CU-MCA-SEM-I-Advanced Computer Networks-Second Draft

The advancement of wireless technology has resulted in numerous breakthroughs due to its useful qualities. The transmission distance can range from a few metres (for example, the remote control on a television) to thousands of kilometres (for example, radio communication). Cellular telephony, wireless internet access, wireless home networking, and other applications can all benefit from wireless communication. GPS devices, garage door openers, wireless computer mouse, keyboards, and headsets, headphones, radio receivers, satellite television, broadcast television, and cordless telephones are all examples of radio wireless technology uses. Advantages of Wireless Wireless communication is the transfer of data among two or more points without the use of a physical link. Wireless communication provides various advantages due to the lack of any \"physical infrastructure.\" This frequently entails shrinking distance or space. Wireless communication has a number of benefits, the most notable of which are listed below. Efficiency in terms of cost The utilisation of connection wires is required for wired communication. Communication through wireless networks does not necessitate a complex physical infrastructure or routine maintenance. As a result, the cost is lowered. For example, a company that provides wireless communication services doesn't really incur a lot of expenses, thus it may offer low consumer rates. Flexibility People can communicate regardless of location thanks to wireless communication. To communicate messages, you do not need to be in an office or a telephone booth. Miners in the outback can use satellite phones to communicate with loved ones, improving their overall well-being by keeping individuals in touch with those who matter most to them. Convenience Wireless communication technologies, such as cell phones, are relatively simple to use and may thus be used by anyone, regardless of location. To receive or send messages, with no need to physically link anything. Wireless communications services, for example, can be found in Internet technologies like Wi-Fi. We now can connect with practically anyone, anywhere, at any time, because network connections are no longer a hindrance. Improvements in speed can also be noted. The accuracy and speed of network connectivity and accessibility were greatly improved. 201 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

A wireless remote, for example, can run a system quickly than a cable one. If something goes wrong with a machine, wireless control can easily stop it from working, whereas direct control couldn't. Accessibility Wireless technology aids accessibility by allowing isolated places where ground lines are unable to be adequately installed to connect to the network. Online education, for example, is now available in remote areas. Educators are no longer required to go to remote locations to provide their teachings. Thanks to their educational modules being streamed live. Constant communication People can also respond to catastrophes more swiftly thanks to constant connectivity. A wireless mobile phone, for example, can provide you with constant connectivity while you move from place to place or travel, whereas a wired land line cannot. 11.2 MOBILE ADHOC NETWORK (MANET) A MANET is made up of a collection of mobile devices that connect to establish a network as needed, without the requirement for any network infrastructure or fixed stations. A MANET is a self-contained network of nodes or MSs (also known as routers) connected via wireless links, the sum of which constitutes a communication network described as an unlimited communication graph. This is in contrast to well single hop cellular network paradigm, which relies on a cable backbone and fixed base stations to allow wireless exchange between devices mobile nodes. Because nodes are free to roam and each node has a limited transmitting power, access to the node is limited to the nearby range in a MANET, network topology can alter dynamically and in an unpredictable manner. MANETs are multi-hop, peer-to-peer wireless networks wherein the information packets are stored and forwarded from a source to that of an arbitrary destination via intermediate nodes, as shown in the diagram: 202 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Figure 11.1 MANET: Networking link The connectedness of nodes may alter when they travel according to the relative placements of other nodes. The resulting change in network topology must be communicated to other nodes in order for previous topological information to be updated. As shown in the diagram, when MS2 changes its position relative from MS3 to MS4, other network nodes should use this specific path to forward packets to MS2. We presume that all nodes cannot be within radio range of each other in the diagram. If all nodes are within radio range of one another, there are no routing concerns to deal with. The topic of symmetrical and asymmetrical (bidirectional) and asymmetric (unidirectional) linkages is raised in the figures. Consider symmetric connections with associative radio range: if MS1 is within the radio range of MS3, MS3 is also within the radio range of MS1. The networking devices are in a symmetrical configuration. Because of variances in transmission power levels and geography, this assumption may not always be correct. In asymmetric networks, routing is a difficult task. Because finding the return path is difficult in some circumstances, it is able to discover routes that do not include asymmetric linkages. One of the many issues that a MANET face is the question of efficiency. The other difficulty is that different nodes' movement patterns differ. Other nodes are essentially immobile, while others are highly mobile. It is difficult to forecast a node's movement or direction of movement, and multiple studies have been conducted using various simulators to evaluate their efficacy. MANET's Characteristics The following are some of the characteristics of an adhoc network: Dynamic topologies: because nodes seem to be free to move around, the network topology can change in an instant and is primarily made up of bidirectional links. A unidirectional link may exist in some instances where the transmission power between two nodes differs. 203 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Wireless communications continue to have much lesser capacity as infrastructure networks due to bandwidth constraints and fluctuating capacity. Energy-constrained operation: some or all MSs in a MANET may rely on batteries or other non-renewable energy sources. The most essential system design optimization requirement for these nodes or devices may be energy conservation. Physical security is limited: MANETs are more vulnerable to physical security concerns than wireline networks. It's important to think about the increased risk of eavesdropping, spoofing, as well as denial of service (DoS) attacks. Many existing link security solutions are frequently used within wireless networks to reduce security concerns. MANET's Applications Industrial and commercial applications including cooperative mobile data exchange are examples of specific ad hoc network applications. Many present and emerging military networking requirements exist for strong, IP-compliant data services inside mobile wireless communication networks, and many of these networks are made up of highly dynamic autonomous topological segments. New applications are being enabled by advanced capabilities of mobile ad hoc networks, such as data rates compatible for multimedia applications, global roaming capability, or collaboration with other network architectures. Many military applications necessitate on-the-fly communications setup, and ad hoc/sensor networks are great choices for battlefield control. Applications for crisis management include: These can occur as a result of natural disasters that encompass the system communication infrastructure to be thrown into disorder. It is critical to swiftly restore communications. A paramedic aiding a traffic accident victim in a remote area must have access to medical records (such as X-rays) and may require video conference support from a surgeon for an emergency intervention. Throughout fact, the paramedic may have to transmit the victim's X- rays as well as other diagnostic tests from the accident scene to the hospital right away. Tele-geoprocessing application: A new type of application known as tele-geoprocessing is enabled by the integration of GPS, GIS (Geographical Information Devices), and high- capacity wireless mobile systems. Virtual Navigation: A remote dataset includes a graphical representation of a large metropolis' buildings, streets, and physical characteristics. They can also \"virtually\" view the inside of buildings, including an emergency evacuation plan, and locate potential places of interest. Due to the economic infeasibility of delivering pricey last-mile wire line internet service to all users in these places, educational opportunities are available on the internet or in remote areas. 204 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vehicular area network: This is a rapidly growing and extremely useful application of adhoc networks for delivering emergency services as well as other information. This works well in both urban and rural settings. The fundamentals and required data interchange that is advantageous in a certain context. 11.3 WIRELESS NETWORK SECURITY CONCERNS What is the definition of wireless security? Wireless security, which includes Wi-Fi networks, is the prevention of illegal access to or harm to computers or data via wireless networks. Wireless network security is often provided by wireless devices (generally a router/switch) that by default encrypt and secure all wireless traffic. Even if a hacker gains access to your network, the encryption prevents them from seeing any of your data. But that's not all there is to wireless network security. There are numerous ways for a hacker to attack your network, as well as numerous techniques to defend your wireless network. What security issues do we face in wireless environments? Some dangers (such as denial of service) can exist in any networking environment, while others are unique to wireless (i.e., rogue access and passive capturing). Take a look at a few examples: Service refusal A simple denial of service attack relies on limiting access to treatment on a wired or wireless network. This is usually performed by sending a large amount of traffic to a specific destination. The enormous volume of traffic surpasses the target machine, causing service disruption. Hackers can potentially launch a denial of service by simply interrupting the network's signal. This can be accomplished by generating enough interference on a single channel to cause the service to be interrupted. Access to the rogue Hackers frequently utilise a rogue access point set up within range to your existing wireless network as a method of attack. The concept of a rogue access point is straightforward. Hackers create these fictitious networks in order to trick people and devices within range into using those access points. This allows hackers to gain access to data on otherwise secure devices. Capturing in the passive mode Another threat to your wireless network's security is passive capturing. Setting up devices within network range and \"listening\" to a data traffic passing along your network and recording that information is how passive capturing is done. Depending on the hacker's purpose, what they do with that information varies. Some try to break through your current 205 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

security settings by analysing network traffic, while others merely browse through non- secured traffic for important information about your business activities. 11.4WIRELESS SECURITY THREATS: 5 SOLUTIONS External and internal rules, management, and security design that provide high security level and the flexibility to respond to new threats are the best approaches to wireless security. These policies will assist you in determining how to manage wireless network access and keep authorised users safe and protected while blocking unauthorised users. A few of these solutions are industry standards for any networking context (Nos. 1-3); while others are wireless security threats-specific remedies (No. 4-5). Your company's wireless network may be protected with a comprehensive strategy. Firewalls With a good firewall, your firm can build a solid security platform to prevent access and provide safe network access to on-site and distant employees, business partners, and customers. In all secure networks, whether wired and wireless, firewalls are a must-have security feature. Detection of intrusion Intrusion detection / prevention software, which may be found in both wired and wireless networks, gives your network the software intelligence it needs to quickly detect and stop attacks, threats, worms, viruses, and other threats. Filtering of content number In all network contexts, content filtering is just as vital as the first two methods since it protects you from internal activity. Filtering & monitoring software keeps your user from sharing anything on the internet that could be detrimental to your business. Authentication The secure data on your network is protected by authentication and identification techniques. Key fobs and biometric authentication, in addition to password protection, ensure that only individuals with the proper authority to access your secure data may do so, keeping your wireless network safe. Encryption of data In today's business world, gathering, evaluating, and (most crucially) disseminating vital information about your company and its consumers is critical. Data encryption can be used to protect data shared across wireless networks, virtual private networks, and Secure Socket Layers. Guide 206 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Wireless local area networks (WLANs) use radio waves instead of wires to transmit and receive data. WLANs are subject to illegal interception, eavesdropping, hacking, and a variety of other cyber security threats because to the lack of a physical barrier. 11.5 THREATS AND ISSUES WITH WIRELESS NETWORKS The following are the three more common WLAN security threats: Spoofing or session hijacking - where an attacker gains access to the network data and resources by impersonating a legitimate user eavesdropping - when unauthorised third-parties intercept data being transmitted across a secure network To protect yourself from these risks, make every effort to set up your WLAN appropriately. Along with other access control measures, you should activate a variety of security features, such as conventional authentication and encryption. WLAN security characteristics that are essential Several basic security mechanisms were utilised in early WLAN gear, including: SSIDs (Service Set Identifiers) - they block devices from connecting to access points unless they use the correct identifier. The use of addresses associated to each device for limit connection on access points is known as Media Access Control (MAC). WEP stands for Wired Equivalent Privacy, and it encrypts data so that only devices with both the correct key may communicate with access points. What are the dangers that your wireless network may face? The risks of an unprotected wireless network are the same if it's a residential or commercial network. The following are some of the dangers: Piggybacking Everyone with a wireless-enabled computer within range of your access point can utilise your connection if you fail to safeguard your wireless network. An access point's normal interior broadcast range is 150–300 feet. This range can extend up to 1,000 feet in the open air. If you reside in a densely populated area or in an apartment or condominium, failing to secure the wireless network could expose your internet connection to a large number of undesired users. These users may be able to engage in unlawful activities, monitor and record your online activity, or steal personal information. Wardriving Wardriving is a type of piggybacking that is unique. A wireless access point's broadcast range can enable internet connections accessible outside your home, even across the street. Knowing this, some computer users have created a hobby of driving about cities and 207 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

neighbourhoods with a wireless-enabled computer—sometimes with such a powerful antenna—looking for unprotected wireless networks. Wardriving is the term for this type of behaviour. Attacks of the Evil Twin An attacker obtains information on a public network access point and then puts up their system to imitate it in an evil twin attack. The adversary generates a stronger broadcast signal than the legal access point, whereupon naïve users connect to using the stronger signal. Because the victim connects to the internet through the attacker's machine, it's simple for the attacker to read whatever data the victim transmits over the internet using specific tools. Credit card numbers, login and password combinations, as well as other personal information may be included in this data. Before using a public Wi-Fi hotspot, double-check the name and password. This ensures that you're connecting to a secure access point. Sniffing on the Internet Many public access points are unprotected, and the data they transmit is unencrypted. This could jeopardise your confidential interactions or transactions. Malicious actors can use sniffing tools to get usernames and passwords or credit card details because your connection is transferred \"in the clear.\" Make sure that all of the access points to which you connect employ WPA2 encryption. Unauthorized Access to Computers An unsecured public WIFI network combined together unprotected file sharing could provide a hostile person access to any directories and files you've mistakenly shared. When connecting your devices to public networks, make sure you disable file and folder sharing. Allow sharing only on authorised home networks and only when it is absolutely essential. Make sure that data access is turned off when it isn't in use. This will help protect your device's files from an unknown intruder. Surfing on the Shoulders Malicious actors can easily look over your shoulder while you type in public places. They can steal important or confidential information only by watching you. Screen protectors, which prevent shoulder-surfers from viewing your device's screen, are inexpensive. When accessing sensitive information or entering passwords on tiny devices, such as phones, be aware of your surroundings. Mobile Device Theft is a serious problem. Not all attackers rely on wireless methods to obtain access to your data. Attackers could have full access to all of your device's data, and any connected cloud accounts, by physically snatching it. It's crucial to take precautions to protect your gadgets from loss or theft, but if the worst happens, a little planning ahead of time could save the data on them. Most mobile devices, especially laptop computers, have the potential to fully encrypt all stored data, 208 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

rendering them unusable to attackers who do not have the correct password or PIN (PIN). In addition to encrypting device material, it's a good idea to set your device's apps to ask for login information prior allowing access towards any cloud-based data. Finally, individual files containing personal or sensitive information should be encrypted or password-protected. In the event that an attacker manages to obtain access to your device, this will provide another more layer of defence. 11.6 REDUCE THE DANGERS What can you do to reduce the dangers that your wireless network faces? Default passwords should be changed. To make setup easier, most network equipment, including wireless access points, come pre-configured using default administrator passwords. Because these default passwords are done easily online, they offer only a sliver of safety. Changing strong passwords makes it more difficult for hackers to get access to a computer. Complex passwords, which you should use and change on a regular basis, are your first line of defence in protecting your device. (For further information, read Choosing and Protecting Passwords.) Access should be limited. Allow only authorised users to connect to your network. A media access control (MAC) address is assigned to each piece of network hardware. By filtering these MAC addresses, you may restrict access to the network. For particular instructions on how to enable these capabilities, consult your user documentation. You can also make advantage of the \"guest\" account, which is a common feature on several wireless routers. This feature allows users to provide guests wireless access on a separate communication network with a different password while keeping your primary credentials private. Protect the data on the network by encrypting it. By encrypting your wireless data, anyone who has access to your network will be unable to see it. This security can be provided by a variety of encryption protocols. The Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), WPA2, and WPA3 protocols encrypt data sent between wireless routers and devices. WPA3 is the most secure encryption available right now. Although WPA and WPA2 are still available, it is recommended that you use equipment that supports WPA3, as utilising the previous protocols may expose your network to exploitation. Keep your Service Set Identifier safe (SSID). Avoid making your SSID public to prevent others from simply accessing your network. Users can secure their device's SSID on all Wi-Fi routers, making it more difficult for hackers to find a network. Change your SSID to anything unique at the very least. Leaving it at the manufacturer's default settings could enable a potential attacker to figure out what kind of router you have and exploit any known flaws. Set up a firewall. Consider putting a firewall on both your wireless devices and your home network (a host-based firewall) (a router- or modem-based firewall). Attackers who gain direct access to your wireless network may be able to bypass your network firewall; a host- 209 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

based firewall, on the other hand, adds another layer of security to your computer's data (see Understanding Firewalls for Home and Small Office Use). Keep your antivirus software up to date. Install antivirus software and update your virus definitions on a regular basis. Many antivirus applications additionally include spyware and adware detection and protection features (see Protecting against Malicious Code and What Is Cybersecurity?). Use caution when sharing files. When not in use, file sharing among devices should be disabled. Always allow file sharing only on your home or work networks, and never on public networks. You might want to consider making a separate file-sharing directory and restricting access to other directories. Furthermore, anything you share should be password protected. Never share a whole hard drive's worth of files (see Choosing and Protecting Passwords). Keep the software on your access point patched and up to date. The vendor of your wireless access point will provide software and firmware upgrades and fixes on a regular basis. Check the manufacturer's website for any updates or patches for the device on a regular basis. Check the wireless security options provided by your internet provider or router manufacturer. Your internet service provider or router manufacturer may be able to supply you with resources or information to help you secure your wireless network. Specific recommendations or instructions can be found in the customer service section of their websites. Use a VPN (Virtual Private Network) to connect (VPN). A VPN is used by many businesses and organisations. Employees can safely access to their network when absent from work using VPNs. VPNs encrypt connections at both the sending and receiving ends and filter out unencrypted traffic. If you have access to a VPN, make sure you utilise it whenever you have to use an open wireless access point. 11.7 SUMMARY • By any measure, wireless communications are the fastest-growing section of the communications business. As a result, it has piqued the media's interest as well as the public's imagination. • Over the previous decade, cellular systems have grown at an exponential rate, with around two billion subscribers globally. Indeed, in most industrialised countries, cellular phones are now a key business tool and an integral part of daily life, and in many developing countries, they are swiftly displacing outmoded landline infrastructure. • Furthermore, in many homes, organisations, and campuses, wireless local area networks are supplementing or replacing wired networks 210 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Many new applications are growing from research ideas to tangible systems, such wireless communication, automated highways and industries, smart homes & appliances, and remote telemedicine. • Wireless networks have a bright future, as both stand-alone systems or as part of broader networking infrastructure, thanks to the fast rise of wireless systems and the proliferation on laptop & palmtop computers. However, creating durable wireless networks that give the performance required to support future applications remains a technical problem. 11.8KEYWORDS • MANET- a MANET is made up of a collection of mobile devices that connect to establish a network as needed, without the requirement for any network infrastructure or fixed stations. • SSIDs (Service Set Identifiers) - they block devices from connecting to access points unless they use the correct identifier. • MAC- The use of addresses associated to each device for limit connection on access points is known as Media Access Control (MAC). 11.9 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Flying ad hoc networks have their own characteristic Compared to MANET Is there a difference in their layered architecture? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. Five years back there was a lot of activity in the Wireless Standards Development (WiMAX, LTE, ZigBee, and UWB). Now only LTE? Have we reached saturation? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 11.10UNIT ENDQUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Define MANET. 2. List the characteristics of MANET. 3. Define virtual navigation. 4. Give the 5 solutions to security threats. 211 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5. Write the characteristics of WLAN security. Long Questions 1. Explain the applications of MANET. 2. Explain the definition of wireless security. 3. What security issues do we face in wireless environments? 4. Explain about piggy backing. 5. What are the dangers that your wireless network may face. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. ______ is made up of a collection of mobile devices that connect to establish a network. a. Satellite b. MANET c. IEEE d. Networks 2. One of the many issues that a MANET face is the question of____ a. Radio frequency b. transmitter c. efficiency d. signal 3. Hackers frequently utilise a ___ access point set up a. rogue b. passive mode c. transmitter d. frequency 4. _____is the prevention of illegal access to or harm to computers or data via wireless networks a. Wireless security 212 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

b. MANET c. Satellite d. Policy 5. A simple ____ attack relies on limiting access to treatment on a wired or wireless network a. piggy backing b. virtual threats c. interference d. denial of service Answers 1-b, 2- c, 3- a, 4- a, 5-d 11.11REFERENCES Reference books • Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking”, McGraw Hill. • Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, Pearson Education. • Subir Kumar Sarkar, T.G. Basavaraju, C. Puttaamadappa, “AdHoc Mobile Wireless Network: Principles, Protocols, and Applications, CRC Press. Textbook references • James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, “Computer Networking”, Pearson Education. • Michael A. Gallo, William M. Hancock, “Computer Communications and NetworkingTechnologies”, CENGAGE Learning Websites: • https://www.techopedia.com/definition/10062/wireless-communications • https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/ • https://www.guru99.com 213 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 12-MANET STRUCTURE 12.0 Learning objectives 12.1 Introduction to wireless communication system 12.2 Adhoc networks and its functions: 12.3 When to use adhoc networks? 12.4 The Benefits of a WANET 12.5 Disadvantages of Ad hoc networks 12.6 MANET Characteristics 12.7 MANET Challenges 12.8 Summary 12.9 Keywords 12.10 Learning activity 12.11 Unit End Questions 12.12 References 12.0LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: • Outline the basics of wireless communication system • Learn adhoc networks and its functions • Describe the benefits of WANET • Explain the characteristics and challenges of MANET 12.1 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS An ad hoc network forms when devices understand and interact with one another on their own. Ad hoc is indeed a Latin expression that means literally “for this,” meaning anything improvised or spontaneous. 214 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Figure 12.1 Wireless Communication Wireless local area networks are the most common type of ad hoc network (LANs). Instead of relying on even a base station or routers for data transfer coordination, as in wireless LANs, the devices communicate directly with one another. Each device takes part in routing activities by calculating the path using the routing algorithm & transmitting data to other devices along that route. Ad Hoc Network Classifications Depending on the nature of their uses, ad hoc networks could be divided into different types. The most popular ad hoc networks that are frequently used are depicted in the diagram below. 215 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 12.1 Adhoc Networks 12.2 ADHOC NETWORKS AND ITS FUNCTIONS What exactly is an ad hoc network, and how does it function? A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) is a sort of local area network (LAN) that is created on the fly to connect two or more wireless devices without the use of traditional network infrastructure equipment like a wireless router or access point. When Wi-Fi networks have been in ad hoc mode, each device on a network passes data to other devices that is not meant for it. Central servers are unnecessary for functions like file sharing and printing because the devices in the ad hoc network may access one another's resources directly via a basic peer-to- 216 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

peer (P2P) wireless connection. In a WANET, network activities such as routing, security, addressing, and key management are handled by a collection of devices known as nodes. Wireless network adapters or chips are required for devices in an ad hoc network, and they must be able to operate as a wireless router once connected. Every wireless adapter should be configured in ad hoc mode instead of infrastructure mode when setting up a wireless ad hoc network. The service set identification (SSID) & wireless frequency channel numbers must be the same on all wireless adapters. Network devices in ad hoc networks forward packets to or from each other rather than relying on a wireless base station that coordinate the flow of communications to each node in the network. Ad hoc wireless networks are beneficial in situations when there isn't a built-in wireless structure, such as when there aren't any access points and routers within range when cabling can't be extended to reach the site where more wireless communication is required. Not all Wi-Fi networks, however, are created equal. In fact, Wi-Fi access points can operate in two modes: ad hoc and infrastructure. Equipment like Wi-Fi routers, wireless access points (WAPs), and wireless controllers are commonly used to construct and administer Wi-Fi networks in infrastructure mode. Ad hoc networks are networks that are built on the fly by a laptop or other device. Ad hoc networks typically do not benefit from the usage of more sophisticated network systems and network services offered in infrastructure-based wireless networks. 12.3WHEN TO USE ADHOC NETWORKS? When to use ad hoc vs. wired network depends on the characteristics. Infrastructure mode is recommended for those who want their wireless router to function as a permanent access point.However, for just a user setting up a new wireless network with a small number of devices, ad hoc mode might be a decent alternative. In new sorts of wireless engineering, ad hoc networks are commonly used. They are excellent for crises such as natural catastrophes or military conflicts since they require minimum configuration and may be deployed fast. These networks may be swiftly configured because to the existence of dynamic and distributed routing technologies. These spontaneous, on- demand networks can be used to create a small, low-cost all-wireless LAN without any of the requirement for wireless infrastructure. They can also be used as a temporary backup option if the infrastructure mode network's equipment fails. One of the more common purposes for an ad hoc wireless network is to link several wireless endpoints to an internet via an ad hoc intermediary device, as shown in the accompanying example. The intermediary device is a PC or laptop with a wired internet connection and a second wireless chip/antenna to link other ad hoc wireless-capable gadgets to it for internet sharing. Ad hoc wireless network types 217 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

WANETs come in a variety of shapes and sizes, depending on the application and its intended purpose. The sort of wireless ad hoc network to use is determined by the wireless equipment's capabilities, the physical environment, and the communication's purpose. MANET. Mobile devices interact with one another in a mobile ad hoc network. A MANET is a self-organizing and self-configuring network comprising wireless mobile devices without the need for an infrastructure. An \"on-the-fly\" and \"spontaneous network\" is another term for a MANET. IMANETs. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) or User Datagram Protocol are supported by internet-based mobile ad hoc networks (UDP). To join mobile nodes & set up distributed routes, the iMANET uses network-layer network architecture for each linked device. IMANETs can also be used to collect sensor information for data mining in a range of applications, such as monitoring air pollution. SPANs. Smartphone ad hoc networks use existing hardware such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, as well as software protocols built into the smartphone operating system (OS), to create peer-to- peer (P2P) networks that do not rely on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points, or even other traditional network infrastructure equipment. SPANs, unlike typical hub-and- spoke networks like Wi-Fi Direct, allow for multi-hop relays. The method of transferring traffic from device A to device C via an intermediary device B is known as multi-hop relay. As a result, traffic between devices A and C does not require a direct P2P connection to reach its destination. Furthermore, because SPANs are totally dynamic, there is no concept of the group leader in this type of application, and peers can join or leave without causing harm to the network. Vehicle-to-vehicle ad hoc network. This network consists of gadgets in automobiles that communicate with one other and with roadside equipment. OnStar, an in-vehicle security and safety system, is an example. Mesh clients, mesh routers, and gateways are common components of wireless mesh networks, which are made up of radio networks set up inside a mesh topology. Mesh networking connects devices (or nodes) so that at least some, if not all, have multiple pathways to other nodes. This enables many paths for information to travel between users, boosting the network's resiliency in the event that a node or connection fails. Wireless mesh networks are beneficial in instances where a temporary wireless network was required or where network cabling is not available to construct an infrastructure-based wireless network. Wireless sensor networks, ad hoc smart home lighting, ad hoc streetlight networks, ad hoc robot networks, disaster relief ad hoc networks, and hospital ad hoc networks are all examples of ad hoc wireless networks. Army tactical MANETs, Air Force UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) ad hoc networks, and Navy ad hoc networks are all examples of wireless ad hoc networks with military uses. 218 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Wireless ad hoc networks have both benefits and drawbacks. While some Wi-Fi networking specialists argue that ad hoc networks require less technology and are less expensive to set up for small LANs, others argue that huge numbers of devices can be difficult to manage without a bigger, more substantial infrastructure. 12.4THE BENEFITS OF A WANET When only connecting multiple technologies witho1ut requiring a centralised access point, ad hoc mode could be easier to build than infrastructure mode. If a user has two computers and is staying in a hotel room without Wi-Fi, they can connect directly in ad hoc mode to make a small Wi-Fi network without the usage of a router. The Wi-Fi Direct standard, which builds on ad hoc mode and allows devices to communicate directly over Wi-Fi signals, allows devices certified for Wi-Fi Direct to exchange information without an internet connection or a wireless router. The following are some of the other advantages of wireless ad hoc networks: Ad hoc networks are a low-cost form of direct user communication because they don't require infrastructure gear like access points or wireless routers. When time is of the essence and laying cabling is not an option, ad hoc networks are a simple and effective approach to connect with devices nearby. Ad hoc networks are frequently guarded to prevent against attacks because of their transient, often spontaneous nature, which makes them prone to security risks. In comparison to a standard infrastructure-based network that really can connect many more devices, an ad hoc network connecting a small number of devices may be a more practical solution. 12.5DISADVANTAGES OF AD HOC NETWORKS Because of its limitations, some Wi-Fi-enabled technologies, such as some Android devices, wireless printers, and bespoke IoT sensors, do not support ad hoc mode and will only connect to networks under infrastructure mode by default. To enable ad hoc communications, third- party software is installed on edge devices in some instances. For setting up a greater and much more permanent network that really can serve significantly more endpoints, infrastructure mode is indeed a better alternative than ad hoc mode. Access point wireless routers often have higher-power wireless radios & antennas to give coverage over a larger region. Due to antennas placed into endpoints, ad hoc networks frequently come from bad wireless communication range difficulties. For setting up a greater and much more stable network that really can serve significantly more endpoints, infrastructure mode is indeed a better alternative than ad hoc mode. Access point wireless routers mostly have greater wireless radios & antennas to give coverage over a larger region. Because antennas incorporated into endpoints also weren't designed to be as 219 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

powerful as purpose-made WAPs, ad hoc networks sometimes suffer from low wireless communication range issues. Ad hoc networks don't scale effectively either. Because there is no central device in which all traffic travels in an ad hoc network, it becomes more difficult to manage as the number of devices grows. When multiple devices are linked to an ad hoc network, there will be greater wireless interference since each device needs establish a straight P2P connection with each of the other devices rather than travelling through a single access point as in a hub-and-spoke architecture. When a device is out of range of the device it wants to connect to, the data is passed through additional devices along the way, which is slower than transferring it via a single access point. The following are some of the other drawbacks of ad hoc wireless networks: In contrast to devices in infrastructure mode, devices inside an ad hoc network cannot prevent SSID broadcasting. As a result, if they are within signal range, attackers can locate and attach to an ad hoc device. Leading to a shortage of network infrastructure capabilities, such as accessibility to the RADIUS (remote authentication dial-in access network) server for authentication purposes, security options are limited. Wireless ad hoc networks can't connect to conventional LANs or the internet without a dedicated network gateway. The internet can only be accessed by devices because one of them is linked to it and exchanging it with others. When internet sharing is allowed, the client performing that function may experience performance issues, particularly if there are a lot of connected devices. Because the physical network layout varies when devices move around in ad hoc mode, additional endpoint system services are allocated; in comparison, an access point under infrastructure mode is often stable from the end-device perspective. Despite their drawbacks, wireless ad hoc networks are nevertheless a viable solution for a variety of personal and business applications. Creating an ad hoc network is indeed a quick and relatively straightforward approach to link two or more devices as long as network managers know the communications infrastructure of a WANET — because those capabilities can meet a specific purpose. MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network, also known as a wireless adhoc network or adhoc wireless network, which is usually built on top of a Link Layer ad hoc network and provides a routable networking environment. They are made up of a group of mobile nodes that are connected wirelessly in a self-configuring, self-healing network with no fixed infrastructure. Because the network architecture changes regularly, MANET nodes were free 220 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

to roam around at will. Each node acts as a router, forwarding traffic to other nodes in a network that have been designated. MANETs can either function alone or as part of a bigger internet. With the inclusion of one or more distinct transceivers between nodes, they establish a highly dynamic autonomous topology. The MANET's key difficulty is to equip each device with the necessary information to effectively route traffic on a continual basis. MANETs are peer-to-peer; self- forming, self-healing networks that typically interact at radio frequencies between the years 2000 and 2015. (30MHz-5GHz). Sensors for the environment, home, health, disaster rescue operations, air/land/navy defence, weaponry, robotics, and so on can all be employed in road safety. 12.6MANET CHARACTERISTICS Topologies in Motion: The topology of a multi-hop network can vary randomly and rapidly over time, forming unidirectional or bidirectional linkages. Links with limited bandwidth and fluctuating capacity: When compared to a wired network, wireless networks typically offer lesser dependability, efficiency, stability, and capacity. Behaviour that is self-contained: Each node can function as both a host and a router, demonstrating its autonomy. Operation with Energy Constraints: Because some or all of the nodes rely on batteries or other finite energy sources. Mobile nodes are distinguished by their lack of memory, power, and weight. Limited Protection: Wireless networks are more vulnerable to security attacks than wired networks. Due to the distributed nature of the operation for security, routing, and host configuration, a centralised firewall is not present. Human Intervention Is Reduced: They are dynamically autonomous in nature since they require minimal human interaction to configure the network. MANET's Advantages and Disadvantages - Pros: • Separation from the administration of the core network. • Each node can act as both a router and a host, demonstrating its autonomy. 221 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Human involvement is not required for self-configuring and self-healing nodes. Cons: • Due to numerous limits such as noise, interference situations, and so on, resources are limited. • There are no authorization facilities available. • Due of a lack of physical security, they are more vulnerable to attacks. Characteristics feature of MANET: MANETs have the following main characteristics: no centralised control, no association by many nodes, and rapid mobility of hosts, frequently dynamically varying network topology, able to share broadcast radio channel, unencrypted operating environment, physical vulnerability, and limited availability of resources such as CPU processing capabilities, memory power, battery power, and bandwidth. MANETs have dynamic network topologies, which allow nodes to move freely in any direction. The network's wireless topology, which mostly consists of bidirectional links, may change often and arbitrarily at unanticipated moments. Low Bandwidth: Compared to fixed infrastructure networks, these networks have a smaller capacity and a shorter transmission range. Because of the effects of multiple accesses, fading, noise, and interference, wireless communication has a lower throughput than cable communication. Limited Battery Power: The networks or hosts run on small batteries as well as other finite energy sources. As a result, the most significant design optimization objective is energy conservation. Decentralized Control: MANET's operation is reliant on the cooperation of network participants due to unreliable connectivity. As a result, any protocol involving a centralised authority or administrator is impossible to implement. Unreliable Communications: Because wireless links are shared-medium and have variable channel quality, they are prone to significant packet loss and re-routing instability, which would be a typical cause of throughput decreases in multi-hop networks. This means that in wireless ad hoc networks, the security solution cannot rely on secure transmission. Physical Security Is Inadequate: MANETs are more vulnerable to physical security concerns than fixed-cable networks. Mobile nodes are often small, soft, and hand-held. Portable devices are becoming increasingly tiny. An adversary may easily destroy, lose, or steal them, and then use them against you. It's important to think about the elevated risk of various types of attacks. 222 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Scalability: When considering a big network size, scalability is a major issue due to its limited processing and memory capability of mobile devices. Scalability is one of the key design concerns, with networks of 10,000 and even 100,000 nodes being envisaged. Each node in a MANET serves as both a host and a router. That is, its actions are self- contained. Multi-hop radio relaying- Whenever a message's source and destination nodes are both out of radio range, MANETs can perform multi-hop routing. Security, routing, and host setup are all distributed operations. There isn't a centralised firewall here.The network topology is dynamic since nodes can enter or leave a network at any time.Mobile nodes are distinguished by their lack of memory, power, and weight. When compared to wired lines, wireless links have lower dependability, efficiency, stability, and capacity. This graph depicts the fluctuating wireless connectivity bandwidth. Mobile and spontaneous activity necessitates minimal human involvement in network configuration. Because all nodes have the same characteristics, responsibilities, and capabilities, the environment is totally symmetric. User density is high, and user mobility is high. Nodal connection is sporadic. 12.7MANET CHALLENGES Certain limitations and inefficiencies must be overcome in a Manet context. It contains the following items: The properties of the wireless link change over time: Transmission obstructions such as fading, route loss, blockage, and interference contribute to wireless channels' vulnerable behaviour. Various factors thwart the dependability of wireless transmission. 223 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 12.2 Attacks on Routing Wireless transmission range is limited - When compared to wireless networks, the confined radio spectrum results in lower data rates. As a result, making the best use of bandwidth while minimising overhead is essential. Packet losses due to transmission errors – MANETs experience higher packet loss due to factors including such hidden terminals, which cause collisions, wireless channel concerns (high bit error rate (BER)), interference, frequent path breakage caused by node mobility, and increased collisions due to the existence of hidden terminals and unidirectional links. Route modifications due to mobility- Because of the evolving environment of network topology, path breakage occur frequently. Network partitions are common. The random motion of nodes causes the network to be partitioned. The intermediate nodes are the ones who are most affected. Because of its mobile and ad hoc character, this use of the wireless network is limited. In MANETs, the lack of a centralised operation also precludes the usage of firewalls. It, like wired networks, is vulnerable to a variety of security concerns. Spoofing, passive eavesdropping, denial of service, and other techniques is among them. The problems are rare classified based on the strategies used and the outcomes. Applications of MANET: MANETs have a wide range of applications. MANETs have a wide range of applications, including small, static networks bound by power sources through large-scale, mobile, rapidly changing networks. Network-centric military/battlefield surroundings, emergency/rescue operations, relief efforts, intelligent transport systems, meetings, fault-tolerant mobile sensing grids, home automation, patient monitoring, monitoring equipment, and other security- sensitive applications are just a few examples. The majority of these applications necessitate special security and communication guarantees [2, 5, 7, and 9]. The following are some well- known applications: Military Tactical Operations: For establishing military communications & troop deployments into hostile and/or unstructured environments quickly and maybe in the short term. For communication in places where there's little to no wireless infrastructure assistance, such as search and rescue operations. Disaster Relief: For communication in situations where current infrastructure has been damaged or rendered unworkable. Law Enforcement: During law enforcement activities, for secure and quick communication. Military battle zone: Military equipment now frequently includes some form of computer equipment. The military could benefit from standard organise innovation by using specially designated systems administration to maintain a data network among vehicles, fighters, and 224 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

military headquarters. Fundamentally, it was from this field that particularly appointed systems developed their methods. Commercial segment: To facilitate communication at exhibitions, conferences, and huge gatherings. Outside of office contexts, collaborative computing may be more vital than inside a building in some business circumstances. After all, it is common for workers to need to meet outside of the office to collaborate and share information on a project. Ad hoc can be used as part of crisis/safety operations for frequent cataclysms mitigation efforts, such as in the case of fire, surge, or seismic tremor. Where a non-existing or harmed interchanges framework and speedy sending of a correspondence system are necessary, protect operations must take place. Starting with one protect co-worker, data is passed on to the next. Adhoc systems can self-rule, connect a momentary and transitory mixed media arrangement using scratch pad PCs or palmtop PCs to spread and share information among meeting participants at the local level. Another appropriate local level application may be in home systems, where gadgets can communicate expressly to exchange data. PAN (Personal Area Network): a short-range network MANET can increase the interoperability of different cell phones (for example, a cell phone, tablets, and wearable computers). Remote linkages have taken the place of traditional wired connections. MANET can also use instruments such as the Internet or other systems to connect to the Internet or other systems. 12.8 SUMMARY • Many new applications have arisen as a result of advancements in the field with internet data transmission networking technology. • The mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is among the most promising areas for wireless network research and development. • Wireless ad-hoc networks have been one of the more vibrant and active fields of communication and networks as the usage of mobile devices and wireless networks have grown dramatically in recent years. • In the absence of a fixed infrastructure, a mobile ad hoc network is also an autonomous collection connected mobile devices (laptops, smart phones, sensors, etc.) which connect with each other over wireless networks and cooperate in a distributed fashion to offer network functionality. • This form of network, which can function as a stand-alone network and with one or more points of connection to cellular networks and the Internet, opens the door to a plethora of new and intriguing applications. 225 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

12.9KEYWORDS • WANET- is a sort of local area network (LAN) that is created on the fly to connect two or more wireless devices. • SPANs. -Smartphone ad hoc networks use existing hardware such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, as well as software protocols built into the smartphone operating system 12.10 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Can you compare the existing wireless techniques with 5g techniques? If so, give the advantages over the existing system. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. After learning MANET and WANET, analyse the communication systems through both the techniques and list the challenges on both of them. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 12.11 UNIT ENDQUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What are the classifications of Adhoc network? 2. What is WANET? 3. Define SSID. 4. Give the types of wireless networks. 5. What is vehicle-to-vehicle ad hoc network? Long Questions 1. What exactly is an ad hoc network, and how does it function? 2. When to use adhoc networks? 3. Explain the benefits of a WANET. 4. Explain the disadvantages of adhoc networks. 5. What are the characteristics of MANET? 226 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Wireless local area networks are the most common type of ___ network a. Satellite b. adhoc c. topology d. passive 2. A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) is a sort of ____ a. LAN b. WAN c. MAN d. CAN 3. ____mode is recommended for those who want their wireless router to function as a permanent access point. a. active b. passive c. infrastructure d. frequency 4. An _____is another term for a MANET. a. Wireless security b. MANET c. spatial network d. on-the-fly 5. ____ can also be used to collect sensor information for data mining. 227 a. IMANETs b. MANETs c. LANs CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

d. WANs Answers 1-b, 2- a, 3- c, 4- d, 5-a 12.12REFERENCES Reference books • Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking”, McGraw Hill. • Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, Pearson Education. • Subir Kumar Sarkar, T.G. Basavaraju, C. Puttaamadappa, “AdHoc Mobile Wireless Network: Principles, Protocols, and Applications, CRC Press. Textbook references • James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, “Computer Networking”, Pearson Education. • Michael A. Gallo, William M. Hancock, “Computer Communications and NetworkingTechnologies”, CENGAGE Learning Websites • https://www.electronicshub.org/wireless-communication-introduction-types- applications/ • https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/ • https://www.guru99.com 228 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 13-AD-HOC MOBILITY MODELS STRUCTURE 13.0 Learning objectives 13.1 Introduction to MANET 13.2 In door Mobility Model 13.3 Random waypoint model 13.4 Outdoor Mobility Model 13.5 What is a Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET)? 13.6 MANET's Characteristics 13.7 Security issues and challenges in ad hoc networks 13.8 Summary 13.9 Keywords 13.10 Learning activity 13.11 Unit End Questions 13.12References 13.0LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: • Learn the basics of MANET • Explain Indoor and Outdoor mobility model • Describe the benefits of adhoc network • List the characteristics of MANET 13.1INTRODUCTION TO MANET A Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET) is a group of wireless nodes that communicate with one another in the absence of any infrastructure. The MANET research topic has attracted a lot of attention both academia and business in recent years owing to the accessibility of compact and inexpensive wireless communicating devices. MANETs could be employed in a variety of applications in the near future, including mobile classrooms, battlefield communication, and disaster relief. 229 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

It is necessary to simulate and analyse the performance of a new Mobile Ad hoc Network protocol in order to properly and methodically research it. Several significant elements in protocol simulation include the mobility model or communicating road traffic, among others. The study and modelling of mobility models is the topic of this and the next chapters. We're also curious about how mobility affects the efficiency of MANET routing techniques. This chapter provides an overview of mobility modeling's current state, limitations, and research problems. The mobility model is intended to represent mobile users' movement patterns, including how their location, velocity, and acceleration change over time. Because mobility patterns can have a big impact on protocol performance, it's important for mobility models to be able to realistically mimic the movement patterns of real-world applications. Otherwise, the results of the simulation studies and the conclusions gained from them may be deceptive. As a result, when analysing MANET protocols, the suitable underlying mobility model must be chosen. The nodes in the Random Waypoint model, for example, behave considerably differently from nodes moving in groups. The Random Waypoint model is not effective for evaluating applications when nodes migrate together. As a result, there is a pressing need to have a better knowledge of simulation tools and how they affect protocol performance. Constructing trace-based mobility models, wherein correct information about users' movement traces could be provided, is an intuitive way for creating realistic mobility patterns. However, because MANETs have yet to be widely adopted and deployed, getting genuine mobility traces is a huge difficulty. As a result, several academics suggested numerous mobility models in an attempt to capture various aspects of mobility to represent mobility in a ‘realistic' manner. Much of the present research focused on non-trace-driven synthetic mobility models. Researchers have previously focused on the movement of users relative to a certain location (i.e., a cell) at a macroscopic level, like cell change rate, handover traffic, and blocking likelihood, in previous studies of mobility patterns in wireless cellular networks. However, as MANET communication is peer-to-peer, we are more interested in modelling and analysing the movement for individual nodes at the microscopic level, including node location and velocity relative to certain other nodes, since these characteristics directly dictate when linkages are made and destroyed. The Random Waypoint model, in which nodes act freely to a randomly determined destination with a randomly set velocity, is a commonly used mobility model in MANET simulations. One explanation for the Random Waypoint model's broad use in simulations could be its simplicity. MANETs, on the other hand, can be employed in a variety of applications with complex mobility patterns. As a result, recent research has begun to concentrate on alternative simulation tools with various mobility features. In these models, a 230 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

node's movement is limited to some extent by its history, as well as other nodes in the neighbourhood or the environment. The mobility of a mobile node is likely to be modified by its movement history in various mobility models. This form of mobility model is referred to as a mobility model with time dependency. The mobile nodes in various mobility scenarios tend to migrate in a correlated manner. Such models are referred to as mobility models having spatial dependency. Another type of mobility model is one with geographic restrictions, in which nodes' movement is restricted by streets, highways, or other barriers. 13.2IN DOOR MOBILITY MODEL Indoor Mobility Models include Random Walk. There are three aspects to the Indoor Mobility model: Random Walk, Random Way-Point, and Random Direction. The Mobility Model describes how mobile users move and also how their location, velocity, and acceleration vary over time. Analytical and simulation models can both be used to represent the behaviour or activity of a user's movement. The Random Walk model will be discussed in this topic. Einstein described the Random Walk model for the first time in 1926. Because it is dynamic, Mobile Node goes from its present location to the new location by choosing a speed and direction at random. It captures the properties of minimum and maximum speed as well as direction from 0 to 2pi, or 360 degrees. The time interval‘t’ is constant, as is the distance‘d’. There are three different forms of Random Walks: 1D, 2D, and 3D. In mobility, 2D Random Walk is commonly utilised. It's a mobility pattern with no memory. 231 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 13.1 Random Walk The current speed is unaffected by the past. This results in unreal movements such as abrupt pauses and quick bends. Assume there is an initial position with a specific angle, say alpha, and that it moves to point 1 at a certain speed, say 5 m/sec. Now, node is positioned at point 1, and it goes from point 1 to point 2 at a specific angle and speed. Then it goes from point 2 to point 3 and so on till it reaches its final destination. Random Walk is the name given to the entire scenario. It is so named because the direction, speed, and acceleration are all dynamic in this situation. In a random stroll, the pause time is 0. Why is this the case? Even though it does not pause or stop, and the node goes from one location to the next in a matter of seconds. These also have sharp twists, as shown in points 5, 6, and 7. Predicting it then appears to be tough due to the steepness and the sudden sharp twists. Random Walk's biggest disadvantage is this. The key benefit is that it is easy to use and that it can readily handle flows around complex limits. 13.3 RANDOM WAYPOINT MODEL Between adjusting its direction and/or speed, the random waypoint model takes a brief rest. The Mobile Node (MN) starts by staying inside one place for a set amount of time. This is a common feature of indoor mobility concepts. We have the option of selecting a random destination & speed (minimum speed or maximum speed). 232 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The starting point is (x1, y1). It's heading in a specific way. When it reaches (x2, y2), it must change its course again since the angle between the initial point and (x2, y2), as well as the angle between (x2, y2) and (x3, y3), is different. Speed varies as well. We can say that it was travelling at 10 m/sec at first and 5 m/sec at the second angle. So, say x m/sec for a specific period of time, i.e., halt time. It will pause for that period of time before continuing with the process. That's how it operates until you get at your final destination, i.e. (x9, y9). MNs are strewn over the simulated environment at random. Additionally, neighbouring Minnesotans are all within transmission range. The amount of variation in neighbour proportion has an impact on performance. Fig 13.2 Random way point Let each arrow in the diagram above be referred to as a node, and the entire region is referred to as the simulation area. The information is dispersed across a large area. Because of the transmission ranges from one place to another, we can transport data from (x7, y7) to (x8, y8) but not to (x5, y5). When we move in a wave-point, the distance between us can vary at any time. As a result, it's feasible that (x5, y5) will approach point at some point in the future (x7, y7). So, even though each node is distributed, there is a substantial proportion of performance loss due to its variability. Remedy for the Initialization Issue: • After a long execution, save MN's locations. • MNs should be distributed in a triangle pattern or something similar. 233 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Delete the first 1000 seconds of simulation. • There are two key points to keep in mind: • Network stability – sluggish MNs – extended halt time (in direction and speed time). • Unstable network – quick MNs – less pause time 13.4 OUTDOOR MOBILITY MODEL Gauss-Markov For the simulation of a Personal Communication Service, this mobility model was developed. For example, there were just landlines a few years ago, but there are now wireless phones that you can use 1while wandering about the house. The Gauss Markov method is constructed for this type of service. The model adjusts to various degrees of randomness. There are many fixed simulation zones in indoor mobility models where we can execute random walks, random way-points, or random directions. However, there really is no concept of a simulation region in the outside mobility paradigm. It's completely random. Each new device is given a current velocity and distance at the start. It means that each node has its own beginning speed and direction, and it can alter at any time. It has complete freedom of movement in and out. The following formula is used to calculate the value of strength and acceleration at the nth occasion. The formula for calculating new speed and direction is as follows: Fig 13.3 Gauss Markov model Now, because this model lacks a simulation region. Let's say it leaves the area or is on the outside of it. The mean value is then used to replace the average speed or average direction values. A protractor is used to calculate the mean value. We can get a full 360 degrees by connecting two protractors. 234 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 13.4 Simulation It is in charge of the nearby mountains where it is located. Assume it's in the 225 range. It takes care of that in the interim time, bringing it inside and giving it full coverage. Only the index of unpredictability, average speed, and probability distribution of Gaussian distribution should be considered. Advantage: It is really easy to comprehend. It degrades image details and edges, which is a disadvantage. 13.5WHAT IS A MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORK (MANET)? When we think of computer networks, we think of a well-structured, well segmented collection of computer components. The term ad-hoc refers to something that isn't planned ahead of time. The term \"mobile ad-hoc networks\" (MANETS) has the same meaning. MANETS is similar to the game of scrabble. Any player (user) may place tiles anywhere on the field (connect a node at any time) as long as they link to at least one other tile (connection to the network). As a result, as more nodes join the network, the board's tiles can readily take on any shape (topology). As shown in Figure, a mobile ad-hoc network (sometimes called as just a wireless ad-hoc network) is a network designed with no formal structured configuration. Nodes attached to the system can be dynamically configured without adhering to any officially specified top- down architecture as seen in traditional networks. Nodes are set up in a fairly free and self- contained manner. A decentralised arrangement of nodes is the general 'non-structure.' It is 235 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

especially popular in cases where there is no pre-existing communication network since it allows nodes to connect to it seamlessly. 13.6MANET'S CHARACTERISTICS MANETs have the following characteristics: Topologies of Dynamic Networks Nodes are permitted to connect or disengage dynamically anywhere at point in the network because there is no top-down pre-defined centralised structure, making the topology dynamic. This implies that the network's shape or structure is always altering in response to user demands. Specifications for low capacity The MANET nodes have poor system specs, such as small memory sizes, slower CPU speeds, and limited storage. Communication between direct nodes As long as communication nodes are within the requisite radio range of each other, nodes linked to the network can communicate directly with one another. If they aren't, neighbouring nodes will operate as routers, forwarding data packets to their intended destinations. A multi- hop environment is what it's called. As a result, each node does have a wireless interface to aid communication. Take, for example,if node A needs to interact with a node D that is out of range, node G can act as an intermediate router and relay the data packets, resulting in the formation of an ad- hoc network. This also means that any node in this architecture can operate as a router or a host by holding a routing table and forwarding data packets. MANET Security Concerns The network's continually changing structure, along with data transfer across an open media, renders it extremely vulnerable to attacks. Data confidentiality, system and application availability, authentication, and system integrity are all security concerns, just as they are in traditional networks. Vulnerabilities can result in message eavesdropping, bogus message injection, denial of service attacks, or poor routing information monitoring. Either internal and external threats can compromise MANETs. Internal Threats Internal attacks are directed at the nodes themselves, and also the networking interface links that allow for flawless transmission. The routing tables, which are at the heart of direct node connection, are among the most vulnerable. Detecting these kinds of attacks can be challenging because each node has a copy of the routing table. Isolating the offender becomes 236 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

increasingly difficult when incorrect routing information is propagated and adopted throughout the network by corrupt nodes. MANET's Problems and Challenges Bandwidth Restrictions In comparison to wired networks, wireless networks get a limited bandwidth. When compared to infrastructure networks, wireless links have a lower capacity. In compared to the maximum radio transmission rate, the effect of fading, numerous accesses, and interference is quite minimal in ADHOC networks. Topology that is constantly changing The nodes have less trust among them due to the shifting topology. If a resolution is reached between the nodes, the amount of trust is also questioned. Routing at a High Level Because of the dynamic topology of ADHOC networks, certain nodes move around, affecting the routing table. The issue of the hidden terminal The packet collision is held involves the transmission of packages by nodes that are not in the immediate transmission range of the sender but are in the range of the receiver. Packet loss and transmission errors ADHOC networks have seen greater packet loss due to an increase in collisions, hidden terminals, interference, unidirectional links, and frequent path breakdowns caused by node mobility. Mobility Because of the dynamic nature and alterations in the network topology caused by node migration. Path breaks are common in ADHOC networks, and the route varies frequently. Threats to security Because of their wireless nature, Adhoc networks pose new security issues. The trust management among nodes in adhoc or wireless networks leads to several security vulnerabilities. MANET’s The nature of these 2 kinds of attacks differs, as shown below: Passive Assaults 237 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The passive attacks were eavesdropped on, which violated confidentiality. The confidential information is contained in this packet. An attacker alters the data exchanged by attacking it. This attack is aimed at the system's confidential attribute. Passive attacks are difficult to detect since they have no effect on the network's functionality. Passive attacks are commonly employed to get access to network information or communication patterns between communicating parties. It's simple to get started. MANET also faces a number of other significant issues. Some of the MANET's other issues are briefly described below: Topologies that change throughout time The nodes in Dynamic Topology are able to move in either direction. The topology of a network evolves quickly and inexorably over time. Bidirectional or unidirectional routing are possible due to this topology. Because topologies are always changing, transmitting packets between nodes is a difficult operation. Routing Multicast Multicast is another MANET problem. Because the nodes in a multicast network change positions at random, the network is dynamic. The nodes are complicated and feature numerous hops rather than a single hop. The new device that joins the network requires knowledge of all other nodes. Due to the presence of nodes, a dynamic update is required to permit automatic best route selection. Bandwidth Constraints Cause Variability in Capacity Links As a wireless link, they continue to have a low capacity in contrast to hardwired connections. The operation is power-constrained. This is regarded as just a challenge for both the MANET network as well. The MANET is a system in which all hubs rely on batteries or some other non-renewable energy source. Energy conversion is a fundamental system design criterion and an optimal criterion. For light weight mobile terminals, lean power consumption also is utilised. Another factor to think about is power conservation and power-aware routing. Reliability and security Nasty Neighbour relaying messages is a security issue, as are the other vulnerabilities associated with it. In distributed operations, different approaches are utilised for authenticated key management. Due to limited wireless transmission, reliability is also a wireless link characteristic. Data loss and mistakes occur as a result of wireless channel packet broadcasting. Wireless networks, in comparison to wired networks, are more prone to security attacks. Service Excellence 238 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The environment in MANET will vary on a regular basis, resulting in a variety of service quality levels that are challenging. Because of the random nature of MANET quality communication, it is difficult to provide a good guarantee of device service. Adaptive Quality of Service can be implemented over traditional resources to provide multimedia services. Inter-networking In many circumstances, MANET is also anticipated to communicate with fixed networks. The existence of routing algorithms in both networks makes comfortable mobility management difficult. Multicast Multiple communications among wireless devices is referred to as multicast. Due to the fact that multicast does not last for lengthy periods of time, the protocol must retain mobility, which includes node joining and departing. Problem with the Diffusion Hole The nodes that are located in the limits of the holes are confronted with the extra energy consumption. If the bypass holes are not used, the packets are delivered all along boundary of the holes. This widens the hole by consuming a huge number of nodes and their borders. 13.7 SECURITY ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN AD HOC NETWORKS When we think about computer networks the idea of structured planned and properly segmented arrangement of computer devices comes to mind. The word ad-hoc means 'not pre-planned' before it happens. In Mobile Ad-hoc networks (MANETS) the word carries the same connotation. MANETS can be likened to a scrabble game. Any player (user) can place tiles in any part of the board (connect a node at any point) as long as they connect to one existing tile (connection to the network). As such the tiles of the board can easily take any shape (topology) as nodes continue to join the network. A Mobile Ad-hoc network (also known as a wireless ad-hoc network) is defined as network designed without any formal structured configuration, as seen in Figure 1. Nodes connected to the network can be configured dynamically without following any formally pre-defined top-down architecture as characterized by conventional networks (see Figure 2). Nodes are rather configured in a very free and autonomous manner. The general 'non-structure' is a 239 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

decentralized arrangement of nodes. It is particularly popular in situations with no pre- existing network infrastructure by allowing nodes seamless connectivity to it. The constantly changing nature of the network topology coupled with data transmission in open medium makes it highly susceptible to attacks. Security issues with respect to data confidentiality, availability of systems and applications, authentication, system integrity are just as threatening as in conventional networks. Vulnerabilities can lead to message eavesdropping, injection of fake messages, denial of service attack or poor monitoring of routing information. MANETs are susceptible to both internal and external attacks. Internal Attacks Internal attacks target the nodes directly as well as the networking interface links which facilitate seamless transmission. The routing tables which are at the core of direct node communication are prime targets. With each node hosting a copy of the routing table detecting these types of attacks can be very difficult. Incorrect routing information once broadcast and adopted around the network from the corrupt nodes, makes isolating the culprit more difficult. External Attacks External attacks target the performance of the network. These include network congestions, denial of Service (DoS) attacks and corrupt routing information. 13.8SUMMARY • A Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is a self-configuring network made up of wireless mobile nodes that do not rely on any existing infrastructure. Because MANETs are not yet widely implemented, most studies in this field are based on simulation. • The mobility model, among other simulation factors, is critical in determining the performance of routing protocols in MANET. As a result, it is critical to research and assess alternative mobility models as well as their impact on MANET protocols. • In mobile ad hoc networks, many mobility models can be utilised, and each mobility model will have its own population dynamics that affect protocol performance. The following are the parameters that are taken into account when calculating direct mobility metrics: relative velocity, time dependence, spatial dependence, & pause time are all terms used to describe the relationship between two objects. 240 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

13.9KEYWORD • RWP- the Random Waypoint (RWP) model is a popular synthetic model for mobility in Ad Hoc networks, for example. It's a basic model that uses simple terminology to explain the movements of independent nodes. • Wireless 3G (3rd Generation)-The next level in wireless communication development. Analog was the first generation, while digital was the second (CDMA, TDMA and GSM). Broadband, data transfer applications - both static and wireless - are projected to be provided by third-generation systems. • Frequency-An electrical and light-wave information signal's energy expressed like one or more waves per second. The frequency of a signal is expressed in either cycles per second or Hertz (Hz) 13.10LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Suppose you want to have a home network, how will you set up a secure home WIFI network? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. From the above question, how will you design the home network? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 13.11 UNIT ENDQUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What are MANET’s routing techniques? 2. What is a MANET protocols? 3. Define Random waypoint. 4. Give the types of random walks. 5. Write the advantages of outdoor mobility model. Long Questions 1. Explain about random waypoint model. 241 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2. Explain about Indoor mobility model. 3. Explain the benefits Outdoor mobility model. 4. Explain the disadvantages of adhoc networks. 5. What is a Mobile Ad-hoc Network? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. The nodes in the_____, behave considerably differently from nodes moving in groups a. Random nature b. Random Waypoint model c. Ransome model d. Indoor mobility 2. Random direction belongs to _____ a. Indoor mobility b. Outdoor mobility c. Mobility model d. Control model 3. The _____ describes how mobile users move and also how their location, velocity, and acceleration vary over time a. active model b. passive model c. mobility model d. indoor 4. _____ described the Random Walk model for the first time in 1926 a. Charles b. Chris win c. Joel d. Einstein 242 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5. Path breaks are common in ____ networks. a. adhoc b. MANET c. neural d. WAN Answers 1-b, 2- a, 3- c, 4- d, 5-a 13.12REFERENCES Reference books • Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking”, McGraw Hill. • Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, Pearson Education. • Subir Kumar Sarkar, T.G. Basavaraju, C. Puttaamadappa, “AdHoc Mobile Wireless Network: Principles, Protocols, and Applications, CRC Press. Textbook references • James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, “Computer Networking”, Pearson Education. • Michael A. Gallo, William M. Hancock, “Computer Communications and NetworkingTechnologies”, CENGAGE Learning Websites: • https://techterms.com/definition/manet • https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/ • https://www.guru99.com 243 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 14-ROUTING PROTOCOLS STRUCTURE 14.0 Learning objectives 14.1 Introduction to Routing Protocols 14.2 Classification of Routing Algorithms 14.3 Data Dissemination 14.4 Data Clustering 14.5 Purpose of clustering 14.6 Summary 14.7 Keywords 14.8 Learning activity 14.9 Unit End Questions 14.10 References 14.0LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: • State the basics of Routing protocols • Describe the classification of routing algorithms • Study the benefits data dissemination • List the characteristics of data clustering • Explain the purpose of clustering 14.1INTRODUCTION TO ROUTING PROTOCOLS Routing Protocols are a collection of rules that routers employ to connect between source and destination. They do not transfer data from a source to a destination; instead, they change the root node that holds the data. Network Router protocols describe how routers communicate with one another. It enables the network to choose routes between these two computer network nodes.A router is a software programme that selects a way for data to be transported from a source to a destination. A router is a unique device that does routing. 244 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In the OSI paradigm, a router operates at the network layer, while in the TCP/IP model, it operates at the internet layer.A router is a device that forwards packets using information from the packet header or forwarding table. The packets are routed using routing techniques. The routing algorithm is simply a piece of software that determines the most efficient path for packet transmission.The measure is used by routing systems to find the best path for packet delivery. The metric is a unit of measurement used by the routing algorithm to find the best route to the destination, like hop count, bandwidth, delay, current load mostly on network, and so on. The routing algorithm helps to create the routing table for both the path-finding process. Routing Costs and Metrics The optimum route to the destination is determined using routing metrics and costs. These parameters are known as metrics, and they are employed by protocols to calculate the shortest path. The network factors utilised to identify the best path to the destination are referred to as metrics. The use of static metrics for some protocols implies that their value could be modified, while the use of dynamic metrics for other routing protocols means that the value can be given by the system administrator. The following are the most typical metric values: Hop count is a measure that specifies the number of points a packet must make through internetworking devices including a router in order to get from source to destination. If the hop is a major metric value in the routing protocol, the path with the fewest hops will be deemed the optimum path to travel from source to destination. The time it takes the router to analyse, queue, and send a datagram to an interface is known as delay. This measure is used by the protocols to calculate the delay values with all links along the path from beginning to end. The path with the shortest delay time will be judged the best. Bandwidth: The bandwidth of a link is the capacity of the link. Bits per second are used to measure bandwidth. A link with a higher transfer rate, such as gigabit, is chosen over one with a smaller capacity, such as 56 kb. The protocol will calculate the bandwidth capacity of all links along the path, with the route with the highest overall bandwidth being considered the best. The degree to which a network resource, such as a router or a network link, is busy is referred to as load. A load can be determined in a number of ways, including CPU utilisation and packets handled per second. If the amount of traffic grows, the load value will increase as well. The load value fluctuates in response to changes in traffic. Reliability is a metric factor that can be made up of a set number. Its value is dynamically measured and is dependent on network links. Some networks experience outages more 245 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

frequently than others. Some network links are easier to repair after a network breakdown than others. For the purposes of assigning dependability ratings, which are normally numeric values supplied by the system administrator, any compensated equally can be evaluated. 14.2CLASSIFICATION OF ROUTING ALGORITHMS Routing is the process of determining the paths which data packets must take in order to arrive at their destination. A routing table is established throughout this procedure, which holds information on the paths that data packets take. Various routing algorithms are used to determine which path an incoming data packet should be transmitted on in order to reach its destination as quickly as possible. Routing Algorithm Classification: Routing algorithms are categorised as follows: 1. Adaptive Algorithms - These are algorithms that adjust their routing decisions in response to changes in network topology or traffic load. The topology and traffic of the network are affected by changes in routing decisions. These, also known as dynamic routing, determine routes based on dynamic data including such current topology, load, delay, and so on. The distance, number of hops, and expected transit time are the optimization parameters. These are further classified as follows: (a) Isolated — In this strategy, each node determines its routing decisions based on the information available to it, rather than relying on information from those other nodes. The sending nodes have no knowledge of the status of a specific link. The disadvantage is that packets may be sent via a busy network, causing delays. Hot potato routing and backward learning are two examples. (b) Centralized — In this system, a single centralised node holds all network information and makes all routing decisions. The benefit is that only one node is necessary to keep all information about the entire network; however, the negative is that if the central node fails, the entire network is destroyed. Because it is aware of the price of each connection in the network, the link state algorithm is known to as a centralised algorithm. (c) Distributed — In this method, the node gathers information from its neighbours before deciding on packet routing. The disadvantage is that if the period between receiving information and sending packets changes, the packet may be delayed. It's also known as a decentralised algorithm since it calculates the cheapest route between two points. 2. Non-Adaptive Algorithms — These are algorithms that do not alter their routing decisions after they are chosen. Because the route to also be taken is computed in advance & downloaded to routers when they are booted, this is also referred as static routing. These are further classified as follows: (a) Flooding - This technique applies the technique of sending every incoming packet with every out line except the one from which it originated. One issue about this is that 246 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

transmissions might become stuck in a loop, causing a node to receive repeated packets. Sequence numbers, hop count, and spanning tree can be used to solve these issues. (a) Random walk — In thisapproach, packets are sent to one of its neighbours at random, host by site or node by node. This is a very reliable strategy that is usually implemented by transmitting packets across the least-queued link. 14.3DATA DISSEMINATION A process of delivering or communicating statistics or other types of data to end-users is known as data dissemination. The data can be audio, video, or any other type of data service. Organizations offer data to the public in a variety of formats, including electronic format, CD-ROM, and paper publications, such as PDF files dep1ending on aggregated data. Output data is received by mobile devices. The essential data items for application programmes can be selected, tuned, and cached by a mobile device. The most widely used dissemination strategy nowadays is non-proprietary complex systems based on internet protocols. Data can be disseminated over any collection of interconnected networks using a variety of communication technologies. Information is considered available in open formats that are widely accepted. To safeguard the data's sovereignty and copyright, several organisations employ proprietary databases to spread it. If you use private databases to disseminate data, end-users will need special software to view it. This type of data cannot be read in standard open formats. This type of information is initially translated into a proprietary data format, after which the organisation offers users with specially built software to read the information. Formats and standards for data dissemination The data formats are separated into two categories by the Special Data Dissemination Standard (SDDS): \"hardcopy\" and \"electronic\" publications: Hardcopy publications examples The following is a list of some hardcopy publication examples: Yearbook Review once a month Pocketbook Municipalities in the background Trends Periodical Publications with electronic copies as examples 247 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The following is a list of several electronic copy publication examples: Webpage PDF A CD-ROM Databases that can be downloaded for personal use in third-party software applications Standard for Special Data Dissemination To offer a globally acknowledged statistical technique for both the dissemination on statistical data, standards were devised. The 'International Organization for Standardization' (ISO) is a global standard-setting organisation that includes several delegates from national standards bodies. The Special Data Dissemination Standard (SDDS) was established in April 1996 by the International Monetary Fund to assist member nations in communicating national statistics to the general public. The Special Data Dissemination Standard (SDDS) now has 65 nations as members: These are the countries: Hong Kong is a city in Hong Kong. Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Ireland Israel Italy Portugal Romania Russian Federation (Russian Federation) Saudi Arabia is a country in the Middle East. Singapore United Kingdom of Great Britain United States of America One of the most important characteristics of dissemination-based applications is communication imbalance. The Communications Asymmetry indicates that the 248 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

communication capacity and data volume flowing from servers to clients (also known the downstream direction) is significantly greater than the flow from clients to servers (also known as upstream direction). The delivery of content is an asymmetric process. It makes no difference whether it's done over such a symmetric channel like the internet or an asymmetric channel like a cable television network. The asymmetry of mobile communication between such a static computer system as well as a mobile device is inherent. Because there are so many devices that need to access the network, each device is always given a set amount of bandwidth. The downstream bandwidth is significantly larger than the upstream bandwidth. Because mobile devices possess limited power resources, this is the case. It's also true that quicker data transmission rates over longer periods of time require more power from the devices. In GSM networks, data transmission speeds can reach 14.4 kbps in both the uplink and downlink directions. It is an instance of symmetric communication, and because GSM is exclusively used for voice transmission, the symmetry is preserved. In a mobile network, the communication asymmetry inside the downlink and uplink directions is depicted in the diagram below. Fig 14.1 Mobile network communication 249 14.4DATA CLUSTERING CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Clustering is a Learning-based Algorithm which divides a set of data points into clusters, allowing the objects to be grouped together. Clustering aids in the division of data into subsets. The data in each of these subsets is comparable, and these subsets are referred to as clusters. We can make an informed conclusion about who we believe is most suited for this product that now the data from our consumer base has been separated into clusters. Let's use an example: imagine you're a market manager, and you've got a new attractive product to offer. We are confident that the product will generate a large profit if it is sold to the proper people. So, from our vast customer base, how can we determine who is best suited for the product? What is a Cluster, exactly? A cluster is a group of objects that are similar in some way. A group of things in which the distance between any two objects inside the cluster is less than the distance at all between the object in the cluster and any object outside of it. A connected area of a multidimensional space having a relatively high item density. what is clustering? Clustering is a technique for transforming a collection of abstract objects into groups of related objects. Clustering is a way of dividing a dataset or objects into a number of subclasses known as clusters. It can be used as a stand-alone instrument to gain a better understanding of data distribution or even as a pre-processing step for those other algorithms to help users grasp the structure and natural grouping in a data collection. Cluster analysis is used in data mining in the following ways: Clustering analysis is widely utilised in a variety of applications, including data analysis, market research, pattern identification, and image processing. It aids marketers in identifying different categories of customers depending on their purchase habits. They are able to categorise their clientele. It aids in the discovery of data by assigning documents on the internet. Clustering is also utilised in monitoring applications like credit card fraud detection. Cluster analysis is a data mining function that allows you to get insight into the process of data and study the properties of each cluster. In terms of biology, it could be used to classify plant and animal taxonomies, categorise genes with similar functions, and obtain insight into population structure. 250 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)