. If X predicts Y, it does mean X causes Y. 36 a) True b) False 2. A designed experiment is a test or series of tests in which ____ changes are made to the input variables so that we may observe and identify corresponding changes in the output response. a) Systematic b) Random c) Purposeful d) Non-purposeful 3. Experimental design methods are not used ____ a) Evaluating the process capability b) In process development c) In process troubleshooting to improve process performance d) To obtain a process that is robust and insensitive to external sources of variability Answers: 1. a) 2.c) 3.a) www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 37 4. If the assumed hypothesis is tested for rejection considering it to be true is called? a) Null Hypothesis b) Statistical Hypothesis c) Simple Hypothesis d) Composite Hypothesis 5. If the null hypothesis is false then which of the following is accepted? a) Null Hypothesis b) Positive Hypothesis c) Negative Hypothesis d) Alternative Hypothesis. 6. A qualitative research problem statement: Specifies the research methods to be utilized Specifies a research hypothesis Expresses a relationship between variables Conveys a sense of emerging design Answers: 4. c) 5. d) 6.d) www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

SUMMARY 38 • Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the different conditions (or IV levels) in an experiment. • There are main two types of experimental Variables in experimental design:- Independent Variables and Dependent Variables. • The research process involves identifying, locating, assessing, and analyzing the information you need to support your research question, and then developing and expressing your ideas. • The problem formulation consists of just one sentence and should make it clear to everyone what research problem, you aim to address and to whom and where it is relevant. • A literature review involves collecting, evaluating and analyzing publications (such as books and journal articles) that relate to your research question. There are five main steps in the process of writing a literature review: search for relevant literature, Evaluate sources, Identify themes, debates and gaps, Outline the structure, Write your literature review www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 39 1. What is the deference between independent variable and dependent variable? 2. What is Experimental design? 3. Give examples of primary sources and secondary sources of review of literature. 4. Give any example of null hypothesis. 5. What are the types of hypotheses? www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

REFERENCES 40 Kothari, C.R., (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: New age international Itd. Herson, M. & Barlow, D. H. (1980) Single – Case Experimental Designs New Delhi: Prentice – Hall of India Limited. Singh A.K. (2006). 5th ed. Tests, Measurement and Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences. Patna: Bharati Bhavan. http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploratory_research. https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/research-design-and-methodology. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iMVuPJc1waY www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL

41 THANK YOU www.cuidol.in Unit-4,5(MAP 604) All right are reserved with CU-IDOL