CU-MCOM-SEM-IV-Company Accounts & Audit

c. 1956 d. 1932. 4.The basic accounting postulates are denoted by – a. Concepts b. Book – keeping c. Accounting standards d. None of these. 5.The amount drawn by businessmen for his personal use is- a. Capital b. Drawing c. Expenditure d. Loss. Answers 1-c, 2-d, 3-b, 4-a, 5-b. 5.9 REFERENCES Reference books  M.C. Shukla, T.S. Grewal : & S.C. Gupta Advanced Accounts Vol. II; S. Chand & Company Ltd., 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110 055.  R.L. Gupta & :M. Radhaswamy Company Accounts; Sultan Chand & Sons,23, Daryaganj, New Delhi- 110 002.  S.P. Jain & K. L. Narang: Advanced Accountancy-Vol.II; Kalyani Publishers, 23, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110 002.  S. N. Maheshwari &S.K. Maheshwari Advance Accounting Vol. II; Vikas Publishing House (Pvt.) Ltd., A-22, Sector 4, Noida – 201 301.  Ashok Sehgal & : Deepak Sehgal Textbook  Advanced Accounting Vol. 2; Taxmann’s,59/32, New Rohtak Road, New Delhi- 110 005. 151 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 J. R. Monga : Fundamentals of Corporate Accounting; Mayoor Paperbacks, A-95, Sector 5, Noida-201 301.  Goel, Maheshwari Gupta : Corporate Accounting, International Publishers, Daryaganj New Delhi  Kamal Gupta, Ashok Arora : Fundamentals of Auditing: Tata McGraw Hill Education Limited  Kamal Gupta: Contemporary Auditing: Tata McGraw Hill Education Limited  International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) Taxmann Publication (P) Limited, 59/32, New Rohtak Road, New Delhi- 110 005  Dolphy D’Souza : Indian Accounting Standards & GAAPP; Snow White Publications Pvt. Ltd., Her Mahal, 532, Kalbadevi Road, Mumbai – 400 002.  N S Zad : Company Accounts and Auditing Practices : Taxmann Publications (P) Ltd., 59/32, Rohtak Road, New Delhi - 110005 Website  https://icmai.in/upload/Students/Syllabus2016/Inter/Paper-12_070219.pdf  https://www.mca.gov.in/MinistryV2/accounts+and+audit.html 152 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT – 6 : AUDITING CONCEPTS STRUCTURE 6.0 Learning Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Nature, Scope and Significance of Auditing 6.3 Basic Principles Governing an Audit 6.4 Overview of Auditing and Assurance Standards- National and International 6.5 Summary 6.6 Keywords 6.7 Learning Activity 6.8 Unit End Questions 6.9 References 6.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES The subject of Auditing is as ancient as accounting. Its traces can be found in ancient civilization such as Mesopotamia, Greece, Egypt, Rome, U.K. and India. Even the Vedas contain reference to accounts and auditing. Natyashastra by Kausalya detailed rules for accounting and auditing of public finances. Study of Auditing practices is very important for students as it entails the basics of vouching/ scrutinizing the records, books of accounts of an entity. The objective of this lesson is to develop the basics of auditing, auditing concepts, auditing standards. After reading this lesson, student should be able to: 1. Give a definition of Auditing 2. Understand the objective, features and scope of Auditing 3. Understand the basic principles governing an audit 4. Understand the advantages of Auditing exercise 5. Understand the auditing concepts as true and fair view, materiality 6. Understand the difference between auditing and investigation 7. Understand the auditing standard and the objectives of prescribing auditing standard. 8. Brief overview of standards as applicable in India. 6.1 INTRODUCTION The term audit is derived from the Latin term ‘auride,’ which means to hear. In early days a person used to listen to the accounts read over by an accountant in order to check them. He 153 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

was known as auditor. Auditing is as old as accounting and there are signs of its existence in all ancient cultures such as Mesopotamia, Greece, Egypt. Rome, U.K. and India. Natyashastra by Kausalya detailed rules for accounting and auditing of public finances. The original objective of auditing was to detect and prevent errors and frauds. Auditing evolved and grew rapidly after the industrial revolution in the 18th century with the growth of the joint stock companies the ownership and management became separate. The shareholders who were the owners needed a report from an independent expert on the accounts of the company managed by the board of directors who were the employees. The objective of audit shifted and audit was expected to ascertain whether the accounts were true and fair rather than detection of errors and frauds. In India the Companies Act, 1913 made audit of company accounts compulsory. With the increase in the size of the Companies and the volume of transactions the main objective of audit shifted to ascertaining whether the accounts were true and fair rather than true and correct. Hence the emphasis was not on arithmetical accuracy but on a fair representation of the financial efforts. The Companies Act, 1913 also prescribed for the first time the qualification of auditors. After the independence in year 1956, Companies Act, 1956 was implemented and detailed provisions were made in act regarding audit and auditors. This act provides provisions regarding compulsory statutory audit of companies, auditor appointment, auditor disqualifications, cost audit, appointment of cost auditors, government audit, special audit etc. The Companies Act, 1956 has been replaced with the Companies Act, 2013. Chapter X of the Companies Act, 2013 (Sections 139-148) deals with the provisions related to Audit & Auditors. 6.2 NATURE, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF AUDITING Definitions of Auditing It is a bit difficult to give a precise definition of word audit in a word or two, originally its meaning and use was confined merely to cash audit and the auditor had to ascertain whether the person responsible for the maintenance of accounts had properly accounted for all the cash receipts the payment on behalf of his principle. But the word, audit, had a wide usage and it now means a through scrutiny of the books of accounts and its ultimate aim is to verify the financial position disclosed by the balance sheet and the profit and loss account of a company. The following are the some of the definitions of audit given by some writers: Lawrence R. Dick see- ‘An audit is an examination of accounting records undertaken with a view to establishing whether they correctly and completely reflect the transactions to which they purport to relate.’ Taylor and Perry - “Audit is defined as an investigation of some statements of figures involving examination of certain evidence, so as to enable an auditor to make a report on the statement. 154 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

F.R.M De Paula- “An audit denotes the examination of Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Account prepared by others together with the books of accounts and vouchers relating thereto in such a manner that the auditor may be able to satisfy himself and honestly report that, in his opinion, such Balance Sheet is properly drawn up so as to exhibit a true and correct view of the state of affairs of the particular concern according to the information and explanations given to him and as shown by the books”. Prof. Montgomery- “Auditing is a systematic examination of the books and records of business or other organization, in order to ascertain or verify and to report upon the facts regarding its financial operations and the result thereof. Spicer & Pegler- “Audit such an examination of the books of accounts and vouchers of a business, as will enable the auditor to satisfy himself that the Balance Sheet is properly drawn up, so as to give a true and fair view of the state affairs of the business, and whether the profit and loss account gives a true and fair view of the profit or loss for the financial period according to the best of his information and explanations given to him and as shown by the books, and if not, in what respect he is not satisfied”. Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) defines Auditing as- Auditing is defined as a systematic and independent examination of data, statements, records, operations and performance of an enterprise for a stated purpose. In any auditing situation, the auditor perceives and recognizes the propositions before him for examination, collect evidence, evaluates the same and on this basis formulates his judgment which is communicated through his audit report”. In the close scrutiny of the different definitions, we found that there are different ways of expressing the concept auditing but having lot of similarity therein. The meaning of an Audit contains (i) An intelligent and critical examination of the books of accounts of business. (ii) It is done by an independent qualified person. (iii) It is done with the help of vouchers, documents, information and explanations received from the clients. (iv) The auditor satisfies himself with the authenticity of the financial accounts prepared for a particular period. Features of Auditing 1. Audit is a systematic and scientific examination of the books of accounts of a business; 2. Audit is undertaken by an independent person or body of persons who are duly qualified for the job. 155 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. Audit is a verification of the results shown by the profit and loss account and the state of affairs as shown by the balance sheet. 4. Audit is a critical review of the system of accounting and internal control. 5. Audit is done with the help of vouchers, documents, information and explanations received from the authorities. 6. The auditor has to satisfy himself with the authenticity of the financial statements and report that they exhibit a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the concern. 7. The auditor has to inspect, compare, check, review, scrutinize the vouchers supporting the transactions and examine correspondence, minute books of shareholders, directors, Memorandum of Association and Articles of association etc., in order to establish correctness of the books of accounts. Objectives of Auditing The objectives of auditing may be classified into two parts: 1. The primary objective 2. The secondary or incidental objective. Primary Objective – The primary objective of the auditors is to report to the owners whether the balance sheet give a true and fair view of the company’s state of affairs and the correct figure of the profit or loss for the financial year. Secondary objective – It is also called the incidental objective as it is incidental to the satisfaction of the main objective. The incidental objectives of auditing are: (i) Detection and prevention of frauds, and (ii) Detection and prevention of errors. Detection of material frauds and errors as an incidental objective of independent financial auditing flows from the main objective of determining whether or not the financial statements give a true and fair view. The statement on auditing practices issued by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India states, an auditor should bearin mind the possibility of the existence of frauds or errors in the accounts under audit since they may cause the financial position to be mis-stated. Fraud refers to intentional misrepresentation of financial information with the intention to deceive. Frauds can take place in the form of manipulation of accounts, misappropriation of cash and misappropriation of goods. It is of great importance for the auditor to detect any frauds, and prevent their recurrence. Errors refer to unintentional mistake in the financial information arising on account of ignorance of accounting principles i.e.,principal errors, or error arising out of negligence of accounting staffi.e., clerical errors. Scope of Auditing Audit scope determines the time involved in audit exercise, depth of auditing, aspects to be covered etc. Audit scope depends on nature of audit, objectives of audit & terms of 156 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

engagement, requirement of applicable legislations and auditing standard. However, the terms of engagement cannot, restrict the scope of an audit in relation to matters which are prescribed by legislation or by the auditing standard. The audit should be organized to cover adequately all aspects of the enterprise as far as they are relevant to the audit objectives. For example, while carrying out the statutory audit, to form an opinion on the financial statements; the auditor should be reasonably satisfied as to whether the information contained in the underlying accounting records and other source data is reliable and sufficient as the basis for the preparation of the financial statements. In forming his opinion, the auditor should also decide whether the relevant information is properly disclosed in the financial statements subject to statutory requirements, where applicable. The auditor assesses the reliability and sufficiency of the information contained in the underlying accounting records and other source data by: A. Making a study and evaluation of accounting systems and internal controls on which he wishes to rely and testing those internal controls to determine the nature, extent and timing of other auditing procedures; and B. Carrying out such other tests, enquiries and other verification procedures of accounting transactions and account balances as he considers appropriate in the particular circumstances. The auditor determines whether the relevant information is properly disclosed in the financial statements by: (a) Comparing the financial statements with the underlying accounting records and other source data to see whether they properly summarize the transactions and events recorded therein; and (b) Considering the judgments that management has made in preparing the financial statements accordingly, the auditor assesses the selection and consistent application of accounting policies, the manner in which the information has been classified, and the adequacy of disclosure. 6.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES GOVERNING AN AUDIT SA 200 “Basic Principals Governing an Audit”, describes the basic principles which govern the auditor’s professional responsibilities and which should be complied with wherever an audit is carried. They are described below: (i) Integrity objectivity and independence: An auditor should be honest, sincere, impartial and free from bias. He should be a man of high integrity and objectivity. (ii) Confidentiality: The auditor should respect confidentiality of information 157 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

acquired during the course of his work and should not disclose the information without the prior permission of the client, unless there is a legal duty to disclose. (iii) Skill and competence: The auditor must acquire adequate training and experience. He should be competent, skilful and keep himself abreast of the latest developments including pronouncements of ICAI on accounting and auditing matters. (iv) Work performed by others: If the auditor delegates some work to others and uses work performed by others including that of an expert, he continues to be responsible for forming and expressing his opinion on the financial information. (v) Documentation: The auditor should document matters which are important in providing evidence to ensure that the audit was carried out in accordance with the basic principles. (vi) Planning: The auditor should plan his work to enable him to conduct the audit in an effective, efficient and timely manner. He should acquire knowledge of client’s accounting system, the extent of reliance that could be placed on internal control and coordinate the work to be performed. (vii) Audit evidence: The auditor should obtain sufficient appropriate evidences through the performance of compliance and other substantive procedures to enable him to draw reasonable conclusions to form an opinion on the financial information. (viii) Accounting System and Internal Control: The management is responsible for maintaining an adequate accounting system incorporating various internal controls appropriate to the size and nature of business. He auditor should assure himself that the accounting system is adequate and all the information which should be recorded has been recorded. Internal control system contributes to such assurance. (ix) Audit conclusions and reporting: On the basis of the audit evidence, he should review and assess the audit conclusions. He should ascertain: 1. As whether accounting policies have been consistently applied; 2. Whether financial information complies with regulations and statutory requirements; and 3. There are adequate disclosures of material matters relevant to the presentation of financial information subject to statutory requirements. The auditor’s report should contain a clear written opinion on the financial information. A clean audit report indicates the auditor’s satisfaction in all respects and when a qualified, adverse or a disclaimer of opinion is to be given or reservation of opinion on any matter is to be made, the audit report should state the reasons thereof. 158 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6.4 OVERVIEW OF AUDITING AND ASSURANCE STANDARDS - NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL The International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) came into existence in 1977 and constituted International Auditing Practices Committee (IAPC) to formulate International Auditing Guidelines. These guidelines were later on converted into International Standards on Auditing (ISA). Considering the developments in the field of auditing at international level, the need for issuing Standards and Guidance Notes in tandem with international standards but conforming to national laws, customs, usages and business environments was felt. With this objective, ICAI constituted the Auditing Practices Committee (APC) on September 17, 1982, to spearhead the new framework of Statements on Standard Auditing Practices (SAPs) and Guidance Notes (GNs) inter alia to replace various chapters of the old omnibus Statement on Auditing Practices issued in 1964. In July, 2002, the Auditing Practices Committee has been converted into an Auditing and Assurance Standards Board by the Council of the Institute, to be in line with the international trend. The main function of the AASB is to review the existing auditing practices in India and to develop Statements on Standards on Auditing (SAs) so that these may be issued by the Council of the Institute. While formulating the SAs, the AASB takes into consideration the ISAs issued by the IAPC, applicable laws, customs, usages and business environment in India. The SAs are issued under the authority of the Council of the Institute. The AASB also issues Guidance Notes on the issues arising from the SAs wherever necessary. The AASB has also been entrusted with the responsibility to review the SAs at periodical intervals. National and International Auditing standards refers to the code of best practices/procedures which an auditor is expected to follow during an audit to ensure consistency of findings. The auditing standard specifies a minimum level of performance. Auditing standards help the auditor in proper and optimum discharge of their profession duties. Auditing standards also promote uniformity in practice as also comparability. In India the Auditing and Assurance Standards Board of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India formulates the auditing standards Procedure of issuing standard auditing 1. The Auditing and Assurance Standards Board identifies the areas where auditing standards need to be formulated and the priority in regard to their selection. 2. In the preparation of the auditing standards, the Board is normally, assisted by study groups comprising of a cross section of members of the Institute. 3. On the basis of the work of the study groups, an Exposure Draft of the proposed auditing standard is prepared by the Board and issued for comments of the members. 4. After taking into the comments received, the draft of the proposed auditing standard is finalized by the Board and submitted to the Council of the Institute. 159 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5. The Council considers the final draft of the proposed auditing standard and, if necessary, modifies the same in consultation with the Board. The auditing standard is then issued under the authority of the Council. While formulating the auditing standards, the Board also takes into consideration the applicable laws, customs, usages and business environment in the country. International Auditing Standards International Auditing standards are issued by the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB). IAASB is a body of international federation of accountants (IFAC). It is an independent standard-setting body that serves the public interest by setting high-quality international standards for auditing, assurance, and other related standards, and by facilitating the convergence of international and national auditing and assurance standards. The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) is a founder member of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC). It is one of the membership obligations of the Institute to actively propagate the pronouncements of the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB) of the IFAC to contribute towards global harmonization and acceptance of the Standards issued by the IAASB. Accordingly, while formulating Engagement and Quality Control Standards, the AASB takes into consideration the corresponding Standards, if any, issued by the IAASB. In addition, the AASB also takes into consideration the applicable laws, customs, usages and business environment prevailing in India. With effect from 1st April, 2008, the AASB re-categorized and re-numbered the existing Auditing and Assurance Standards on the lines as followed by the IAASB. With this change, all auditing and assurance standards (AAS) were renamed as standards on Auditing (SAs) Brief Overview of Auditing Standards in India Standards on Quality Control (SQCS) SQC 1: Quality control for firms that perform audits and reviews of historical financial information,and other assurance and related services engagements Objective of SQC–1 is to provide the firm with reasonable assurance that its personnel comply with applicable professional standards as well as regulatory and legal requirements, and that reports issued by the firm or engagement partner(s) are appropriate in the circumstances Elements of System of Quality Control It is a primary standard which have applications for all other Standards and is all pervasive Standards in respect of quality control. This standard contains extensive requirements in 160 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

relation to establishment and maintenance of a system of quality control (QC) for an auditing entity. This standard describes the important elements of quality control system as Leadership responsibilities for quality within the firm: The firm should establish policies and procedures designed to promote an internal culture based on recognition that quality is essential in performing engagements. Ethical requirements: The firm should establish policies and procedures designed to provide it with reasonable assurance that the firm and its personnel comply with relevant ethical requirements Acceptance and continuance of client relationships and specific engagements: The acceptance and continuance of Quality Control policies are designed to provide the firm with reasonable assurance that it will undertake or continue relationships and engagements only where it: (a) has considered the integrity of the client and does not have information that would lead it to conclude that the client lacks integrity; (b) is competent to perform the engagement and has the capabilities, time and resources to do so (c) can comply with the ethical requirements. Human resources: The Firm’s policies and procedures should be designed to provide it with reasonable assurance that it has sufficient personnel with the capabilities, competence, and commitment to ethical principles necessary to perform its engagements in accordance with professional standards and regulatory and legal requirements to enable the Firm or engagement partners to issue reports that are appropriate in the circumstances Monitoring: The firm should establish policies and procedures designed to provide it with reasonable assurance that the policies and procedures relating to the system of quality control are relevant, adequate, operating effectively and complied with in practice. 6.5 SUMMARY  The term audit is derived from the Latin term ‘audire,’ which means to hear.  Auditing is as old as accounting and there are signs of its existence in all ancient cultures such as Mesopotamia, Greece, Egypt. Rome, U.K. and India.  The Companies Act, 2013 has detailed provisions regarding Audit and Auditors. This Act provides provisions regarding compulsory Statutory Audit of companies, Auditor appointment, Auditor disqualifications, Cost Audit, appointment of cost auditors, government audit, special audit etc.  Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) defines Auditing as- Auditing is defined as a systematic and independent examination of data, statements, records, operations and performance of an enterprise for a stated purpose. In any auditing situation, the auditor perceives and recognizes the propositions before him for 161 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

examination, collect evidence, evaluates the same and on this basis formulates his judgement which is communicated through his audit report”.  The primary objective of the auditor is to report to the owners whether the balance sheet gives a true and fair view of the Company’s state of affairs and the profit and loss A/c gives a correct figure of profit of loss for the financial year. The incidental objectives of auditing are detection and prevention of Frauds, and Detection and prevention of Errors.  Audit scope determines the time involved in audit exercise, depth of auditing, aspects to be coveredetc. Audit scope depends on nature of audit, objectives of audit & terms of engagement, requirement of applicable legislations and auditing standard  SA 200 “Basic Principals Governing an Audit”, describes the basic principles which govern the auditor’s professional responsibilities and which should be complied with wherever an audit is carried. They are Integrity objectivity and independence, Confidentiality, Skill and competence, work performed by others, documentation Planning, audit evidence, Accounting System and Internal Control, Audit conclusions and reporting  Investigation is an exercise which is carried out with a specific objective. The investigation means in- depth analysis of books of accounts, transaction, and event. Investigation exercise is voluntary in nature and used extensively by Internal and management auditors.  Materiality is a concept or convention within auditing and accounting relating to the importance/ significance of an amount, transaction, or discrepancy. Materiality can be defined as the magnitude of an omission or misstatement of accounting information that, in the light of surrounding circumstances, makes it probable that the judgment of a reasonable person relying on the information would have been changed or influenced by the omission or misstatement.  Auditing standards refers to the code of best practices/procedures which an auditor is expected to follow during an audit to ensure consistency of findings. The auditing standard specifies a minimum level of performance. In India, Auditing standards are being issued by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India.  International Auditing standards are issued by the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB). IAASB is a body of International federation of accountants (IFAC) 6.6 KEYWORDS  Integrity objectivity and independence: An auditor should be honest, sincere, impartial and free from bias. He should be a man of high integrity and objectivity. 162 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Confidentiality: The auditor should respect confidentiality of information acquired during the course of his work and should not disclose the information without the prior permission of the client, unless there is a legal duty to disclose.  Skill and competence: The auditor must acquire adequate training and experience. He should be competent, skilful and keep himself abreast of the latest developments including pronouncements of ICAI on accounting and auditing matters.  Ethical requirements: The firm should establish policies and procedures designed to provide it with reasonable assurance that the firm and its personnel comply with relevant ethical requirements  Monitoring: The firm should establish policies and procedures designed to provide it with reasonable assurance that the policies and procedures relating to the system of quality control are relevant, adequate, operating effectively and complied with in practice. 6.7 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Explain Auditing Concepts ___________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 2. Give a brief overview of Accounting Standards ___________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 6.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Explain the term Auditing, Its objective and Scope. 2. What is the meaning of term auditing? State the advantages of Auditing. 3. What is the term ‘true and Fait View’ in Auditing? 4. Explain the concept of materiality in auditing. 5. What is the meaning of term investigation? Explain the difference between audit and investigation? Long Questions 1. Explain the basic principles governing an audit in brief. 2. State the meaning and objectives of Auditing Standard? 3. State in brief about SA 620- using the work of an auditor’s expert. 163 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4. Write a short note on harmonization of Indian auditing standards with international auditing standards. 5. Explain scope of auditing. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. __________ is a systematic examination of the books and records or a business. a. Auditing. b. Vouching. c. Verification. d. Checking. 2.Which of the following are not objectives of auditing? a. Ascertain the profit and preparation of P/L Account, Balance sheet. b. Detection and prevention of frauds and errors. c. Give a true and fair view of financial amount. d. To submits the accounts to Government of India. 3. Which of the following is not a kind of audit? a. Statutory and private audit. b. Government and continuous audit. c. Continuous, final, Interim, Cash, Cost and Management audit. d. None of these. 4. An audit which is compulsory by the law __________. a. Government audit. b. Internal audit. c. Cost audit. d. Statutory audit. 5. Instruction of audit issued by controller and auditor general of India ________. 164 a. Statutory audit. b. Final audit. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

c. Management audit. d. Government audit. Answers 1-a, 2-d, 3-d, 4-a, 5-d. 6.9 REFERENCES Reference books  M.C. Shukla, T.S. Grewal : & S.C. Gupta Advanced Accounts Vol. II; S. Chand & Company Ltd., 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110 055.  R.L. Gupta & :M. Radhaswamy Company Accounts; Sultan Chand & Sons,23, Daryaganj, New Delhi- 110 002.  S.P. Jain & K. L. Narang: Advanced Accountancy-Vol.II; Kalyani Publishers, 23, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110 002.  S. N. Maheshwari &S.K. Maheshwari Advance Accounting Vol. II; Vikas Publishing House (Pvt.) Ltd., A-22, Sector 4, Noida – 201 301.  Ashok Sehgal & : Deepak Sehgal Textbook  Advanced Accounting Vol. 2; Taxmann’s,59/32, New Rohtak Road, New Delhi- 110 005.  J. R. Monga : Fundamentals of Corporate Accounting; Mayoor Paperbacks, A-95, Sector 5, Noida-201 301.  Goel, Maheshwari Gupta : Corporate Accounting, International Publishers, Daryaganj New Delhi  Kamal Gupta, Ashok Arora : Fundamentals of Auditing: Tata McGraw Hill Education Limited  Kamal Gupta: Contemporary Auditing: Tata McGraw Hill Education Limited  International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) Taxmann Publication (P) Limited, 59/32, New Rohtak Road, New Delhi- 110 005  Dolphy D’Souza : Indian Accounting Standards & GAAPP; Snow White Publications Pvt. Ltd., Her Mahal, 532, Kalbadevi Road, Mumbai – 400 002.  N S Zad : Company Accounts and Auditing Practices : Taxmann Publications (P) Ltd., 59/32, Rohtak Road, New Delhi - 110005 165 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Website  https://icmai.in/upload/Students/Syllabus2016/Inter/Paper-12_070219.pdf  https://www.mca.gov.in/MinistryV2/accounts+and+audit.html 166 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT – 7 : TYPES OF COMPANY AUDIT STRUCTURE 7.0 Learning Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Statutory Audit 7.3 Internal Audit 7.4 Branch Audit 7.5 Joint Audit 7.6 Special Audit 7.7 CAG Audit 7.8 Summary 7.9 Keywords 7.10 Learning Activity 7.11 Unit End Questions 7.12 References 7.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Auditing is a very important role in a company. Since a company is owned by shareholders and managed by their representatives i.e., Board of directors, it is auditing which provide a base for the shareholders to rely on the financials of a company. In a company, financial audit and cost audit (for manufacturing company) are statutory while Internal Audit, management audit, operational audit isnon-mandatory in nature. The objective of this lesson is to create understanding about various forms of audit in a company. After reading this lesson student will be able to understand  About statutory auditor of a company.  Qualification to become a statutory auditor of a company. Disqualification for a statutory auditor.  Requirement about the number of audits, rights and duties of auditor.  Cost Audit, Internal audit, joint audit and branch audit  Provisions relating to special audit and government audit. 167 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

7.1 INTRODUCTION The Companies Act, 2013 is focused on transparency and disclosure. In the new Act, attempt has been made to cover each aspect of corporate functioning under audit by prescribing various types of audits like internal audit and secretarial audit. The various types of audits prescribed under the Companies Act, 2013 are:  Statutory Audit  Internal Audit  Secretarial Audit  Cost Audit 7.2 STATUTORY AUDIT Sections 139 to 147 under chapter X of the Companies Act 2013 along with the Companies (Audit and Auditors) Rules, 2014 contain provisions regarding audit and auditors.  Section 139 contains provision regarding Appointment of auditors.  Removal, resignation of auditor and giving of special notice is provided in Section 140.  Section 141 prescribes eligibility, qualifications and disqualifications of auditors.  Section 142 deals with the provisions of Remuneration of auditors.  Powers and duties of auditors and auditing standards are provided in Section 143.  Section 144 provides a list of certain services which auditor is not to render.  Section 145 deals with signing of Audit Reports.  Section 146 deals with Auditors to attend General Meeting Section 147 deals with punishment for contravention 7.3 INTERNAL AUDIT Section 138 under Chapter IX of the Companies Act, 2013 contains provisions regarding internal audit. The provisions regarding internal audit of the company according to section 138 of the Companies Act, 2013 and the Companies (Accounts) Rules, 2014 are discussed below- Qualifications for the internal auditor: The internal auditor shall either be a chartered accountant whether engaged in practice or not or a cost accountant, or such other professional as may be decided by the Board to conduct internal audit of the functions and activities of the company. Report of the internal audit: The report of internal audit shall be submitted to the Board of the company. 168 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Companies required to appoint internal auditor: The following class of companies shall be required to appoint an internal auditor or a firm of internal auditors, namely: - (a) every listed company; (b) every unlisted public company having-  paid up share capital of fifty crore rupees or more during the preceding financial year; or  turnover of two hundred crore rupees or more during the preceding financial year; or  outstanding loans or borrowings from banks or public financial institutions exceeding one hundred crore rupees or more at any point of time during the preceding financial year; or  outstanding deposits of twenty-five crore rupees or more at any point of time during the preceding financial year; and (c) every private company having-  turnover of two hundred crore rupees or more during the preceding financial year; or  outstanding loans or borrowings from banks or public financial institutions exceeding one hundred crore rupees or more at any point of time during the preceding financial year: Other Provisions:  All the companies covered under any of the above criteria will have to comply with the requirements of section 138 and this rule within six months of commencement of such section.  The internal auditor may or may not be an employee of the company.  The Audit Committee of the company or the Board shall, in consultation with the Internal Auditor, formulate the scope, functioning, periodicity and methodology for conducting the internal audit. 7.4 BRANCH AUDIT Branch Audit is an official inspection of an Organisation, Entity, or Company Branch. Branch Audit helps organisations to keep clear records and maintain proper books. 169 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

As per the Act passed in 2013, every company has to maintain the books of accounts and other relevant documents of its Branch. This account and documents should be maintained every year to give a fair state of affairs for every company. Branch Audits are done by Auditors; they are known as Branch Auditors. 7.5 JOINT AUDIT Meaning of Joint Audit: when two or more auditors are appointed for the execution of same audit assignment, it is termed as joint audit. Joint auditors are mainly appointed for audit assignment of public enterprises and big companies. Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) has issued SA 299 on “Responsibility of Joint Auditors” w.e.f. April, 1996. Basic principles governing a joint audit are discussed herein given below Division of Work - Where joint auditors are appointed, they should, by mutual discussion, divide the audit work among themselves in terms of audit of identifiable units or specified areas. If due to the nature of the business of the entity under audit, such a division of work may not be possible the division of work may be with reference to items of assets or liabilities or income or expenditure or with reference to periods of time. The division of work among joint auditors as well as the areas of work to be covered by all of them should be adequately documented and preferably communicated to the entity. Coordination - Where, in the course of his work, a joint auditor comes across matters which are relevant to the areas of responsibility of other joint auditors and which deserve their attention, or which require disclosure or require discussion with, or application of judgment by, other joint auditors, he should communicate the same to all the other joint auditors in writing. Thus, should be done by the submission of a report or note prior to the finalization of the audit. Relationship among joint auditors - In respect of audit work divided among the joint auditors, each joint auditor is responsible only for the work allocated to him, whether or not he has prepared as separate report on the work performed by him. On the other hand, all the joint auditors are jointly and severally responsible: (a) In respect of the audit work which is not divided among the joint auditors and is carried out by all of them; (b) In respect of decisions taken by all the joint auditors concerning the nature, timing or extent of the audit procedures to be performed by any of the joint auditors. It may, however, be clarified that all the joint auditors are responsible only in respect of the appropriateness of the decisions concerning the nature, timing or extent of the audit procedures agreed upon among them; proper execution of these audit procedures is the separate and specific responsibility of the joint auditor concerned; 170 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(c) In respect of matters which are brought to the notice of the joint auditors by any one of them and on which there is an agreement among the joint auditors; (d) For examining that the financial statements of the entity comply with the disclosure requirements of the relevant statute; and (e) For ensuring that the audit report complies with the requirements of the relevant statute. If any matters of the nature referred above are brought to the attention of the entity or other joint auditors by an auditor after the audit report has been submitted, the other joint auditors would not be responsible for those matters. Subject to paragraph (b) above, it is the responsibility of each joint auditor to determine the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures to be applied in relation to the area of work allocated to him; The issues such as appropriateness of using test checks or sampling should be decided by each joint auditor in relation to his own area of work. This responsibility is not shared by the other joint auditors. Thus, it is the separate and specific responsibility of each joint auditor to study and evaluate the prevailing system of internal control relating to the work allocated to him. Similarly, the nature, timing and extent of the enquiries to be made in the course of audit as well as the other audit procedures to be applied are solely the responsibility of each joint auditor. In the case of audit of a large entity with several branches, including those required to be audited by branch auditors, the branch audit reports/returns may be required to be scrutinized by different joint auditors in accordance with the allocation of work. In such cases, it is the specific and separate responsibility of each joint auditor to review the audit reports/returns of the divisions/branches allocated to him and to ensure that they are properly incorporated into the accounts of the entity. In respect of the branches which do not fall within any divisions or zones which are separately assigned to the various joint auditors, they may agree among themselves as regards the division of work relating to the review of such branch returns. It is also the separate and specific responsibility of each joint auditor to exercise his judgment with regard to the necessity of visiting such divisions/branches in respect of which the work is allocated to him. A significant part of the audit work involves obtaining and evaluating information and explanations from the management. This responsibility is shared by all the joint auditors unless they agree upon a specific pattern of distribution of this responsibility. In cases where specific responsibility of each joint auditor to obtain appropriate information and explanations from the management in respect of such divisions/zones/units and to evaluate the information and explanations so obtained by him. Each joint auditor is entitled to assume that the other joint auditors have carried out their part of the audit work in accordance with the generally accepted audit procedures. It is not necessary for a joint auditor to review the work performed by other joint auditors or perform any tests in order to ascertain whether the work has actually been performed in such a manner. Each joint auditor is entitled to rely upon the other joint auditors for bringing to his notice accounting principles or any material error noticed in the course of the audit. Where 171 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

separate financial statements of a division/branch are audited by one of the joint auditors, the other joint auditors are entitled to proceed on the basis that such financial statements comply with all the legal and professional requirements regarding the disclosures to be made and present a true and fair view of the state of affairs and of the working results of the division/branch concerned, subject to such observations as may be communicated by the joint auditor concerned. Reporting Responsibilities - Normally, the joint auditors are able to arrive at an agreed report. However, where the joint auditors are in disagreement with regard to any matters to be covered by the report, each one of them should express his own opinion through a separate report. A joint auditor is not bound by the view of the majority of the joint auditors regarding matters to be covered in the report and should express his opinion in a separate report in case of a disagreement. For the purpose of computation of the number of company audits held by an auditor pursuant to the ceiling rule introduced in the Companies Act, 1956 each joint auditor ship in a company will be counted as one unit 7.6 SPECIAL AUDIT A Special Audit can be defined as a tightly defined type of audit that is conducted in order to probe into a specific area of the organization’s activities. As a matter of fact, it can be seen that this type of audit is mainly initiated by a third party, like a government agency or the tax authority. However, it can also be authorized by any other relevant entity, including any internal authorities that might be in a position to do so. Examples of special audits include Compensation audits, control audits, cost audits, fraud audits and royalty audits. Special Audits are mostly needed when some abnormal behavior is suspected within the organization. Mostly, they are called for when it is suspected that the laws and regulations have been overlooked pertaining to finances, or financial management within the organization. However, they are not only restricted to cases pertaining to fraud. They can also be conducted when there are other institutional violations that might include pertaining to duties, authorizations, internal control procedures or responsibilities of the Senior Management. In the same manner, Special Audits can also be related to corporate reorganization or bankruptcy. Scope of Special Audit 172 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

As mentioned earlier on, it can be seen that a special audit is conducted out of routine, with a specific or a special purpose. However, these special purposes are quite varied in their nature, and the overall outcomes based on those special audits.  Compliance Audit – This is mainly conducted when there is a need to examine the policies and procedures to check if they follow internal or regulatory standards.  Construction Audit – This analyzes the costs that occur for a given construction project. In the same manner, this also tracks down the actual amount that is paid to contractors, suppliers, and other reimbursement that takes place in this regard.  Information Systems Audit. Information System Audit is mainly conducted when there is a need to review the overall controls present in software development. Additionally, it also involves a review of controls regarding software development, data processing and the overall access to computer systems.  Investigative Audit. Investigative Audits take place when there is a need to find details of a specific event or an incident within the company that was suspicious.  Tax Audit. This Audit is mainly initiated to analyze the overall tax returns that are submitted by an individual or business entity. The main rationale is to see if the paid tax is actually valid. 7.7 CAG AUDIT CAG Audit is known as audit of public enterprises done by Comptroller and Auditor General of India and here, we will be discussing about Government Audit as CAG audit. In India, government audit is performed by an independent constitutional authority, i.e., Comptroller and Audit General of India (C&AG), through the Indian Audit and Accounts Department. The Constitution of India gives a special status to the C&AG and contains provisions to safeguard his independence. Article 148 of the constitution provides that the C&AG shall be appointed by the President and can be removed from the office only in a like manner and on the like grounds as a judge of the Supreme Court. Article 151 of the Constitution requires that the audit reports of the C&AG relating to the accounts of the Central/State Government should be submitted to the President/Governor of the State who shall cause them to be laid before Parliament/State Legislative. The Comptroller and Audit General’s (Duties, Power and Conditions of Services) Act, 1971, prescribes that the C&AG shall hold office for a term of six years or up to the age of 65 years, which is earlier. He can resign at any time through a resignation letter addressed to the President. The Act also assigns the duties regarding the audit to be followed by C&AG. Organizations subject to the audit of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India The organizations subject to the audit of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India are: - 173 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

All the Union and State Government departments and offices including the Indian Railways and Posts and Telecommunications.  About 1500 public commercial enterprises controlled by the Union and State governments, i.e., government companies and corporations.  Around 400 non-commercial autonomous bodies and authorities owned or controlled by the Union or the States.  Over 4400 authorities and bodies substantially financed from Union or State revenues 7.8 SUMMARY  Section 139 to 147 under Chapter X of Companies Act, 2013 contains provision regarding audit and auditors  An auditor under section 139 shall hold office from first AGM till conclusion of Sixth AGM.  An auditor can be removed, or can resign from his office by procedure given under section 140.  Section 141 provides for qualifications and disqualifications of Auditors.  Remuneration of Auditors is prescribed under section 142.  Powers and duties of an auditor are defined under section 143.  Some services which are prohibited to be rendered by an auditor prescribed under section 144.  Section 145 contains the provisions for signing of Audit Reports.  Section 147 provides for punishment for contravention of the provisions of section 139 to 146.  Section 138 under Chapter IX of Companies Act, 2013 contains provisions regarding internal audit.  The Companies Act, 2013 has introduced a new requirement of Secretarial Audit under section 204, for bigger companies.  Section 148 of Act provides that Central Government in respect of such class of Companies engaged in the production of such goods or providing such services as may be prescribed, direct that particulars relating to the utilization of material or labour or to other terms of cost shall also be included in the books of account kept by that class of companies.  When 2 or more auditor is appointed for the execution of same audit assignment is termed as Joint Audit.  CAG Audit is audit of public enterprises done by Comptroller and Auditor General of India. 174 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 There is a special arrangement for the audit of Companies where the equity participation by Government is 51% or more named as ‘Audit of Government Companies’. 7.9 KEYWORDS  Special Audit: A Special Audit can be defined as a tightly defined type of audit that is conducted in order to probe into a specific area of the organization’s activities.  Branch Audit: Branch Audit is an official inspection of an Organisation, Entity, or Company Branch. Branch Audit helps organisations to keep clear records and maintain proper books.  Joint Audit:when two or more auditors are appointed for the execution of same audit assignment, it is termed as joint audit. Joint auditors are mainly appointed for audit assignment of public enterprises and big companies.  CAG Audit: CAG Audit is known as audit of public enterprises done by Comptroller and Auditor General of India and here, we will be discussing about Government Audit as CAG audit.  Internal Audit: Internal audit refers to an independent service to evaluate an organization’s internal controls, its corporate practices, processes, and methods. An internal audit helps in securing compliance with the various laws applicable to an organization. 7.10 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What are the types of auditing? ___________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 2. What is joint audit? ___________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 7.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is the meaning of term cost auditing; explain its reference to statutory audit. 2. Explain Statutory Audit under Companies Act, 2013 3. Explain the manner and procedure of selection and appointment of auditors. 4. States the requirement of cost audit in brief. 5. What are the types of audit 175 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Long Questions 1. What is Joint audit 2. What is Special Audit and when it is done 3. Explain CAG audit. 4. What is internal audit 5. Which company’sare required to appoint internal auditor. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Instruction of audit issued by controller and auditor general of India ________. a. Statutory audit. b. Final audit. c. Management audit. d. Government audit. 2.This kind of audit is conducted generally between two annual audit ______. a. Internal audit. b. Interim audit. c. Final audit. d. continuous audit 3. Internal auditor is appointed by ________. a. The management. b. the shareholders c. The government. d. he statutory body 4. The audit that is made compulsory under statute is called _________. a. Statutory audit. b. Partial audit. c. Complete audit. d. Continuous audit. 176 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5. Before the work of audit is commenced, the auditor plans out the whole of audit work is called _________. a. Audit plan. b. Audit note. c. Audit risk. d. Audit programme Answers 1-d, 2-b, 3-a, 4-a, 5-d. 7.12 REFERENCES Reference books  M.C. Shukla, T.S. Grewal : & S.C. Gupta Advanced Accounts Vol. II; S. Chand & Company Ltd., 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110 055.  R.L. Gupta & :M. Radhaswamy Company Accounts; Sultan Chand & Sons,23, Daryaganj, New Delhi- 110 002.  S.P. Jain & K. L. Narang: Advanced Accountancy-Vol.II; Kalyani Publishers, 23, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110 002.  S. N. Maheshwari &S.K. Maheshwari Advance Accounting Vol. II; Vikas Publishing House (Pvt.) Ltd., A-22, Sector 4, Noida – 201 301.  Ashok Sehgal & : Deepak Sehgal Textbook  Advanced Accounting Vol. 2; Taxmann’s,59/32, New Rohtak Road, New Delhi- 110 005.  J. R. Monga : Fundamentals of Corporate Accounting; Mayoor Paperbacks, A-95, Sector 5, Noida-201 301.  Goel, Maheshwari Gupta : Corporate Accounting, International Publishers, Daryaganj New Delhi  Kamal Gupta, Ashok Arora : Fundamentals of Auditing: Tata McGraw Hill Education Limited  Kamal Gupta: Contemporary Auditing: Tata McGraw Hill Education Limited  International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) Taxmann Publication (P) Limited, 59/32, New Rohtak Road, New Delhi- 110 005 177 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Dolphy D’Souza : Indian Accounting Standards & GAAPP; Snow White Publications Pvt. Ltd., Her Mahal, 532, Kalbadevi Road, Mumbai – 400 002.  N S Zad : Company Accounts and Auditing Practices : Taxmann Publications (P) Ltd., 59/32, Rohtak Road, New Delhi - 110005 Website  https://icmai.in/upload/Students/Syllabus2016/Inter/Paper-12_070219.pdf  https://www.mca.gov.in/MinistryV2/accounts+and+audit.html 178 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT – 8 : INTERNAL CONTROL STRUCTURE 8.0 Learning Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Nature, Scope and Elements 8.3 Internal Control distinguished from Internal Check and Internal Audit 8.4 Techniques of Internal Control System, Flow Charts, Internal Control Questionnaires 8.5 Steps for Internal Control and Audit Evaluation 8.6 Audit Testing 8.7 Need for Sampling and Various Approaches to Statistical Sampling 8.8 Inter-Firm and Intra-Firm Comparisons 8.9 Ratio and Trend Analysis 8.10 Auditsin Depth 8.11 Summary 8.12 Keywords 8.13 Learning Activity 8.14 Unit End Questions 8.15 References 8.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Internal control is a process effected by plan management and other personnel, and those charged with governance, and designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives in the reliability of financial reporting. Internal Control is not only important in ensuring the reliability of financial reporting but is also necessary for survival of an organization’s success. In lack of an effective internal control system, it is quite for an organization to survive in continuous changing environment. The objective of this lesson is to create an understanding of Internal Control, its Scope, its objective, its techniques and its review. After reading this lesson, the student will be able to understand:  The meaning of internal control system, its nature, objectives, scope and elements  The meaning of internal check system and difference between internal control system, internal check system and internal audit system 179 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Difference techniques used in internal control  How the review of internal control is done. Techniques used in internal control review.  Meaning of audit testing, use of sampling in audit testing, different approaches used in audit sampling  Meaning of inter firm comparison and intra firm comparison Meaning of audit in depth and its characteristics. 8.1 INTRODUCTION Internal control means different things to different people. This causes confusion among businessman, legislators, regulators and others. Internal control is broadly defined as a process, effected by an entity’s board of directors, management and other personnel, designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives in the following categories: 1. Effectiveness and efficiency of operations. 2. Reliability of financial reporting. 3. Compliance with applicable laws and regulations. The first category addresses an entity’s basic business objectives, including performance and profitability goals and safeguarding of resources. The second relates to the preparation of reliable published financial statements, including interim and condensed financial statements and selected financial data derived from such statements, such as earnings releases, reported publicly. The third deals with complying with those laws and regulations to which the entity is subject. These distinct but overlapping categories address different needs and allow a directed focus to meet the separate needs. 8.2 NATURE, SCOPE AND ELEMENTS De Paula [1989] defined internal controls as a system of controls, financial and otherwise established by management in order to carry on the business of the company in an orderly and efficient manner to ensure the adherence to management policies, safeguard the assets, and secure as much as possible the completeness of an internal control system. Gibbins, [1990]; argues that the safeguarding of assess, prevention and detection of frauds and errors, the accuracy and completeness of accounting records and timely preparation of reliable information, he argues that internal controls may be incorporated with in computerized accounting system, which extends beyond those matters which are related directly to the accounting system. 180 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Lucy argues that internal controls comprise the control environment and control procedures. It includes all the policies and procedures adopted by the directors and management of an entity to assist in achieving their objective of ensuring are efficient and orderly conduct of its business and adherence to internal policies. Thomas Evans, in his book “International Accounting and reporting “defines internal controls as policies and procedures that an organization develops to safe guard its resources and provide for the reliability of financial records. The international standards of auditors define internal controls as a system comprising of controls environment and procedures. It includes polices and ways adapted by management of an enterprise to assist it in achieving its objectives. Nature of Internal Control Internal controls can be detective, corrective, or preventive by nature. 1. Detective controls are designed to detect errors or irregularities that may have occurred. 2. Corrective controls are designed to correct errors or irregularities that have been detected. 3. Preventive controls, on the other hand, are designed to keep errors or irregularities from occurring in the first place. Scope of Internal Control It is very important to have an internal control system for an organization. There is no universal model of internal control, system. It is up to every company to design an internal control system which is suitably adapted to its situation. Internal control is neither limited to a set of procedures nor to financial controls. Operational control such as quality control, work standards, budgetary control, periodic reporting, policy appraisal, quantitative controls etc. are all parts of internal control system. Internal Control Objectives Internal control objectives are desired goals or conditions for a specific event cycle which, if achieved, minimize the potential that waste, loss, unauthorized use or misappropriation will occur. They are the conditions which we want the system of internal control to satisfy. For a control objective to be effective, compliance with it must be measurable and observable. Internal audit evaluates the organization’s system of internal control by accessing the ability of individual process controls to achieve seven pre-defined control objectives. The control objectives include: Authorization - the objective is to ensure that all transactions are approved by responsible personnel in accordance with their specific or general authority before the transaction is recorded. 181 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Completeness - the objective is to ensure that no valid transactions have been omitted from the accounting records. Accuracy - the objective is to ensure that all valid transactions are accurate, consistent with the originating transaction data, and information is recorded in a timely manner. Validity - the objective is to ensure that all recorded transactions fairly represent the economic events that actually occurred, are lawful in nature, and have been executed in accordance with management’s general authorization. Physical Safeguards and Security - the objective is to ensure that access to physical assets and information systems are controlled and properly restricted to authorized personnel. Error Handling - the objective is to ensure that errors detected at any stage of processing receive prompts corrective action and are reported to the appropriate level of management. Segregation of Duties - the objective is to ensure that duties are assigned to individuals in a manner that ensures that no one individual can control both the recording function and the procedures relative to processing a transaction. Fig. 8.1Elements of Internal control Internal Control Elements Internal control consists of five interrelated components. These are derived from the way management runs a business, and are integrated with the management process. Although the components apply to all entities, small and mid-size companies may implement them 182 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

differently than large ones. Its controls may be less formal and less structured, yet a small company can still have effective internal control. The components are: Control Environment The control environment sets the tone of an organization, influencing the control consciousness of its people. It is the foundation for all other components of internal control, providing discipline and structure. Control environment factors include the integrity, ethical values and competence of the entity’s people; management’s philosophy and operating style; the way management assigns authority and responsibility, and organizes and develops its people; and the attention and direction provided by the board of directors Risk Assessment Every entity faces a variety of risks from external and internal sources that must be assessed. A precondition to risk assessment is establishment of objectives, linked at different levels and internally consistent. Risk assessment is the identification and analysis of relevant risks to achievement of the objectives, forming a basis for determining how the risks should be managed. Because economic, industry, regulatory and operating conditions will continue to change, mechanisms are needed to identify and deal with the special risks associated with change. Control Activities Control activities are the policies and procedures that help ensure management directives are carried out. They help ensure that necessary actions are taken to address risks to achievement of the entity’s objectives. Control activities occur throughout the organization, at all levels and in all functions. They include a range of activities as diverse as approvals, authorizations, verifications, reconciliations, reviews of operating performance, security of assets and segregation of duties. Information and communication Pertinent information must be identified, captured and communicated in a form and timeframe that enable people to carry out their responsibilities. Information systems produce reports, containing operational, financial and compliance-related information, that make it possible to run and control the business. They deal not only with internally generated data, but also information about external events, activities and conditions necessary to informed business decision-making and external reporting. Effective communication also must occur in a broader sense, flowing down, across and up the organization. All personnel must receive a clear message from top management that control responsibilities must be taken seriously. They must understand their own role in the internal control system, as well as how individual activities relate to the work of others. They must have a means of communicating significant information upstream. There also needs to be effective communication with external parties, such as customers, suppliers, regulators and shareholders. 183 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Monitoring Internal control systems need to be monitored—a process that assesses the quality of the system’s performance over time. This is accomplished through ongoing monitoring activities, separate evaluations or a combination of the two. Ongoing monitoring occurs in the course of operations. It includes regular management and supervisory activities, and other actions personnel take in performing their duties. The scope and frequency of separate evaluations will depend primarily on an assessment of risks and the effectiveness of ongoing monitoring procedures. Internal control deficiencies should be reported upstream, with serious matters reported to top management and the board. There is synergy and linkage among these components, forming an integrated system that reacts dynamically to changing conditions. The internal control system is intertwined with the entity’s operating activities and exists for fundamental business reasons. Internal control is most effective when controls are built into the entity’s infrastructure and are a part of the essence of the enterprise. “Built in” controls support quality and empowerment initiatives, avoid unnecessary costs and enable quick response to changing conditions 8.3 INTERNAL CONTROL DISTINGUISHED FROM INTERNAL CHECK AND INTERNAL AUDIT Internal Check Internal check is best regarded as indicating checks on the day-to-day transactions which operate continuously as a part of the routine systems whereby work of one person is proved independently or is complementary to the work of another, the object being the prevention of or early detection of errors and frauds”. The main objective of internal check is prevention of errors and frauds and/or detection of errors and frauds at the earliest. Internal check is a continuous process and is part of the day- to-day routine. It relates to all the transactions that take place every day. Internal check is achieved by complementary allocation of duties and by independent verification of the work of one person by another. Internal check is a part of internal control system. It ensures that all financial transactions are properly recorded. It also ensures efficiency of the accounting system followed by the organization and enables easy preparation of financial statements. It achieves its main object of minimizing errors and frauds. A sound system of internal check increases the reliability of financial statements. Internal check discourages fraud and collusion among employees by instilling a fear of detection in their minds. Internal check assigns responsibilities to persons and enables maintenance of records and documents properly and thereby ensures smooth flow of work. Difference between internal control system and internal check system 184 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Internal control is the system of control established by the management in order to carry on business in an orderly and efficient manner, ensure adherence to management policies, safeguard assets and completeness of records whereas Internal check is a system of allocation of responsibility, division of work and methods of recording transactions, whereby the work of one employee is checked continuously by another. Internal check system is one part of internal control system. Internal control is broader concept as compare to internal check system; it contains many more types of controls other than the internal check system. In internal control system, controls other than the internal check system are internal audit system and other non- financial control systems like quality control, purchasing controls, marketing controls etc. The essence of internal check system is that the check should be automatic, continuous and objective while the essence of internal control system is in implementation of internal check and internal audit. Difference between internal check and internal audit Way of checking: In internal check system work is automatically checked whereas in internal audit system work is checked specially. Cost involvement: in internal check system checking is done when the work is being done. Mistake can be checked at an early stage in internal check system. Thrust of system: Thrust of internal check system is to prevent the errors and whereas the thrust of internal audit system is to detect the errors and frauds. Time of checking: In internal check system checking is done when the work is being done whereas in internal audit system work is checked after it is done. Mistakes can be checked at an early stage in internal check system Difference between internal control and internal audit Internal auditing is an independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization’s operations. It helps an organization accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance processes, on the other hand Internal control is the system of control established by the management in order to carry on business in an orderly and efficient manner, ensure adherence to management policies, safeguard assets and completeness of records Internal control system is a broad concept and in includes internal audit system as we. Internal audit system is comparatively a narrow concept. Internal control system is necessary for every organization while internal audit system is to be implemented as per the suitability of the organization. 185 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The primary objective of internal control system is to prevent the occurrence of fraud while the internal audit is primarily a backward-looking activity. 8.4 TECHNIQUES OF INTERNAL CONTROL SYSTEM, FLOW CHARTS, INTERNAL CONTROL QUESTIONNAIRES There are two types of techniques used in internal control system Preventive internal control techniques and Detective internal control techniques controls. Both types of internal control techniques are essential to an effective internal control system. From a quality standpoint, preventive controls techniques are essential because they are proactive and emphasize quality. However, detective controls techniques play a critical role by providing evidence that the preventive controls techniques are functioning as intended Preventive Controls techniques are designed to discourage errors or irregularities from occurring. They are proactive in nature that helps to ensure departmental objectives are being met. Examples of preventive controls techniques are: 1. Segregation of Duties: Duties are segregated among different people to reduce the risk of error or inappropriate action. Normally, responsibilities for authorizing transactions (approval), recording transactions (accounting) and handling the related asset (custody) are divided. 2. Approvals, Authorizations, and Verifications: Management authorizes employees to perform certain activities and to execute certain transactions within limited parameters. In addition, management specifies those activities or transactions that need supervisory approval before they are performed or executed by employees. A supervisor’s approval (manual or electronic) implies that he or she has verified and validated that the activity or transaction conforms to established policies and procedures. 3. Security of Assets (Preventive and Detective): Access to equipment, inventories, securities, cash and other assets is restricted; assets are periodically counted and compared to amounts shown on control records. Detective Controls techniques are designed to find errors or irregularities after they have occurred. Examples of detective controls techniques are: 1. Reviews of Performance: Management compares information about current performance to budgets, forecasts, prior periods, or other benchmarks to measure the extent to which goals and objectives are being achieved and to identify unexpected results or unusual conditions that require follow-up. 2. Reconciliations: An employee relates different sets of data to one another, identifies and investigates differences, and takes corrective action, when necessary. 186 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. Physical Inventories 4. Internal Audits Internal control questionnaire is a comprehensive series of questions concerning internal control. This is the most widely used from for collecting information about the existence, operation and efficiency of internal control in an organization. An important advantage of the questionnaire approach is that oversight or omission of significant internal control review procedures is less likely to occur with this method. With a proper questionnaire, all internal control evaluation can be completed at one time or in sections. The review can more easily be made on an interim basis. The questionnaire form also provides an orderly means of disclosing control defects. It is the general practice to review the internal control system annually and record the review the detail. In the questionnaire, generally questions are so framed that a ‘Yes’ answer denotes satisfactory position and a ‘No’ answer suggests weakness. Provision is made for an explanation or further details of ‘No’ answers. In respect of questions not relevant to the business, ’Not applicable’ reply is given. The questionnaire is annually issued to the client and the client is requested to get it filled by the concerned executives and employees. If on a perusal of the answers, inconsistencies or apparent incongruities are noticed, the matter is further discussed by auditor’s staff with the client employees for a clear picture. The concerned auditor then prepares a report of deficiencies and recommendation for improvement. (1)A flow chart is a graphical presentation of each part of the company’s system of internal control. A flow chart is considered to be the most concise way of recording the auditor’s review of the system. It minimizes the amount of narrative explanation and thereby achieves and consideration or presentation not possible in any other form. It gives bird’s eye view of the system and the flow of transactions and integration and in documentation, can be easily spotted and improvements can be suggested. It is also necessary for the auditor to study the significant features of the business carried on by the concern: the nature of its activities and various channels of goods and materials as well as cash, both inward and outward, and also a comprehensive study of the entire process of manufacturing, trading and administration. This will help him to understand and evaluate the internal controls in the correct perspective. 8.5 STEPS FOR INTERNAL CONTROL AND AUDIT EVALUATION A review of internal control can be done by a process of study, examination and evaluation of the control system installed by the management. The first step involves determination of the control and procedures laid down by the management. By reading company manuals, studying organization charts and flow charts and by making suitable enquiries from the officers and employees, the auditor may ascertain the character, scope and efficacy of the 187 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

control system. To acquaint him-self about how all the accounting information is collected and processed and to learn the nature of controls that makes the information reliable and protect the company’s assets, calls for considerable skill and knowledge. In many cases, very little of this information is available in writing; the auditor must ask the right people the right questions if he is to get the information he wants. It would be better if he makes written notes of the relevant information and procedures contained in the manual or ascertained on enquiry. To facilitate the accumulative of the information necessary for the proper review and evaluation of internal controls, the auditor can use one of the following to help him to know and assimilate the system and evaluate the same: (1) Narrative record; (2) Check list; (3) Questionnaire; and (4) Flow chart; (2) The narrative record is a complete and exhaustive description of the system as found in operation by the auditor. Actual testing and observation are necessary before such a system is in operation and would be more suited to small business. The basic disadvantages of narrative records are: 1. To comprehend the system is operation is quite difficult. 2. To identify weaknesses or gaps in the system 3. To incorporate charges arising on account of reshuffling of manpower, etc. (3) A check list is a series of instruction and/or answer. When he completes instruction, he initials the space against the instruction. Answers to the check list instruction are usually Yes, No or Not applicable. This is again an on-the-job requirement and instructions are framed having regard to the desirable element of control. A few examples of check list instruction are given hereunder: 1. Are tenders called before placing orders? 2. Are the purchases made on the basis of a written order? 3. Is the purchase order form standardized? 4. Are purchase order forms are pre-numbered? 5. Are the stock control accounts maintained by persons who have nothing to do with? (1) Custody of work; (2) Receipt of stock; (3) Inspection of stock; and 188 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(4) Purchase of stock. The complete check list is studied by the principle/manager/senior to ascertain existence of internal control and evaluate its implementation and efficiency. 8.6 AUDIT TESTING An audit test is a procedure performed by either an external or internal auditor in order to assess the accuracy of various financial statement assertions. The two common categorizations of audit tests are substantive tests and tests of internal controls. Both types of tests are used in external and internal audits in order to reach established audit objectives, as can be outlined in audit checklists or determined based on the results of audit questionnaires. Audit tests typically are performed on a sample basis over an existing group of similar transactions. Sampling approaches can either be statistical or non-statistical, with the ultimate goal being to obtain the most representative sample of the population before testing begins. A substantive audit test is a direct test that validates a financial statement balance, while internal control tests are focused on key controls, such as management reviews or standardized templates that are designed to prevent and detect material misstatements. Substantive testing often requires a large deal of recalculating, confirming, and vouching. For example, when an auditor substantively tests an inventory balance, the auditor will go to the on-site location of the inventory, run reports that list the amount of inventory stored on the premises, and physically count each inventory item on a sample basis. Using the same example under an internal control testing approach, an auditor would assess the systems generating the reports, consider the experience level of the personnel on the premises that manage the inventory, and review shipping and receiving documents for the appropriate sign- offs instead of counting the actual inventory on the premises. 8.7 NEED FOR SAMPLING AND VARIOUS APPROACHES TO STATISTICAL SAMPLING Sampling is a process of selecting a subset of a population of items for the purpose of making inferences to the whole population. Accounting populations usually consist of a large number of items (debtors, creditors), often totaling millions of rupees, and a detailed examination of all accounts is not possible. Audit sampling is defined as “The application of audit procedures to less than 100% of the items within an account balance or class of transactions to enable the auditor to obtain and evaluate evidence about some characteristic of the items selected in order to form or assist in forming a conclusion concerning the population which makes up the account balance or class of transactions” A fundamental element of any audit program will be the selection of transactions to be tested as a sample of all available transactions. Sampling is used in both compliance and substantive testing and is described in numerous textbooks in auditing 189 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Need for audit sampling Formalized audit sampling procedures offer innumerable benefits to all auditors. These include: 1. Developing a consistent approach to audit areas; 2. Providing a framework within which sufficient audit evidence is obtained; 3. Forcing clarification of audit thinking in determining how the audit objectives will be met; 4. Minimising the risk of over-auditing; and 5. Facilitating more expeditious review of working papers Statistical sampling in audit Statistical sampling involves the random selection of a number of items for inspection and is endorsed by the accountancy bodies. In statistical sampling, each item has a calculable chance of being selected. A commonly held misconception about statistical sampling is that it removes the need for the use of the professional judgment. While it is true that statistical sampling uses statistical methods to determine the sample size and to select and evaluate audit samples, it is the responsibility of the auditor to consider and specify in advance factors such as, materiality, the expected error rate or amount, the risk of over-reliance or the risk of incorrect acceptance, audit risk, inherent risk, control risk, standard deviation and population size, before the sample size can be determined. Statistical sampling allows an auditor’s judgment to be concentrated on those areas of the audit where it is most needed. It allows the quantification of key factors and the risk of errors. This is not to suggest that statistical sampling methods remove the need for professional judgment, but rather that they allow elements of the evaluation process to be quantified, measured and controlled. The advantages of statistical sampling are numerous: 1. The sample result is objective and defensible. Nearly all phases of the statistical process are based on demonstrable statistical principles. 2. The method provides a means of advance estimation of sample size on an objective basis. The sample size is no longer determined by traditional methods of guesswork; it is determined by a statistical method. 3. The method provides an estimate of error. When probability sampling is used, the results may be validated in terms of how far the sample projection might deviate from the value that could be obtained by a 100% check. 4. Statistical samples may be combined and evaluated, even though accomplished by different auditors. That the entire test operation has an objective and scientific basis 190 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

makes it possible for different auditors to participate independently in the same test and for the results to be combined as though accomplished by one auditor. 5. Objective evaluation of test results is possible. Thus, all auditors performing this audit would be able to reach the same conclusion about the numerical extent of error in the population. While the impact of these errors might be interpreted differently, there can be no question as to the facts obtained, since the method of determining their frequency in the population is objective. Approaches to statistical sampling In statistical sampling, samples during an audit are normally selected through one of the probability sampling methods — random, systematic or stratified. Probability sampling provides an objective method of determining sample size and selecting the items to be examined. Unlike non-statistical sampling, it also provides a means of quantitatively assessing precision (how closely the sample represents the population) and reliability (confidence level, the percentage of times the sample will reflect the population). SimpleRandomSampling In auditing, this method uses sampling without replacement; that is, once an item has been selected for testing it is removed from the population and is not subject to re-selection. An auditor can implement simple random sampling in one of two ways: computer programs or random number tables. Systematic (Interval) Sampling This method provides for the selection of sample items in such a way that there is a uniform interval between each sample item. Under this method of sampling, every “Nth” item is selected with a random start. Stratified (Cluster) Sampling This method provides for the selection of sample items by breaking the population down into strata, or clusters. Each stratum is then treated separately. For this plan to be effective, dispersion within clusters should be greater than dispersion among clusters. An example of cluster sampling is the inclusion in the sample of all remittances or cash disbursements for a particular month. If blocks of homogeneous samples are selected, the sample will be biased. Remember, an essential feature of probability sampling methods is that each element of the population being sampled has an equal chance of being included in the sample and, moreover, that the chance of probability is known. Only in this way, is a probability sample representative of a population 191 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

8.8 INTER-FIRM AND INTRA-FIRM COMPARISONS It is technique of evaluating the performance, efficiency, costs and profits of firms in an industry. It consists of voluntary exchange of information/data concerning costs, prices, profits, productivity and overall efficiency among firms engaged in similar type of operations for the purpose of bringing improvement in efficiency and indicating the weaknesses. Such a comparison will be possible where uniform costing is in operation. An inter-firm comparison indicates the efficiency of production and selling, adequacy of profits, weak spots in the organization, etc. and thus demands from the firm’s management an immediate suitable action. Inter-firm comparison may enable the management to challenge the standards which it has set for itself and to improveupon them in the light of the current information gathered from more efficient units. Such a comparison may be carried out in electrical industry, printing firms, cotton spinning firms, pharmaceuticals, cycle manufacturing, etc. Advantages of Inter-firm comparison: The main advantages of inter-firm comparison are: – 1. Such a comparison gives an overall view of the industry as a whole to its members– the present position of the industry, progress made during the past and the future of the industry. 2. It helps a concern in knowing its strengths or weaknesses in relation to others so that remedial measures may be taken. 3. It ensures an unbiased specialized reporting on particular problems of the concern. 4. It develops cost consciousness among members of the industry. 5. It helps Government in effecting price regulation. 6. It helps to improve the quality of products manufactured and to reduce the cost of production. It is thus advantageous to the industry as well as to the society. Limitations of inter firm comparison The following are the limitations in the implementation of a scheme of inter-firm comparison: 1. Top management feels that secrecy will be lost. 2. Middle management is usually not convinced with the utility of such a comparison. 3. In the absence of a suitable Cost Accounting System, the figures supplied may not be reliable for the purpose of comparison. Intra firm comparison Intra-firm comparison means comparison among different units/products/strategic business unit (SBU) of a firm. This comparison is possible only when uniform costing methods and practices are being adopted by all units and SBUs. 192 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Intra firm comparison helps the management in identifying the units/Strategic SBUs which have not been performing as per the internal benchmark or standards achieved by other units SBUs. This comparison is difficult sometime when the firm is dealing in different product/sectors and their working conditions are significantly different. Advantages of Intra-firm comparison: The main advantages of intra-firm comparison are: – 1. Such a comparison gives an overall view of the firm as a whole to the owner or stakeholders and gives a comparative view of different product/different business of the firm. 2. It helps a SBU in knowing its strengths or weaknesses in relation to others SBUs. 3. It develops cost consciousness among units of the firm. 8.9 RATIO AND TREND ANALYSIS Ratio analysis is a process of determining and interpreting relationships between the items of financial statements to provide a meaningful understanding of the performance and financial position of an enterprise. Ratio analysis is an accounting tool to present accounting variables in a simple, concise, intelligible and understandable form. A firm would like to compare its performance with that of other firms and of industry in general. The comparison is called inter-firm comparison. If the performance of different units belonging to the same firm is to be compared, it is called intra-firm comparison. Such comparison is almost impossible without accounting ratios. Even the progress of a firm from year to year cannot be measured without the help of financial ratios. The accounting language simplified through ratios is the best tool to compare the firms and divisions of the firm. 8.10 AUDIT IN DEPTH Audit in depth as the name implies means checking a transaction extensively from origin to end. It is an audit technique which is used to evaluate the effectiveness of internal control system in an organization. It is used in investigation exercises whereby the objective is to thorough examination of transactions or records. In this technique all aspects relating to the transaction are checked such as sanctity of transaction, validity of transaction, adherences of prescribed procedures, arithmetical accuracy of transaction, accounting treatment of transaction etc. It is also called vertical vouching as against horizontal vouching. For example, a purchase of goods may commence when a predetermined re-order level has been reached. The ensuing stages may be summarized as given below: - 1. Authorization of Purchase requisition: Check whether the requisitions are pre- printed, pre-numbered and authorized. See whether the purchase requisition have been authorized by competent official. 193 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2. Issue of Request for quotation: Check whether request for quotatio0n have been issued or not. If not find the reasons of not issuing request for quotation. Check whether the requests for quotation have been issued to approve vendors. 3. Issue of Purchase order: Check whether purchase order have been issued or not. If purchase order has been issued check whether it has been issued from the competent authority. Check whether the purchase order have been issued to the approved vendor who has given lowest quote. If not check the reasons. Check whether the reasons of issuing the purchase order to a vendor other than the lowest bidder have been approved by the competent authority. 4. Receipt of goods and entry of goods in store ledger: check whether the goods receipt is as per specification given in the purchase order. If not check whether the deviations have been recorded and the communication has been made to the supplier or not. Check whether the goods receipt have been properly recorded in store ledger or not. 5. Approval of payment of Supplier Invoice: Check whether the amount has been approved by the competent authority. 6. Payment of supplier invoice: Check whether the supplier bill have been paid correctly. Check whether all deduction for short receipt of goods, late delivery of goods, inferior quality of goods, and advance payment for the goods have been done or not. Accounting of Transaction: Check whether accounting made is correct or not. Check whether correct expenses code have been debited or not. Check whether the applicable accounting standard have been complied with or not. It should be noted that the above list is not necessarily comprehensive, nor does its constituent stages inevitably take place in the sequence suggested. 8.11 SUMMARY  Internal control is broadly defined as a process, effected by an entity’s board of directors, management and other personnel, designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding effectiveness and efficiency of operations, reliability of financial reporting, compliance with applicable laws and regulations  Internal controls can be detective, corrective, or preventive by nature.  Internal control is neither limited to a set of procedures nor to financial controls. Operational control such as quality control, work standards, budgetary control, periodic reporting, policy appraisal, quantitative controls etc. are all parts of internal control system.  Internal controls objectives are desired goals or conditions for a specific event cycle which, if achieve.Minimize the potential that waste, loss, unauthorized use or misappropriation will occur. 194 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Internal control system elements include control environment, risk assessment, control activities, information and communication and monitoring.  Internal control system provides benefits both to the auditors and auditee. It provides assurance about correctness of recording of data, safety from misappropriation of assets, adherence of rules and procedures.  Besides having many benefits, there are some limitations of internal control which fails the very purpose of internal control system. These limitations include Judgement, breakdown, management override, collusion etc.  Internal check is best regarded as indicating checks on the day-to-day transactions which operate continuously as a part of the routine systems whereby work of one person is proved independently or is complementary to the work of another, the object being the prevention of or early detection of errors and frauds.  Some people confused internal check with internal control system. Internal check system is one part of internal control system. Internal control is broader concept as compare to internal check system; it contains many more types of controls other than the internal check system.  There are two types of techniques used in internal control system. They are Preventive internal control techniques and Detective internal control techniques. Both types of internal control techniques are essential to an effective internal control system. Preventive internal control techniques include segregation of duties, approval authorization and verification and securities of assets. Detective control techniques include review of performance, reconciliation, physical inventories and internal audit.  Review of internal control system is a very important task for an auditor. It is required to ensure that any inefficiency or ineffectiveness in system is captured. Techniques used in review of internal control system include narrative records, checklist, internal control questionnaire and flow chart.  An audit test is a procedure performed by either an external or internal auditor in order to assess the accuracy of various financial statement assertions. Audit tests typically are performed on a sample basis over an existing group of similar transactions. Sampling approaches can either be statistical or non-statistical, with the ultimate goal being to obtain the most representative sample of the population before testing begins.  Sampling is a process of selecting a subset of a population of items for the purpose of making inferences to the whole population.  Statistical sampling involves the random selection of a number of items for inspection and is endorsed by the accountancy bodies.  In statistical sampling, samples during an audit are normally selected through one of the probability sampling methods — random, systematic or stratified. Probability sampling provides an objective method of determining sample size and selecting the items to be examined. 195 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Inter-Firm Comparison is a technique of evaluating the performance, efficiency, costs and profits of firms in an industry. It consists of voluntary exchange of information/data concerning costs, prices, profits, productivity and overall efficiency among firms engaged in similar type of operations for the purpose of bringing improvement in efficiency and indicating the weaknesses.  Intra-firm comparison means comparison among different units/products/SBUs of a firm. This comparison is possible only when uniform costing methods and practices are being adopted by all units and SBUs  Ratio analysis is a process of determining and interpreting relationships between the items of financial statements to provide a meaningful understanding of the performance and financial position of an enterprise.  Audit in depth as the name implies means checking a transaction extensively from origin to end. It is an audit technique which is used to evaluate the effectiveness of internal control system in an organisation. It is used in investigation exercises whereby the objective is to thorough examination of transactions or records 8.12 KEYWORDS  Simple Random Sampling: In auditing, this method uses sampling without replacement; that is, once an item has been selected for testing it is removed from the population and is not subject to re-selection. An auditor can implement simple random sampling in one of two ways: computer programs or random number tables.  Systematic Sampling: This method provides for the selection of sample items in such a way that there is a uniform interval between each sample item. Under this method of sampling, every “Nth” item is selected with a random start.  Error Handling - the objective is to ensure that errors detected at any stage of processing receive prompts corrective action and are reported to the appropriate level of management.  Systematic Sampling: This method provides for the selection of sample items in such a way that there is a uniform interval between each sample item. Under this method of sampling, every “Nth” item is selected with a random start.  Validity - the objective is to ensure that all recorded transactions fairly represent the economic events that actually occurred, are lawful in nature, and have been executed in accordance with management’s general authorization. 8.13 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What is sampling? ___________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 196 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2. What is Test check? ___________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 8.14 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Explain the meaning of internal control system and define internal control system. 2. Define internal control system, its objectives scope and advantages. 3. State the advantages of internal control system along with its limitations. 4. Are internal control and internal check system same? Explain 5. What is the meaning of internal check system? Distinguish between internal control system and internal audit system. Long Questions 1. Explain the different techniques used in review of internal control system. 2. Write a short note on internal control questionnaire as a toll for review of internal control system. 3. State the usefulness of flow chart in review of internal control system of an organisation 4. State the different approaches used in statistical sampling. 5. Write a short note on audit in depth. 6. What is the difference between intra firm comparison and intra firm comparison? Explain the usefulness of ration analysis in inter firm comparison. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following terms best describes the type of control evidenced by a segregation of duties between computer operators and computer programmers? a. System development control b. Hardware control c. Applications control d. Organizational control 2. Your firm has recently converted its purchasing cycle from a manual process to an online computer system. Which of the following is a probable result associated with conversion to the new automatic system? a. Processing errors are increased 197 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

b. The firm=s risk exposures are reduced c. Processing time is increased d. Traditional duties are less segregated 3. Within a computer processing activity, which control procedure typically leaves no visible or machine-readable evidence that the procedure was performed? a. Proper segregation of functions b. Program changes for a computer application c. Approval of the program changes d. Computer-generated exception reports 4. Feed forward, feedback, and preventive control procedures are an important part of every system. Feedback refers to a process of a. Communicating organizational plans b. Adjusting the system after the fact c. Adjusting a system during operation d. Adjusting a system according to prediction 5. Which of the following is the best program for the protection of a company=s vital information resources from computer viruses? a. Stringent corporate hiring policies for staff working with computerized functions. b. Existence of a software program for virus prevention. c. Prudent management policies and procedures instituted in conjunction with technological safeguards. d. Physical protection devices in use for hardware, software, and library facilities. Answers 198 1-d, 2-d, 3-a, 4-b, 5-c 8.15 REFERENCES Reference books CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 M.C. Shukla, T.S. Grewal : & S.C. Gupta Advanced Accounts Vol. II; S. Chand & Company Ltd., 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110 055.  R.L. Gupta & :M. Radhaswamy Company Accounts; Sultan Chand & Sons,23, Daryaganj, New Delhi- 110 002.  S.P. Jain & K. L. Narang: Advanced Accountancy-Vol.II; Kalyani Publishers, 23, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110 002.  S. N. Maheshwari &S.K. Maheshwari Advance Accounting Vol. II; Vikas Publishing House (Pvt.) Ltd., A-22, Sector 4, Noida – 201 301.  Ashok Sehgal & : Deepak Sehgal Textbook  Advanced Accounting Vol. 2; Taxmann’s,59/32, New Rohtak Road, New Delhi- 110 005.  J. R. Monga : Fundamentals of Corporate Accounting; Mayoor Paperbacks, A-95, Sector 5, Noida-201 301.  Goel, Maheshwari Gupta : Corporate Accounting, International Publishers, Daryaganj New Delhi  Kamal Gupta, Ashok Arora : Fundamentals of Auditing: Tata McGraw Hill Education Limited  Kamal Gupta: Contemporary Auditing: Tata McGraw Hill Education Limited  International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) Taxmann Publication (P) Limited, 59/32, New Rohtak Road, New Delhi- 110 005  Dolphy D’Souza : Indian Accounting Standards & GAAPP; Snow White Publications Pvt. Ltd., Her Mahal, 532, Kalbadevi Road, Mumbai – 400 002.  N S Zad : Company Accounts and Auditing Practices : Taxmann Publications (P) Ltd., 59/32, Rohtak Road, New Delhi - 110005 Website  https://icmai.in/upload/Students/Syllabus2016/Inter/Paper-12_070219.pdf  https://www.mca.gov.in/MinistryV2/accounts+and+audit.html 199 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT – 9 : AUDIT ENGAGEMENT AND DOCUMENTATION STRUCTURE 9.0 Learning Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Audit Procedures 9.3 Audit Plan 9.4 Audit Programme 9.5 Vouching and Verification 9.6 Documentation: Audit Working Papers and Files 9.7 Sampling, Test Checking, Techniques of Test Checks 9.8 Summary 9.9 Keywords 9.10 Learning Activity 9.11 Unit End Questions 9.12 References 9.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Planning an audit involves establishing the overall audit strategy for the engagement and developing an audit plan. The objective of auditor is to plan the audit so that it will be performed in an effective manner. During Audit planning only, the audit decides about the audit technique, extent of audit required, documentation technique etc. Audit planning and documentation has a very important role to play in an auditing exercise. A good auditing planning make it possible to get the auditing exercise completed in a timely and cost-effective manner. The objective of this lesson is to create understanding about audit planning, audit program, audit working papers and other audit documentation techniques. After reading this lesson, the student will be able to understand:  How audit planning is done  Difference between audit plan and audit program  Preparing audit program for different audit assignments  Meaning of vouching and verification, their benefits and limitation  Distinction between vouching and verification 200 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)