BAQ105_English Literature-I

146 English Literature - I intolerance for others has instigated violence in Japan. On the other hand, he admired Russia for its growth and development. It is the rapid growth of education that Tagore believed is the true sign of a country’s growth. Though he opposed the terror against freedom in Russia, that the spread of education eventually led to freedom of mind fascinated him. Tagore strongly held an opinion that half of the social problems of India could it be sectarianism, violence, hatred, religious issues, which resulted from lack of education. Education results in freedom of mind, a strong idea that Tagore had been propagating in his works. Santiniketan, a school that Tagore started, led an example on this. Having being different from the traditional school setup, Santiniketan was a fresh breeze of the time. Tagore, breaking the traditional education system, introduced a complete new setup creating new waves in the field of education. Different topics that uncover a pupil to the world were taught. It included the cultures, practices of other nations like Russia, China, Japan and other Western ideas, which could open anew a window to the other world and life, thus spreading love. As it has already been noted, the proliferation of Tagore’s freedom of Mind through his deeds and words, it is evident that Tagore allied the same freedom with education in India. The narrow constrained thoughts due to the lack of education might lead to sectarian and other forms of intolerance in society. Tagore even was disappointed to see a large number of people, especially women in India, failed to attain education. The laxity of British Raj, and societal obligations in the name of tradition destined women to domestic purposes. This also had led to the cultural separatism in India. It was witnessed that fundamentalists are not just seen only in India, but in many countries across the world. He believed India as a nest for different cultures and religions. It is also true when the number of Muslims is considered. India is the second or third largest Muslim populated nation. It can also be seen as a sign of celebrating diversity.In response to the cultural nationalism, which believes in ostracizing the other nations as danger to their own existence, Tagore writes, “Whatever we understand and enjoy in ….becomes ours… it hurts me deeply when the cry of rejection rings loud against the West in my country with the clamor that Western education can only injure us.”(R.T. Kumar 113). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Where the Mind is Without Fear 147 Tagore believed that India does not need to be insecure, and that it doesn’t have to protect itself against any force from outside. He was not blind to accept and believe only in the nation’s heritage and past. He reciprocated the western culture as he believed that it would also be helpful in India’s growth. 7.2 Main Themes in Rabindranath Tagore’s Poems The main theme of Rabindranath Tagore’s poetry is the essential unity (or continuity) of all creation, which is also the main theme of the ancient Hindu Upanishads. Indeed, a brief summary of Hindu belief provides a useful introduction to Tagore’s work. According to Hindu thought, the only absolute, unchanging, eternal thing is Brahman, the supreme being or world soul who forms the essence of everything. In living things, the essence of Brahman is known as Atman, or soul. Brahman operates through three aspects: Brahma, the Creator; Siva, the Destroyer; and Vishnu, the Preserver or Renewer. Brahma’s work is finished, but Siva and Vishnu are necessary for change, and change is necessary so that living things may grow toward union with Brahman, a perfect, changeless state, nirvana. Few, if any, achieve nirvana in one lifetime, so reincarnation is necessary. In each successive incarnation, one improves one’s status in the next through good karma or deeds (broadly interpreted as actions, thoughts, or faith). The questions raised by Hindu belief may be ignored here (for example, why would Brahman create something imperfect in the first place?); so also may certain negative social implications (such as the potential for in-action, the caste system, and un-concern for the individual human life). Instead, what should be noticed is the positive emphasis of Hinduism, in contrast to Western thought as characterized by the old Germanic notion that everything is moving toward Götterdämmerung; the Christian emphasis on Original Sin, evil, and Hell; the masked versions of human sacrifice. It is the positive implications of Hindu belief that Tagore develops in his poetry. For example, his imagery — dwelling on sunrises and sunsets, flowers and their scents, songs and musical instruments, the beautiful deodar tree (deodár meaning “divine wood”), the majestic Himalayas — is a constant reminder that creation is charged with divinity: Beauty and majesty are concrete manifestations of Brahman. Change, natural disasters, and death are necessary for renewal, which will come. All people have divine souls, so they should tolerate, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

148 English Literature - I respect, and love one another. The advantaged should help the disadvantaged; thereby, they both rise toward Brahman. The individual should strive to live in such a way as to throw off impurities and achieve the essence of divinity within the self. The development of these and related themes can be traced throughout Tagore’s oeuvre. Gitanjali Song Offerings Published in 1910, Gitanjali Song Offerings is Tagore’s most popular work. The English edition, published in 1912, includes translations not only from the original Gitanjali but also from other collections, particularly Naivedya (offerings). As light work to keep his mind occupied, Tagore did the translations himself while he was convalescing from an illness at Shelidah and on board a ship for Great Britain. He showed them to British friends who wanted to read his work. They in turn, showed the translations to William Butler Yeats, and the result was English publication followed by the 1913 Nobel Prize in Literature. Aware of the undistinguished quality of his translations, Tagore himself could never understand why he was rash enough to do them or why they created such a sensation. Sometimes compared to the Book of Psalms, Gitanjali Song Offerings explores the personal relationship between the poet and divinity. This divinity he calls Jivandevata, which he often translates as “Lord of my life” or “life of my life” but also refers to as “my God,” “King,” “Father,” “Mother,” “lover,” “friend,” and “innermost one.” The range of terms here suggests the varied associations of Jivandevata and also the conventional metaphors Tagore generally uses to develop his relationship with Jivandevata. 7.3 Where the Mind is Without Fear – Rabindranth Tagore  Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high;  Where knowledge is free;  Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls;  Where words come out from the depth of truth;  Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection; CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Where the Mind is Without Fear 149  Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit;  Where the mind is led forward by thee into ever-widening thought and action;  Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake. Background Rabindranath Tagore is one of the greatest poets of India. He has composed various poems, stories, essays, novels, dramas and songs. The poem “Where the mind is without fear” was written during the period when India was struggling for freedom from the British rule. It was a part of ‘Gitanjali’, a compilation of all his poems which was published in English in 1912. In this poem, Rabindranath Tagore expresses his love for his country and prays to the Almighty for its well being. In his prayer, the poet says that his countrymen should not live in fear anymore and must do away with the evils of society. They must live with respect, dignity, honesty and perfection. He prays to God for the freedom of his beloved nation. Structure The poem has been written in one single sentence. There or no rhymes or a regular rhythm as the poem is written in free verse. The language is simplified; metaphor and personification has been used in various parts of the poem. 7.4 Theme The poem was composed in the early 1900s when India was struggling for independence from the British rule. It is the poet’s prayer to the Almighty, seeking his guidance and support to help the countrymen attain freedom. The poem is patriotic in nature. The poet expresses his love for his country and speaks about the vision he has for India and its people. Through his poem, he gives us an idea about the kind of life people were living during the British rule. The stringent rules, policies, economical and political uncertainty were some of the factors that caused fear in the minds of Indians. They could not live a dignified and respectful life in their own country. Obtaining a proper education was restricted for various classes of the society, causing illiteracy CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

150 English Literature - I among people and making them believe in superstitions. The British used the ‘divide and rule policy’ against the Indians to make them fight among themselves. There was discrimination based on caste, creed, race and religion. It was during this struggle for independence, the poet says that he envisions a country where there is no fear in the minds of people and education is attained by all. The people are enlightened and do not create walls of discrimination. He wants his countrymen to be honest and thoughtful. He prays to God, seeking his guidance for attaining independence and awakening his countrymen into that beautiful heaven of freedom. 7.5 Analysis Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high Where knowledge is free The poem begins with these two short lines which are the basis of the hopes that Tagore has for his country. These partial sentences, along with the following six are finished by the last line of the poem in which Tagore explains, these are places into which he wishes India would wake up. That a change will come over the country and it will be able to move to a more culturally and politically free period. Specifically in which, “the mind is without fear.” This being the title line of the poem, its importance cannot be ignored. It is one of the most important tenants of Tagore’s dream India. One must be able to live without fear of the repercussions of their thoughts, as well as living without fear of physical harm coming to them as they live their lives. The second half of this first line adds on to the importance of the first half, not only must one be able to live without fear of physical repercussions of what they believe, they must also be able to be proud of their beliefs, be able to express them freely in open society. The first line of the poem, a part of which is the title itself, holds a very significant meaning. “Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high,” ‘fear’ in this line refers to the fear inculcated in the minds of Indians under the British rule. Here the poet is speaking about the miserable life led by people dominated by the British. The poet envisions India as a country where the people’s minds are free from fear and they live a dignified life. He also wants to CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Where the Mind is Without Fear 151 convey that freedom can be attained only when the mind is fearless and the head is held high with respect and dignity. In this line “Where knowledge is free,” the poet says that gaining independence would also give them the freedom to acquire knowledge and be self-reliant which was restricted during the British rule. The second line of the poem turns to knowledge, in this perfect India, all knowledge must be free. There cannot be barriers, keeping the middle and lower classes from seeking out new information and bettering their lives. Where the world has not been broken up into fragments By narrow domestic walls The third statement describing this ideal world refers to home and societal life and the way in which women and men are separated, and how narrow their differences are. This idea of walls can also be expanded to once again include different classes of people, a problem faced by the Indian people for decades. Because of the way in which one class is separated from another in all the facts of life, from where and how they live, to where they work and who they work for, the world has become fragmented into small groups that do not interact or touch in any way. Here the poet speaks about the various evils that crept into the society at that time. The British used the ‘divide and rule’ policy by creating rivalries among different sections of the society. ‘Narrow domestic walls’ refers to the walls of religion, race, caste and creed created by the people. It may also refer to the various superstitious beliefs that prevailed in the society during that time. Where words come out from the depth of truth Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection The next line of the poem references a more philosophical factor in Tagore’s utopian India. The words that are spoken, no matter who by, must come from the very depth of truth. This is a way of living that is very controversial, and of which many might say would have the adverse effect. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

152 English Literature - I But in Tagore’s world, absolute truth is a necessity. The sixth line of the poem presents an idea that many would agree with, without much criticism, that if one works hard, or strives tirelessly, one will eventually reach perfection. Perfection, or whatever goal one has in mind. Hard work “Where words come out from the depth of truth”, implies that the poet envisioned his countrymen to live their lives with honesty and utmost truth. “Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection,” here personification has been used for ‘tireless striving’. The poet says that one’s goal should be to attain perfection i.e. to be an ideal country and all those years of struggle would finally reach its goal of attaining freedom and perfection would always pay off, another addition to Tagore’s goal for India. Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way Into the dreary desert sand of dead habit The next two lines are more complex. In this scenario that Tagore has set up in these lines, he is referring to the trouble that one will run into when they start on a path reasonably and with a goal in mind, but then fall into a habit and are unable to reach what they were striving for. Tagore uses a “clear stream” as a metaphor for reason, it flows easily and cleanly. It is good for everyone. This stream of reason has “not” in Tagore’s world, “lost its way,” by venturing into habit. To balance this metaphor, he compares a dreary desert to “dead habit.” One must be willing to change, to try new things in his utopian India. The poet uses metaphor for reason and habit. He refers to reason as a ‘clear stream’ that is pure and not contaminated. Here, he is speaking about the thoughts of people which he says should be clear, noble, honest and free from all sorts of corruption. “Dreary desert sand of dead habit” also refers to the evils in the society like the superstitious practices that lack logic and reason. Where the mind is led forward by thee Into ever-widening thought and action Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Where the Mind is Without Fear 153 The last three lines of the poem make clear reference to Tagore’s desire to blend Western and Indian poetry together. He states one final element of his society, one which can be interpreted in multiple ways. The mind of the people must be led forward by “thee.” In this line he could be referring to God, as he does in the next line, or perhaps he references his previous statements as a whole. He is, in a way, adding on to the previous lines, stating that this stream of reason must be “led forward…” The last two lines conclude all of the partial sentences that make up the bulk of the poem. The mind must be led forward into “ever-widening thought and action.” The mind must not be culled in any sense of the word, it must be allowed to expand without limits, and act on the notions it believes to be best. This world that he has crafted, he now refers to as “that heaven of freedom.” He asks “my Father”, presumably God, to let his country wake into this heaven. In the last three lines, the poet prays to the Almighty for his guidance and support to attain independence. The poet wishes his countrymen to be led forward by their noble thoughts and actions. He refers to freedom as a heavenly place and addresses God as Father, asking him to awaken his people and help them reach that glorious place. 7.6 Summary Rabindranath Tagore was saddened by the miserable lives of his countrymen under the British rule and the state of his country in their struggle for independence. In this poem, he shows his love for his country and prays to God to help them attain freedom. The poet envisions India as a country where the people live without any kind of fear or oppression and hold their head high with pride, dignity and self reliance. He also says that knowledge should be attained without any restriction. There should be no discrimination based on caste, creed, race or religion. India must reach towards its goal of attaining freedom and being an ideal nation. The countrymen must possess noble thoughts and do away with all the superstitious beliefs that defy logic and reason. The poet prays to God, seeking his support and guidance for his countrymen to have noble thoughts and actions. He asks God to awaken them into this heaven like place of an independent nation. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

154 English Literature - I 7.7 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Short Answer Questions 1. Explain the ‘narrow’ domestic walls in Rabindranath Tagore’s “Where the Mind is Without Fear”. 2. What does the poet pray to the Almighty for? 3. Explain “the head is held high” in Tagore’s poem. 4. Is the poem a prayer for India alone? 5. Why Tagore called ‘Where the mind is without fear’ a prayer song? 6. From what darkness of night should our nation wake? 7. Why should words come out ‘from the depth of truth’? 8. What is the metaphor used for reason and habit? Why? 9. What kind of heaven does Rabindranath Tagore desire? B. Long Answer Questions 1. What is the theme of Tagore’s poem “Where the Mind is Without Fear”? 2. Write a critical appreciation of the poem “Where the Mind is Without Fear” by Rabindranath Tagore? 3. Explain the imagery in Rabindranath Tagore’s poem “Where the Mind is Without Fear”. 4. Which part of the poem contains the main idea? 5. Comment on the form and style of “Where the Mind is Without Fear”. 6. Do you like the poem “Where the Mind is Without Fear”? Why? 7. Bring out the significance of the title of poem “Where the Mind is Without Fear”. 8. What attributes of Rabindranath Tagore does the poem reflect? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Where the Mind is Without Fear 155 C. Multiple Choice Questions 1. The expression,‘knowledge is free’ indicates (a) Easily available to everyone (b) Free from scientific temper (c) Free from superstitions (d) Free from corruption 2. The expression, ‘the head is held high’ indicates (a) People will be on high positions (b) People will enjoy all political rights (c) People will think too much of themselves (d) People will have self-respect 3. The narrow domestic wall means (a) The country is divided into different States (b) Discrimination of caste, creed and religion (c) Difference between rich and poor (d) Difference between the Northern States ans Southern States 4. ‘Tireless striving’ tell us about (a) Continuous efforts (b) Enthusiastic efforts (c) Blind faith (d) Strike hard 5. Where the mind is led forward by thee means (a) Heaven (b) Nation (c) God (d) People Answers 1. (a), 2. (d), 3. (b), 4. (a), 5. (c) CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

156 English Literature - I 7.8 References 1. Tagore, Rabindranath. Gitanjali. London: Macmillan and Co., Limited, St.Martin’s Street, 1913. 2. Selected Letters of Rabindranath Tagore. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997. 3. The Religion of Man, Appendix II. London: George, Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1931. Print. 4. Tagore and His India Nobel prize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 25 Sep 2017.http:// www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1913/tagore 5. Tagore, Rabindranath. The Home and the World. India: hardback & paperback, 1916. 6. Tagore, Rabindranath. Nationalism. India: Rupa Publications India, 2004. 7. Kumar, Ranjit. Research Methodology. London: SAGE, 1999. 8. https://schoolofwisdom.com/about/rabindranath-tagore-one-of-the-school-of-wisdoms- most-notable-teachers/ 9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore 10. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45668/gitanjali-35 11. https://poetandpoem.com/analysis-mind-without-fear-rabindranath-tagore 12. https://poemanalysis.com/where-the-mind-is-without-fear-by-rabindranath-tagore-poem- analysis/ 13. https://www.enotes.com/topics/rabindranath-tagore/critical-essays/analysis-1  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 8 REFUGEE MOTHER AND CHILD – CHINUA ACHEBE Structure: 8.0 Learning Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Refugee Mother and Child 8.3 Summary 8.4 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 8.5 References 8.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to understand the significance of Chinua Achebe as a poet and writer. The Nigerian writer’s redefinition of colonialism gave his people the sense that they were no longer alone in their predicament. To Nelson Mandela, he was the writer “in whose company the prison walls fell down”. To Nadine Gordimer, a fellow Nobel laureate, he was simply “the father of African literature”. Chinua Achebe marks a significant moment in the evolution of literature in the English language, possibly the point at which it has begun to leave behind the bitterness of empire. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

158 English Literature - I Achebe was a great African, but his life and work, from Things Fall Apart (1958) to Anthills of the Savannah (1987), was a long struggle to define himself as an Igbo writer from eastern Nigeria, who could somehow find self-expression in the language and culture of a colonial power. From the seeds of his example hundreds of African literary flowers have bloomed. To a writer such as Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Achebe’s vigorous redefinition of colonialism is less a battle plan than a legacy. It is perhaps the measure of the change that Achebe helped to bring in his lifetime, that much of his career reads like history: born in a British colony; educated as a Christian; recruited by the Nigerian Broadcasting Service; published by William Heinemann; acclaimed by the British literary establishment; caused a storm by denouncing Joseph Conrad for racism in Heart of Darkness. The Nobel prize many expected, and thought his due, did not arrive in time. Achebe was the leader of a generation, one that includes Wole Soyinka\\ and VS Naipaul, that grew up in the dying days of the British Empire. For such writers, the inevitable engagement with the English language was fraught with difficulty. Yet, despite his refusal to reject English, Achebe emerged as the essential literary champion of Africa to the wider world. To millions of readers, he conveyed what colonial oppression meant – in the language of the oppressor. It was a medium that Achebe’s unique style, spare, simple and straightforward, made his own. Through many vicissitudes, including the Biafran civil war of 1967-70, Achebe sustained an enviable artistic serenity. He once said: “I would be quite satisfied if my novels did no more than teach [African] readers that their past was not one long night of savagery from which the first Europeans, acting on God’s behalf, delivered them.” Today, with much of Africa, north and south, a dynamic part of global society, that struggle and those ambitions are like something from another age. But Achebe’s unique achievement is timeless and inspiring: he found his voice in his own way and used it to bring his world to the attention of the wider world. At the same time, in Nigeria, he gave his people the hope of broader CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 159 recognition, the special sense peculiar to the written word that they were no longer alone in their predicament. To many readers, he was a beacon; to writers everywhere a rare example. He once said – in words that should be nailed in letters of fire over the doors of creative writing classes – that “everything is grist to the mill of the artist.” To the end of his life, he was content with his oeuvre: five volumes of fiction, plus essays, poetry and some stories for children. Achebe’s wisdom and modesty were a nice antidote to the antics of literary society in some of the richer parts of the English speaking world. 8.1 Introduction About the Poet Chinua Achebe born Albert Chinụalụmọgụ Achebe, 16 November 1930 – 21 March 2013) was a Nigerian novelist, poet, professor, and critic. His first novel “Things Fall Apart” (1958), often considered his masterpiece, is the most widely read book in modern African literature. Raised by his parents in the Igbo town of Ogidi in southeastern Nigeria, Achebe excelled at school and won a scholarship to study medicine, but changed his studies to English literature at University College (now the University of Ibadan). He became fascinated with world religions and traditional African cultures, and began writing stories as a university student. After graduation, he worked for the Nigerian Broadcasting Service (NBS) and soon moved to the metropolis of Lagos. He gained worldwide attention for his novel “Things Fall Apart” in the late 1950s; his later novels include “No Longer at Ease” (1960), “Arrow of God” (1964), “A Man of the People” (1966), and “Anthills of the Savannah” (1987). Achebe wrote his novels in English and defended the use of English, a “language of colonisers”, in African literature. In 1975, his lecture “An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness” featured a criticism of Joseph Conrad as “a thoroughgoing racist”; it was later published in The Massachusetts Review amid some controversy. When the region of Biafra broke away from Nigeria in 1967, Achebe became a supporter of Biafran independence and acted as ambassador for the people of the new nation. The civil war CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

160 English Literature - I that took place over the territory, commonly known as the Nigerian Civil War, ravaged the populace, and as starvation and violence took its toll, he appealed to the people of Europe and the Americas for aid. When the Nigerian government retook the region in 1970, he involved himself in political parties but soon resigned due to frustration over the corruption and elitism he witnessed. He lived in the United States for several years in the 1970s, and returned to the U.S. in 1990, after a car crash left him partially disabled. A titled Igbo Chief himself, Achebe’s novels focus on the traditions of Igbo society, the effect of Christian influences, and the clash of Western and traditional African values during and after the colonial era. His style relies heavily on the Igbo oral tradition, and combines straightforward narration with representations of folk stories, proverbs, and oratory. He also published a large number of short stories, children’s books, and essay collections. Upon Achebe’s return to the United States in 1990, he began an eighteen-year tenure at Bard College as the Charles P. Stevenson Professor of Languages and Literature. From 2009 until his death, he served as David and Marianna Fisher University Professor and Professor of Africana Studies at Brown University. Style Oral Tradition The style of Achebe’s fiction draws heavily on the oral tradition of the Igbo people. He weaves folk tales into the fabric of his stories, illuminating community values in both the content and the form of the storytelling. The tale about the Earth and Sky in “Things Fall Apart,” for example, emphasises the interdependency of the masculine and the feminine. Although Nwoye enjoys hearing his mother tell the tale, Okonkwo’s dislike for it is evidence of his imbalance. Later, Nwoye avoids beatings from his father by pretending to dislike such “women’s stories”. Another hallmark of Achebe’s style is the use of proverbs, which often illustrate the values of the rural Igbo tradition. He sprinkles them throughout the narratives, repeating points made in conversation. Critic Anjali Gera notes that the use of proverbs in “Arrow of God” “serves to create through an echo effect, the judgement of a community upon an individual violation.” The CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 161 use of such repetition in Achebe’s urban novels, “No Longer at Ease” and “A Man of the People,” is less pronounced. For Achebe, however, proverbs and folk stories are not the sum total of the oral Igbo tradition. In combining philosophical thought and public performance into the use of oratory (“Okwu Oka” — “speech artistry” — in the Igbo phrase), his characters exhibit what he called “a matter of individual excellence ... part of Igbo culture. “In Things Fall Apart, Okonkwo’s friend Obierika voices the most impassioned oratory, crystallising the events and their significance for the village. Nwaka in “Arrow of God” also exhibits a mastery of oratory, albeit for malicious ends. Achebe frequently includes folk songs and descriptions of dancing in his work. Obi, the protagonist of “No Longer At Ease,” is at one point met by women singing a “Song of the Heart”, which Achebe gives in both Igbo and English: “Is everyone here? / (Hele ee he ee he)” In “Things Fall Apart,” ceremonial dancing and the singing of folk songs reflect the realities of Igbo tradition. The elderly Uchendu, attempting to shake Okonkwo out of his self-pity, refers to a song sung after the death of a woman: “For whom is it well, for whom is it well? There is no one for whom it is well.” This song contrasts with the “gay and rollicking tunes of evangelism” sung later by the white missionaries. Achebe’s short stories are not as widely studied as his novels, and Achebe himself does not consider them a major part of his work. In the preface for “Girls at War and Other Stories,” he writes: “A dozen pieces in twenty years must be accounted a pretty lean harvest by any reckoning.” Like his novels, the short stories are heavily influenced by the oral tradition. And like the folktales they follow, the stories often have morals emphasising the importance of cultural traditions. Use of English As the decolonization process unfolded in the 1950s, a debate about choice of language erupted and pursued authors around the world; Achebe was no exception. Indeed, because of his subject matter and insistence on a non-colonial narrative, he found his novels and decisions interrogated with extreme scrutiny — particularly with regard to his use of English. One school of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

162 English Literature - I thought, championed by Kenyan writer Ngữgĩ wa Thiong’o, urged the use of indigenous African languages. English and other European languages, he said in 1986, were “part of the neo-colonial structures that repress progressive ideas”. Achebe chose to write in English. In his essay “The African Writer and the English Language”, he discusses how the process of colonialism — for all its ills — provided colonised people from varying linguistic backgrounds “a language with which to talk to one another”. As his purpose is to communicate with readers across Nigeria, he uses “the one central language enjoying nationwide currency”. Using English also allowed his books to be read in the colonial ruling nations. Still, Achebe recognises the shortcomings of what Audre Lorde called “the master’s tools”. In another essay he notes: “For an African writing in English is not without its serious setbacks. He often finds himself describing situations or modes of thought which have no direct equivalent in the English way of life. Caught in that situation he can do one of two things. He can try and contain what he wants to say within the limits of conventional English or he can try to push back those limits to accommodate his ideas ... I submit that those who can do the work of extending the frontiers of English so as to accommodate African thought-patterns must do it through their mastery of English and not out of innocence.” In another essay, he refers to James Baldwin’s struggle to use the English language to accurately represent his experience, and his realization that he needed to take control of the language and expand it. Nigerian poet and novelist Gabriel Okara likens the process of language- expansion to the evolution of jazz music in the United States. Achebe’s novels laid a formidable groundwork for this process. By altering syntax, usage, and idiom, he transforms the language into a distinctly African style. In some spots this takes the form of repetition of an Igbo idea in standard English parlance; elsewhere it appears as narrative asides integrated into descriptive sentences. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 163 The Thematic Concern The thematic concern of Chinua Achebe’s life and writing is to articulate the meaning of what it is to be African from the perspective of one who is authentically African. Critic Nahem Yousaf has said that Achebe’s intent as a writer is to “challenge the insidious stories in which the colonized and dispossessed are rendered inhuman and inept in order to make heroes of the ‘hunter’ colonialists, and to shore up the memoirs of colonial apologists.” Achebe expresses his love for and critique of Africa, specifically Nigeria, in all of his writings. Achebe’s political and social critique of his country comes out of his love for the people and the place that he identifies as home. About Collected Poems “The father of African literature in the English language and undoubtedly one of the most important writers of the second half of the twentieth century.” – Caryl Phillips, The Observer Chinua Achebe’s award-winning poems are marked by a subtle richness and the political acuity and moral vision that are a signature of all of his work. Focused and powerful, and suffused with wisdom and compassion, Collected Poems is further evidence of this great writer’s sublime gifts and it is an essential part of the oeuvre of a giant of world literature. The Major Themes of Chinua’s Literary Works The story lines in most of his novels revolve around Nigeria’s colonial period and political unrests in the post-independence country. In most occasions, Chinua Achebe uses his ingenuity to clearly bring out the intended meaning of his writings, by illustrating the impacts of European culture and imperialism on African traditions. This approach is the defining characteristic of his debut novel, “Things Fall Apart”. However, Achebe’s novels touch on a wide range of themes, for instance, the description and illustration of the Nigerian Igbo culture, effects of colonization on African traditions, the relationships between femininity and masculinity, etc. The Theme of Culture and Tradition In most of his literary works, Chinua Achebe makes several attempts to illustrate the interactions of African culture, in this case the Nigerian Igbo and modernity, as an effect of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

164 English Literature - I British colonization of Nigeria. In his first novel, “Things Fall Apart,” the introduction of Christian culture in Umuofia village as a result of the arrival of European missionaries, is met by sharp resistance and opposition by the locals who strive to defend their local heritage at all costs (Emenyonu, 1991). In “Things Fall Apart,” the newly created roles of the District Commissioner and magistrate courts are interpreted by the locals as a way of locking them out in major decision making processes of issues directly affecting the community. This, in effect, acts as a springboard for their opposition to European invasion (Emenyonu, 1991). The interference of local traditions by European culture is further depicted in the novel, “Anthills of the Savannah” by the character, Sam Okoli, a typical example of a Western educated individual who despises his native traditions. This makes it difficult for him to effectively play the role assigned to him by the author, i.e. the president of Kangan (Gera, 2001). The Theme of Gender (Femininity and Masculinity) The manner in which Chinua Achebe assigns roles to characters in his novels and other writings, puts into consideration the individual roles of both men and women, in regard to the norms and expectations of the society. Tracing his origins back to the patriarchal Igbo community, where important family decisions are made by the paterfamilias, Chinua tries to incorporate these societal elements in his writings. Looking at it from the traditional angle, Igbo men were polygamous in nature and were allowed to beat up their wives in case of any domestic misunderstanding (Mezu, 2006). This is probably why he depicts Okonkwo in “Things Fall Apart” as a man with three wives, and with a chauvinistic attitude that his masculinity allegedly overshadows anything feminine around him (Achebe, 1994). On the other hand, he portrays women in his writings as cowards and submissive wives, not allowed to take part in either traditional or modern leadership roles. To minimize the chances of being branded as a sexist chauvinistic author, Chinua Achebe at one point tries to appreciate the role played by women in the society. This is seen in Chapter fourteen of “Things Fall Apart” in the characterization of Ani and subsequent discussions of Nneka, translated to mean, the supreme mother. In addition, arguments may be put across that the problems and tribulations faced by Okonkwo may be attributed to his attitude toward women through regular mistreatment and offenses made against the feminine gender (Thomson, 2008). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 165 In his other novel, “Anthills of the Savannah,” Chinua Achebe treats women with respect as seen when he portrays Beatrice as an independent city woman fighting for her identity and position in the society. She is presented as a principled iron lady with both feminine and masculine character traits and does not rely on men for survival and security in marriage (Bicknell, 1996). African Writing in English Truthful and fruitful human experience forms the basis for written expression in any branch of literature. Conveyed through a language of international exchange, it can reach a wider audience for whom it becomes a useful reference in times of need. The English language attained international prominence due to several reasons; one of the most important being colonization. As in other countries of the Commonwealth, English was imposed on Anglophone Africa as a means of easy communication and administrative convenience. It is a historical irony that the same language serves the African writer in voicing his thoughts and feelings to the world at large. While discussing the future of English, Simeon Porter observes, “It will adopt to meet new needs and in that incessant reshaping and adaptation, every speaker and writer consciously or unconsciously will play some part.” Today, the prediction of Porter came true of African writing in English. It brought strength and appeal to the English language by adding a large range of new vocabulary and usage. Writing on the problems faced by the African English writers, Chinua Achebe, the famous Nigerian writer says, “The African writer should aim to use English that brings out his message without altering the language to the extent that its value as a medium of international exchange will be lost. He should aim at fashioning out an English, which is at once unusual and able to carry his peculiar experience.” It is applaudable that the writers of Africa succeeded in accomplishing the above task set by Achebe, which is by any means not an easy one. Their successful integration of native experience and expression in an alien tongue received worldwide acclaim. Their success proved, as critics like Srinivasa Iyengar pointed out, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

166 English Literature - I “A shot in the arm of modern English Literature has had to come from West Africans like Amos Tutuola, Wole Soyinka and Gabriel Okara.” The role of poetry, in African literature, has been highly effective in providing the people with the needful inspiration and the necessary insight. The language of poetry, for the African people, is a source of learning and becoming aware of their destiny that necessitates the knowledge of their past, present and the possible future. These and several other ideas fuelled African poetry in English. For the African poets, poetry became a powerful medium through which they conveyed to the world audience, not only their “despairs and hopes, the enthusiasm and empathy, the thrill of joy and the stab of pain...,” but also a nation’s history as it moved from “freedom to slavery, from slavery to revolution, from revolution to independence and from independence to tasks of reconstruction which further involve situations of failure and disillusion”. (Iyengar, 15) When we read African Literature, we should, by obligation remember that, colonization was at its harshest in Africa. As history stands proof, it was highly exploited and savaged by the ambitious ‘white man’. This experience is on the minds of all thinking poets. Despite getting ‘uhuru’ or independence, the bitterness returns again and again. The unforgettable colonial past comes angrily alive in a poem by Kenya’s poet Joseph Kareyaku thus, It is not as you suppose, your lands, your cars, your money, or your cities I covet... ‘It is what gores me most, that in my own house and in my very own home you should eye me and all that’s mine with that practiced, long-drawn, insulting sneer. (quoted in Iyengar, 30) In a poem entitled “If you want to know me,” Noemia De Sousa writes ruefully of Africa, by effectively using the literary device of personification thus: This is what I am empty sockets despairing of possessing of life CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 167 a mouth torn open in an anguished wound... a body tattooed with wounds seen and unseen from the harsh whipstrokes of slavery tortured and magnificent proud and mysterious Africa from head to foot This is what I am. (Narasimhaiah, 137) The much-brutalized Dark Continent is tellingly depicted in the following lines of a poem named “The Shapes of Fear,” by Richard Ntiru. Like an arrested breath when breathing makes silence imperfect and the ear cannot differentiate between the conspiratorial whispers and the winds singing. ... a twig in the courtyard snaps and report of a gun is understood. (Narasimhaiah, 137) Nigerian poet, the Nobel laureate, Wole Soyinka’s masterful irony skillfully conceals anger at the racist attitude in his famous poem, “Telephone Converstion.” After negotiating for a house on rent on telephone, he tells the landlady of his being a black African. He was rudely shocked when he was ‘caught...foully’ by the lady’s query regarding his darkness thus: “HOW DARK...?” I had not misheard... “Are you light OR VERY DARK...” (Narasimhaiah, 149) The “ill-mannered silence” between the two is filled with images such as ‘stench of rancid breath of public- hide-and-speak, Red booth, Red- Pillar-box, Red double-tiered Omnibus squelching tar’ that subsume the age-old and still hopeless and violent colour- conflict. The theme of English superiority glares through David Rubadiri’s poem “A Negro Labourer in Liverpool”: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

168 English Literature - I Here his hope is the shovel And his fulfillment resignation. (Narasimhaiah, 134) One of the most important phases in African poetry is Negritude, a powerful literary movement founded by Aimé Césaire of Senegal. Among other things, the Negritude poets favoured the theme of glorification of Africa. They worshipped anything African in scintillating rhymes. Anger at injustice meted out to the colonized Africa is also one of the oft-repeated themes of their poetry. Here is an example from David Diop’s poem “Africa.” Africa, my Africa Africa of proud warriors in ancestral savannahs.... Is this you, this back that is bent This back that breaks under the weight of humiliation This back trembling with red scars And saying yes to the whip under the midday sun..... That is Africa your Africa That grows again patiently obstinately And its fruit gradually acquires The bitter taste of liberty. (Narasimhaiah, 153) Dennis Brutus, a South African poet, was subjected to torture by a cruel regime. His writing is full of images of love contrasted with images of death thus, Desolate Your face gleams up Beneath me in the dusk Abandoned A wounded dove Helpless Beneath the knife of love. (Quoted in Theroux, 2) CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 169 Great feelings for Africa is felt in Abioseh Nicol’s poem “The Meaning of Africa” thus: Africa, you were once just a name to me ...So I came back sailing down the Guinea coast ....You are not a country Africa, You are a concept ...I know now that is what you are Africa Happiness, contentment and fulfillment. (Quoted in Povey, 39) A poet’s affirmation of his love for Africa shines radiantly through the following verses. Dark Africa! My dawn is here; Behold! I see A rich warm glow in the East, And my day will soon be here. (Iyengar, 30) Deification of Africa is a fit topic for many African poets. Perhaps this is their reaction to the self glorification and the civilizing zeal of the imperial powers of Europe. Bernard Dadie’s poem attains special significance viewed in that light. He says in a poem entitled “I Thank God”: I thank you God for creating me black. White is the colour for special occasions Black the colour for every day And I have carried the World since the dawn of time And my laugh over the World, through the night creates The Day. (Narasimhaiah, 122) In Africa, the advent of the white man’s civilizing mission displaced scores of native societies from their own cultural roots. The impact of the spread of Christianity combined with material benefits such as classroom education and well-paid jobs forced many Africans to abandon their own faith and adapt the religion of the pale-faced aliens. This situation is responsible for the natives to suffer from culture shock. Nevertheless, the native is expected to CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

170 English Literature - I owe allegiance to his own tribal culture and embrace Christianity for material benefits. This cultural confusion is well articulated by Mabel Segun in a poem thus: Here we stand Infants overblown Poised between two civilizations Finding the balance irksome. (Quoted in Povey, 39) Gabriel Okara expresses the same sentiments in a lyric thus: When at break of day at a riverside I hear jungle drums... Then I hear a wailing piano Solo speaking of complex ways. (Quoted in Gleason, 143) However, there are poets like Kofi Awoonor Williams of Ghana whose passion for past is expressed in his rediscovery themes with the help of extended rhythms as in the following lines: “Sew the old days for us our fathers that we wear them under our old garments after we have washed ourselves.....” (The Anvil and the Hammer) again, “Sew the old days for me my father Sew them so that I may wear them For the feast that is coming.” (Quoted in Theroux, 4) He accomplishes the same excellence of evolving extended rhythms in poems like “The Long Journey” and “My Song.” Poetic excellence and rare innovative creative ability are seen in Christopher Okigbo poems such as “The Stars Have Departed.” He says, The stars have departed The sky in a monocle CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 171 Surveys the world under The stars have departed And I- Where am I? ? Stretch, stretch O antennae, To clutch at this hour, Fulfilling each movement in a Broken monody. (Quoted in Walsh, 48) Images that can evoke a situation beyond hope which are reminiscent of Eliot’s war poetry are visible in the following verses from K. Brew’s poem “The Search.” The past is but the cinders Of the present The future The smoke That escaped Into the cloud- bound sky. (Quoted in Walsh, 50) Some of the poets have realized the futility of fighting over issues such as race, respect and national identity. What more can be more illuminating than the enlightened poet’s words such as: You must leave the sifting sands of self- seeking and deceit and erect far mightier mansions on the rock of healthy soil. (Iyengar, 36) Lenrie Peter’s poems are short on the print but deep on one’s mind like the one cited below Open the gates To East and West Bring in all That’s good and best. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

172 English Literature - I The memorable lines of Peter’s poem “On a wet September Morning” with their sheer beauty of imagery and the underlying thought of universal brotherhood celebrate the oneness of the human family. To cite a few verses: The echo burst in me Like a great harmonic chord- Violins of love and happy voices The pagan trumpet blast Swamping the lamentation of the horn Then the heraldic drums In slow crescendo rising Crashed though my senses Into a new present Which is the future. After this brief glance at African poetry, we realize that it is not simply an offshoot of British literary tradition. Despite the many disadvantages such as a scarred past, colonial trauma, expression in a foreign medium, inability to travel abroad, unstable economic and political state of affairs in their respective nations, lack of educational opportunities, the African poet has effortless creative capacity. It is an enriching combination of rich oral literature, native experience and imported tradition of writing in English that made African poetry a tremendous success both at home and abroad. The ‘Black Orpheus’ (African Poets) is no longer an unknown or an unwanted quantity but a fascinating and often enviable and beneficent literary marvel from what was ignorantly termed as the ‘dark continent’. 8.2 Refugee Mother and Child No Madonna and Child could touch that picture of a mother’s tenderness for a son she soon would have to forget. The air was heavy with odours of diarrhoea of unwashed children with washed-out ribs and dried-up CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 173 bottoms struggling in laboured steps behind blown empty bellies. Most mothers there had long ceased to care but not this one; she held a ghost smile between her teeth and in her eyes the ghost of a mother’s pride as she combed the rust-coloured hair left on his skull and then - singing in her eyes - began carefully to part it… In another life this would have been a little daily act of no consequence before his breakfast and school; now she did it like putting flowers on a tiny grave. Historical Context to Refugee Mother and Child Chinua Achebe was born to the Igbo of southeastern Nigeria in 1930, putting him in Nigeria at the exact right time for British colonialism to begin dictating the lives of the Igbo in the form of the Royal Niger Company. A number of events that took place during his colonial education were later recorded in his works; there are a number of parallels, for instance, between things he observed as a child and events that take place in “Things Fall Apart,” his first novel. Achebe’s style was often to write about what he saw in the world around him, and given the strength of the language, it is more than likely that this is the case for “Refugee Mother and Child.” It was written during the Nigerian Civil War, an unfortunate aftermath of the colonialism that had influenced the area. During this time, Achebe mostly wrote poetry, finding it an easier task to manage during the intense period of war. It is difficult to imagine it — a young Chinua Achebe walking around his hometown, breathing in foul air and watching the hearts of mothers harden towards their children. Colonialism, poverty, and war had all taken immense tolls on the Nigerian people, and they were in suffering. Achebe’s poem here serves as a written analysis of that time period, a reflection based on what he saw that draws its strength from the imagery and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

174 English Literature - I language by painting a picture of words for the reader, one that brings suffering to life in a way that not many poems do. A significant part of the strength of this poem is the realization of how real it is. So many poems rely on metaphor and distant imagery that when a poem this grounded in reality is read, it almost feels like a shock — how many famous poems talk about the diarrhetic odours of dying children with such blunt language? But this is its strength — the realization, the certain knowledge just by reading the poem, that what “Refugee Mother and Child” describes is very, very real. Refugee Mother and Child Introduction “Refugee Mother and Child” is a poem composed by Chinua Achebe depicting the destitution and starvation of displaced people. The poem is about a displaced person, mother and her child who endure in the arms of neediness. In the long run, her child perishes and as a mother she feels despondency, upset and vulnerable. In the poem, Achebe joined love, lament, religion, confidence, enduring, recollections, agony and change into the lives of the outcasts’ mom and tyke. Chinua Achebe expressed “Refugee Mother and Child” as a reaction to his experienced childhood in neediness, with unprivileged kids and enduring, and felt propelled by their psychological quality. All through the poem, Achebe drives us to a comprehension of mother`s delicate love. In 1967, common war broke out in Nigeria when the Catholic ruled region of Biafra endeavored autonomy from the Moslem overwhelmed focal state. Amid those pivotal years, Achebe filled in as a minister for the Biafran government. The war went severely for the Biafrans who endured hugely, and starvation was overflowing. The writer’s firsthand involvement of the hardship and battle propelled him to state “Displaced person Mother and Kid”. Refugee Mother and Child Themes Motherly Love The main theme of this poem is motherly love. One proverb in particular that relates to the poem is “Love never gets lost, it’s only kept.” This proverb means love is a feeling you can never CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 175 get rid of. This proverb relates to the poem with the mother’s relationship with her child. Even when the child has passed away, the mother still will always love her child regardless. A mother’s love is the strongest love no matter what the situation is. This proverb can also relate to another proverb that is written “Love is a pain killer.” A mother will go through hell and back for their loved ones no matter what. Struggle Struggle is another theme of this poem. A proverb that relates to Achebe’s poem is “A united family eats from the same plate.” This proverb means regardless of the situation,family should always be taken care of: even if the family is struggling, not knowing when the next meal will come. The fact of the matter is family is family, nobody should be left behind. This proverb is related to the poem with the idea of struggle. For instance, in the poem it talks about how hungry the children were when it said “struggling in labored steps behind blown empty bellies.” This relates because if one person starved they all starved, even though they tried their best to survive in their situation, it was hard because they were in a refugee camp. 8.3 Summary Chinua Achebe is a great Nigerian novelist poet and short story writer. His first novel “Things Fall Apart” has been translated into 45 languages. His poem “Refugee Mother and Child” is a celebration of motherhood. It is a refugee camp somewhere in Africa. The poet gives us a realistic picture of a mother and her child. Hundreds of poor people are thrown out of their homes due to political disturbances or natural calamities. The refugees are in a miserable condition. There are innumerable mothers and children in the same miserable condition in the refugee camp. Their children are slowly dying of poverty and diseases. But the poet draws our attention to a particular mother and her child. They are compared with St. Mary holding infant Jesus in her arms. Madonna loves her child because Jesus is the saviour of mankind and the son of God. The world worships her and her child. Juxtaposed with this, the poet introduces a poor ordinary, unknown mother and child. The mother knows her child is slowly dying. It is of no use caring for him. Other mothers in the camp know this truth about their children and so they are careless about their dying children. They don’t want to further waste CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

176 English Literature - I their time and energy and love for the dying children. It is futile for them. So they are passive. The air was heavy with odours of diarrhoea of unwashed children. But this mother is very different. She is the epitome of motherhood. She loves her child. Her love for him is infinite and divine. She does not want anything in return for her love and sacrifice. She combs his dirty hair left on the skull of his head. She carefully parts the hair as if she were preparing him to his school in the morning. She is doing a lot of work including kissing his forehead. It was an act of putting flowers in his small coffin – the last love of a mother to her son. The poet uses the words ‘ghost’ and ‘rust’ as metaphors of death. The mother keeps smiling while combing his hair, because she knows that very soon the child will die. While carrying infant Jesus in her arms, St. Mary too knows well that her son will be nailed to the cross for the benefit of humanity. Therefore he would become the Saviour of mankind. But the refugee mother cannot be proud of any such achievement of her poor son. His death is not a matter for the world. Yet her maternal love for her child surpasses even the love of Madonna for her infant Jesus. The refugee mother cannot expect anything in return for her sacrifice and maternal love for her poor sick child. Still her love and care continues for him till his last breath. The comparison with Madonna and Infant Jesus serves to heighten the emotional appeal of the poem. Simple and direct, the poem “Refugee Mother and Child” touches our hearts with love and compassion and enhances the dignity of motherhood. Refugee Mother and Child Analysis In the poem “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe, the sadness of death is shown by creating a tragic atmosphere by introducing shocking images and strong words. At the beginning, in the first stanza, the author strikes us by telling us that the child will soon die; “for a son she soon will have to forget.” This strong image of a mother and her son is more touching than the “Madonna and Child.” The use of alliteration in “a son she soon” reinforces the idea of proximity of death. The author uses simple and strong vocabulary, giving more emphasis to what is actually said than to the way it is said. This also helps in creating the tragic atmosphere by the use of words CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 177 such a “diarrhoea” or “dried up ribs” or “washed out bottoms.” we can clearly see that the child is suffering from starvation. When the poet mentions the “ghost smile”, she tries to express that there once was a “smile between her teeth”, but now it is slowly disappearing, referring to a ghost, but something still remains, she still remembers or longs for “her mothers pride”. The fact that “Most mothers there had long ceased to care but not this one” reinforces the idea that she still wants to share time with her son. A very shocking image used in the poem is the one where the mother combs her son, “as putting flowers in a tiny grave”, preparing him for his funeral. The author expresses the sadness of death by showing the way a mother says goodbye to her son. The Mother has always held a supreme position in all religions. In Islam, she holds the first and second places. In Hinduism, the Mother and Motherland are deemed greater than heaven. In Christianity, the privilege of “giving birth divinely” was also handed over to a woman. The image of Madonna with her child is supposed to be the highest paradigm of motherhood one can envisage. Here, Chinua Achebe states that even that image could not surpass the picture of a mother expressing tenderness for a son, she would soon have to forget. It is the most poignant picture one’s imagination and memory can ever record. Chinua Achebe’s poem is titled “Refugee Mother and Child”. The adjective ‘refugee’ has different meanings in this context. One, the mother in question may be a refugee. Besides, one who flees from danger, and is in a secure and protective circle is also called a ‘refugee’. In this regard, the baby is a refugee, and his refuge is his mother’s womb till he comes out to this cruel world. Another interpretation would be the mother finding refuge from the reality of the death of her son in a make-believe world. The air held a nausea of unwashed children with traces of diarrhea, and the stench of the emanations post–delivery. The rawness of the struggle to attain motherhood is depicted as the poet states: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

178 English Literature - I The air was heavy with odors of diarrhea of unwashed children with washed-out ribs and dried-up bottoms struggling in labored steps behind blown empty bellies. Mothers there had long ceased to care, as the poignancy of the situation of the refugees had reached their saturation point. But this one still held her own. She donned a ghost smile. The situation is scary because the new-born is dead and the smile seems ghastly. The term ‘ghost smile’ may also imply that the lady held a ‘ghost’ of a smile that once was real. Now that the genuine reason for the smile is lost, it may be termed as a ‘ghost of a smile.’ Her eyes also looked super-focussed as it held the ghost of a mother’s pride. She combs, with maternal affection, the hair on his ‘skull’. Note that it is ‘skull’ and not ‘head’ as the baby is impoverished, and dead. Her eyes appeared to sing a lullaby, as she parts the son’s hair. In an otherwise situation, this act would be of little consequence; another everyday affair before breakfast or school. Here, however, it happens to stand for the last display of maternal affection and is therefore equivalent to “putting flowers on a tiny grave.” Imagery  The poem outlines the undying affection and confidence one mother emphatically hold with her child. The artist demonstrates to us the pictures of starvation and destitution that displaced people are compelled to confront.  The title of the poem emits the underlying impression that the poem centers on displaced people: one who escapes to look for shelter. The lives of evacuee youngsters, their folks, their sentiments, their feelings and their agony. ‘For a son she soon would have to forget’. This hints her child is kicking the bucket, and she would need to overlook him to adjust to her grievous misfortune.  The illustration in the first stanza, ‘No Madonna and Child could touch that picture….’ identifies with the possibility of Mary and her tyke, Jesus. The photo consummate picture – the perfect picture of parenthood. The photo of a delightful, quiet mother with her heavenly new conceived tyke. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 179  The artist utilizes the reiteration and the differentiating thoughts of the word ‘washed’ in portraying the withered condition of the evacuee kids. ‘Unwashed…’ – the clean state, and ‘Washed-out…’ the physical condition of the kids because of the absence of nourishment.  ‘Blown empty bellies, the physical appearance of the youngsters’ stomachs on account of the restricted nourishment supply of just sugars. From this unfortunate eating regimen the mix of acids and gases gain victory of the stomach of the youngsters. This distinctive portrayal could likewise be a play on words to the blowflies in Africa.  ‘A ghost smile’, this analogy could be two thoughts: The mother is upbeat since she is with her child, you can tell she is glad yet her grin is blacked out, hard to take note. Her joy can not without much of a stretch be seen, her grin has not appeared in a physical appearance, and it holds joy that radiates its feeling in an inclination which can not exactly be clarified, yet can be felt by others. This similitude indicates how the mother keeps a phony, or ‘ghost’’ grin on her lips for her kid’s purpose – so her child doesn’t have any apprehensions or stresses.  The use of the word ‘skull’ is a typical image for death and hints or speaks to the passing of her child.  In the poem Achebe demonstrates the numerous parts of human disaster and physical enduring. For instance of human enduring, he portrays the evacuees in “struggling labored steps” and “washed-out ribs and dried-up bottoms”.  The Madonna is Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ, and the Kid is her child, Jesus. A statue of the Madonna holding the Baby Jesus is regular in the Catholic Church. Keep in mind that Achebe composed this sonnet in the Catholic area of Biafra, where statues of the Madonna and Tyke would have been normal.  No reason is offered with respect to why the general population are in a displaced person camp. Maybe there had been a war, or some kind of common catastrophe. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

180 English Literature - I 8.4 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Short Answer Questions 1. Explain the theme of struggle in the poem. 2. Why does the mother have a ghost smile? 3. What does the act of combing the rust coloured hair suggest? 4. What is the comparison between Madonna and the mother in this poem? 5. Describe the scene at the refugee camp. B. Long Answer Questions 1. How does Achebe drive us to a comprehension of mother`s delicate love? 2. How does Achebe’s poem ‘Refugee Mother and Child’ serve as a written analysis of that time period? 3. Write the summary of the poem ‘Refugee Mother and the Child’ 4. Explain the themes of motherly love and struggle in the poem ‘Refugee Mother and the Child’ 5. Why is the mother in the poem an epitome of motherhood? 6. Give the significance of the title ‘Refugee Mother and the Child’ 7. Write a note on the imagery of the poem. 8. Comment on the line ‘No Madonna and Child could touch that picture….’ 9. How does Achebe demonstrate the numerous parts of human disaster and physical enduring in the poem ‘Refugee Mother and the Child’ 10. Explain the poetic devices in the poem ‘Refugee Mother and the Child’. 11. How does the comparison with Madonna and Infant Jesus serve to heighten the emotional appeal of the poem? 12. The poem “Refugee Mother and Child” touches our hearts with love and compassion and enhances the dignity of motherhood. Comment. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 181 C. Multiple Choice Questions 1. What is the scene described in the poem of? (a) A war (b) A flood (c) A refugee camp (d) A prison 2. Why were the ribs washed-out and bottoms dried-up? (a) Due to the hot climate (b) Due to diarrhea (c) Due to famine (d) Due to starvation 3. What does ‘struggling in labored steps behind blown empty bellies’ mean? (a) The refugees were starving (b) The refugee children were fat with big bellies (c) Horns were blown to call for lunch (d) Refugee people were struggling to get jobs 4. What is glorified in this poem? (a) Love of a child for his mother (b) Love of a mother for her child (c) Mother Mary’s love for Jesus (d) God’s love for his children 5. Why has the mother to forget the child soon? (a) because he is going to school (b) because he will be going to another country (c) because he is soon going to die (d) because she will get busy in her daily chores Answers 1. (a), 2. (d), 3. (b), 4. (a), 5. (c) CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

182 English Literature - I 8.5 References 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinua_Achebe 2. https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2013/mar/26/chinua-achebe-leader-of-ge 3. https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/refugee-mother-and-child/ 4. https://poemanalysis.com/refugee-mother-and-child-by-chinua-achebe-poem-analysis/ 5. http://kjtenglishnotes.blogspot.com/2014/05/refugee-mother-and-child-chinua- achebe.html 6. http://www.bookrags.com/essay-2006/5/29/191917/309/#gsc.tab=0 7. https://rukhaya.com/poetry-analysis-chinua-achebes-refugee-mother-and-child/ 8. https://www.litpriest.com/browse/poetry/refugee-mother-and-child-summary/ 9. https://www.ukessays.com/essays/english-literature/literature-works-of-chinua-achebes- english-literature-essay.php 10. Franklin, Ruth. “After Empire: Chinua Achebe and the Great African Novel”. The New Yorker, 26 May 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2010. 11. Ogbaa, p. xv. 12. Carl Brucker (1992). “Chinua Achebe 1930–”. faculty.atu.edu. Archived from the original on 27 October 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2016. 13. Nnamdi Ken Amobi (13 April 2013). “Chinua Achebe: Ogidi man first, Ogidi man last”. Vanguard. Lagos. Retrieved 18 January 2014. 14. Chinua Achebe of Bard College”. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. 33 (33): 28–29. Autumn 2001. doi:10.2307/2678893. JSTOR 2678893. 15. July, Robert W. (1987). An African Voice. Durham (NC): Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0769-3. 16. Killam, G. D. (1977). The Writings of Chinua Achebe. London: Heinemann Educational Books. ISBN 978-0-435-91665-7. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Refugee Mother and Child 183 17. Laurence, Margaret (2001). Long Drums and Cannons: Nigerian Dramatists and Novelists, 1952–1966. Alberta: University of Alberta Press. ISBN 978-0-88864-332-2. 18. Lawtoo, Nidesh (2013). “A Picture of Africa: Frenzy, Counternarrative, Mimesis.” Modern Fictions Studies 59.1 (2013):26–52. 19. Lindfors, Bernth (1982). Early Nigerian Literature. New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-8419-0740-9. 20. Mezu, Rose Ure (2006). Chinua Achebe: The Man and His Works. London: Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. ISBN 978-1-905068-21-0. 21. Naydenova, Natalia, Salihou Camara (2013). Littérature africaine et identité: un hommage à Chinua Achebe. Paris: Editions L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-343-01253-7.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 9 STANZA FORMS Structure: 9.0 Learning Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Types of Stanza Forms 9.3 Definition of a Heroic Couplet 9.4 Examples of Heroic Couplets 9.5 Blank Verse 9.6 Spensarian Stanza 9.7 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 9.8 References 9.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit you will understand the significance of stanza forms. Poets have been using stanzas in their works for thousands of years. Many religious texts and works such as the Old English epic Beowulf are written with stanzas. The purpose of stanzas, whether in longer works or short poems, is to break the images and information into shorter pieces. Stanzas are also important in formal poems in which there is a strict meter and rhyme scheme. In the time of troubadours and oral literature, stanzas had even greater importance because they were helpful tools for the speaker to memorize long works. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Stanza Forms 185 9.1 Introduction In poetry, a stanza (/'stænzə/; from Italian stanza ['stantsa], “room”) is a grouped set of lines within a poem, usually set off from other stanzas by a blank line or indentation. Stanzas can have regular rhyme and metrical schemes, though stanzas are not strictly required to have either. There are many unique forms of stanzas. Some stanzaic forms are simple, such as four-line quatrains. Other forms are more complex, such as the Spenserian stanza. Fixed verse poems, such as sestinas, can be defined by the number and form of their stanzas. The term stanza is similar to strophe, though strophe sometimes refers to irregular set of lines, as opposed to regular, rhymed stanzas. The stanza in poetry is analogous with the paragraph that is seen in prose; related thoughts are grouped into units. The stanza has also been known by terms such as batch, fit, and stave. Even though the term \"stanza\" is taken from Italian, in the Italian language the word \"strofa\" is more commonly used. In music, groups of lines are typically referred to as verses. 9.2 Types of Stanza Forms Poets all over the world compose different types of stanzas all the time with some being unnamed as yet. Stanza forms have acquired a name because of the number of lines per stanza. However, other variations of stanza forms have cropped up because of how widely they have been used or the fame of the poet who is believed to have introduced the form to the world. Continue reading the following list of the most common stanza forms in the world of poetry based on line count. The Monostich A monostich is a one line stanza. It also refers to a one line poem. It expresses a complete thought. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

186 English Literature - I Example of a monostich stanza/poem. Winter Echo by Yvor Winters Thin air! My mind is gone. ... Yvor Winters The Couplet This stanza form is made up of two lines. Since it has only two lines, they must rhyme. Also, classical couplets have the same meter and rhythm. William Shakespeare’s sonnets often end with a couplet, to summarize the theme of the specific poems. Check out this poem that uses the couplet stanza form. Beasts and Men Poem by Centfie Animal is what you should be To spend your life wildly sin-free Multiple sexual mates is fornication To the beasts it is just procreation By stealing you can’t be blameless Beasts steal and remain sinless For food they murder their own Sin is to kill even a baby unborn There exist men worse than beasts Yet they are not in the wanted lists ... Centfie CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Stanza Forms 187 The Tercet The tercet has 3 lines. You can use the tercet as a whole poem. The Haiku is an example of a tercet poem. When a three line stanza rhymes, it is called a triplet. The Villanelle poem is a good example of a type of poem with tercets. It has five tercets and a quatrain. Check out this example of a tercet. Finality by Centfie Final time to trust Final time to see light Cats live to eat ... Centfie The Quatrain Quatrain is the official term for a stanza of four lines. There is no limit to this stanza form -it can rhyme or not, it can have a regular meter or not. In fact, it is a very common stanza form since it is found in many cultures. I can not help giving an example of one of my own poems which uses the quatrain. Note that I used a couplet stanza as the intro of this poem. Her Life was a Blessing Poem by Centfie As we mourn today, we will mourn tomorrow, but then we hope for an end to our sorrow. Thank God for giving her The chance to enjoy breathing She learnt new languages She helped others to fight on. She had happy and hard times She fought cancer to the end CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

188 English Literature - I In her great pain she cried But also found time to smile. As we mourn for the loss For her life was a blessing With time we will be healed Taking our time to grieve. ... Centfie The Quintain The quintain or quintet stanza has five lines. The cinquain is a type of quintain consisting of five lines with a fixed syllable scheme per line. Limerick and tanks poems use the quintain stanza. The following excerpt from a poem called The World written by George Herbert applies the quintet stanza form. The World by George Herbert Love built a stately house, where Fortune came, And spinning fancies, she was heard to say That her fine cobwebs did support the frame, Whereas they were supported by the same; But Wisdom quickly swept them all away. The Pleasure came, who, liking not the fashion, Began to make balconies, terraces, Till she had weakened all by alteration; But reverend laws, and many a proclamation Reforméd all at length with menaces. ... George Herbert. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Stanza Forms 189 The Sestet/Sestain The sestet stanza form has six lines. There is no limit, you may rhyme or not. The Sestina type of poem applies this effectively. Although the last stanza of a sestina is a tercet. This is an example of a poem which has sestet stanzas. The following is not the complete poem, it is an excerpt of the first two stanzas of Elizabeth Bishop’s poem known as Sestina. Sestina by Elizabeth Bishop September rain falls on the house. In the failing light, the old grandmother sits in the kitchen with the child beside the Little Marvel Stove, reading the jokes from the almanac, laughing and talking to hide her tears. She thinks that her equinoctial tears and the rain that beats on the roof of the house were both foretold by the almanac, but only known to a grandmother. The iron kettle sings on the stove. She cuts some bread and says to the child, ... Elizabeth Bishop The Septet The septet stanza form has seven lines. As long as the stanza has seven lines it is a septet. Whether it has a rhyme scheme, regular meter or not. The seven line stanza is often used in long poems. The septet can also stand alone as a whole poem. This septet example is the fifth stanza excerpted from Edgar Allan Poe’s poem called Annabel Lee. The other stanzas in this poem have six or eight lines each giving it a disticntive rhythm. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

190 English Literature - I Annabel Lee by Edgar Allan Poe But our love it was stronger by far than the love Of those who were older than we— Of many far wiser than we— And neither the angels in heaven above, Nor the demons down under the sea, Can ever dissever my soul from the soul Of the beautiful Annabel Lee: ..... Edgar Allan Poe The Octave/Octet The octave stanza form has eight lines in any meter and rhyme scheme. It can stand as a whole poem. The Ottava Rima is a type of octet stanza form often found in Italian literature and used to praise heroic deeds. This is the first stanza excerpted from Among School Children by William Butler Yeats. Among School Children by William Butler Yeats I walk through the long schoolroom questioning; A kind old nun in a white hood replies; The children learn to cipher and to sing, To study reading-books and history, To cut and sew, be neat in everything In the best modern way—the children’s eyes In momentary wonder stare upon A sixty-year-old smiling public man. .... William Butler Yeats The Spenserian Stanza The Spenserian stanza form was actively used by a famous classical poet known as Edmund Spenser. It has nine lines with a rhyme scheme of ABABBCBCC. Eight lines follow the iambic pentameter while the ninth line has six iambic feet. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Stanza Forms 191 The following nine line stanza is excerpted from Spenser’s poem known as The Fairie Queen. The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser But on his brest a bloudie Crosse he bore, The deare remembrance of his dying Lord, For whose sweete sake that glorious badge he wore, And dead as living ever him ador’d: Upon his shield the like was also scor’d, For soveraine hope, which in his helpe he had: Right faithfull true he was in deede and word, But of his cheere did seeme too solemne sad; Yet nothing did he dread, but ever was ydrad. ... Edmund Spenser The Dizain Stanza The dizain derives its name from French literature. Dix-pronounced \"diz\" means \"ten\" in French. Thus, the dizain stanza form has 10 lines. As other stanza forms, it can stand alone as a complete poem. Check out the following excerpt of a ten line stanza from a long poem by John Keats entitled Ode on a Grecian Urn. This is Stanza 2 of the poem. Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on; Not to the sensual ear, but, more endear’d, Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone: Fair youth, beneath the trees, thou canst not leave Thy song, nor ever can those trees be bare; Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss, Though winning near the goal—yet, do not grieve; She cannot fade, though thou hast not thy bliss, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

192 English Literature - I Forever wilt thou love, and she be fair! ... John Keats Now that you have examples of basic stanza forms and their names, why don’t you create some poetry? Or analyze the stanza forms of your favorite poems. The beauty of poetry is that you can have fun creating them. Or, invent your own stanza form and give it a name. Heroic Couplet Heroic Couplets are paired, rhyming lines of poetry (usually iambic pentameter) found in epic or long narrative English poetry and translations. As you will see, there are a variety of qualities that distinguish heroic couplets from regular couplets. Definition of a Couplet A couplet is two lines of poetry that are right next to each other. And, more important, they are related and together make up a complete thought or sentence. Their thematic or syntactical connection is more significant than their physical closeness. This quote is a great example of a couplet: Good night, good night. Parting is such sweet sorrow That I shall say good night till it be morrow. These lines from Phillis Wheatley’s \"On Virtue,\" however, are not a couplet: But, O my soul, sink not into despair, Virtue is near thee, and with gentle hand… So while all couplets are two consecutive lines, not all pairs of consecutive lines are couplets. To be a couplet, the lines have to be a unit, generally self-contained, and complete. The lines can either be part of a larger stanza or a closed stanza by themselves. 9.3 Definition of a Heroic Couplet Several characteristics distinguish a heroic couplet from a regular couplet. A heroic couplet is always rhymed and is usually in iambic pentameter (although there is some variation of the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Stanza Forms 193 meter). The heroic couplet is also usually closed, meaning that both lines are end-stopped (by some type of punctuation), and the lines are a self-contained grammatical unit. This quote from Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 116” is a great example of a rhymed, closed, iambic pentameter couplet. It is not, however, a heroic couplet. If this be error and upon me prov’d, I never writ, nor no man ever lov’d. This brings us to the final qualification: context. For a couplet to be heroic, it needs a heroic setting. This is obviously a bit subjective, but in most cases, determining if a poem is \"heroic\" is fairly easy. 9.4 Examples of Heroic Couplets Some good examples of heroic couplets from poems you may be familiar with include: From John Dryden’s translation of Virgil’s \"The Aeneid\": Soon had their hosts in bloody battle join’d; But westward to the sea the sun declin’d. Intrench’d before the town both armies lie, While Night with sable wings involves the sky. So let’s go through our checklist: 1. Couplets? Yes. The passage consists of two pairs of lines that are closed grammatical units. 2. Rhyme/meter? Check and check. These lines are tight iambic pentameter and rhymed (with a near rhyme between “join’d” and “declin’d”). 3. Heroic? Absolutely. Few writings are more heroic than “The Aeneid.” CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

194 English Literature - I Another Example: And he bigan with right a myrie cheere His tale anon, and seyde as ye may heere: 1. Couplet? Yes. This is a pair of closed lines. 2. Rhyme/meter? Yes. The rhymed lines are in iambic pentameter. 3. Heroic? These lines are from the General Prologue of Geoffrey Chaucer’s “The Canterbury Tales,” an epic, heroic tale. A Final Example: Thus conduct won the prize, when courage fail’d, And eloquence o’er brutal force prevail’d. 1. Couplet? Yes. 2. Rhyme/meter? Definitely. 3. Heroic? Yes. This example is drawn from Ovid’s “Metamorphoses,” translated by Sir Samuel Garth and John Dryden. So the next time you are wondering if the lines you are reading are heroic couplets, just check for these three things and you will have your answer. The Mock-Heroic and Alexander Pope As with all influential and important literary movements and concepts, the heroic couplet has its own parody—the mock-heroic, most commonly associated with Alexander Pope. Mock-heroic poems are thought to have been a response to the deluge of epic, pastoral, heroic poems that were being written in the 17th century. As with any cultural trend or movement, people were looking for something new, something that would subvert the established aesthetic norms (think Dada or Weird Al Yankovic). So writers and poets took the form and context of the heroic or epic poem and played around with it. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Stanza Forms 195 One of Pope’s best-known poems “The Rape of the Lock” is a quintessential mock-heroic on both the macro and micro levels. Pope takes a minor transgression — the cutting of a young woman’s hair by a suitor who wants a lock of her hair as a keepsake — and creates a narrative of epic proportions, complete with myth and magic. Pope mocks the heroic poem in two ways: by elevating a trivial moment into a kind of grand tale and by subverting formal elements, namely the heroic couplet. From the Third Canto, we get this oft-quoted couplet: Here Thou, great Anna! whom three Realms obey, Dost sometimes Counsel take—and sometimes Tea. This is, in essence, a heroic couplet (closed lines, rhymed iambic pentameter, epic setting), but there’s something symbolic happening in the second line as well. Pope is juxtaposing the high language and voice of the epic poem with everyday occurrences. He sets up a moment that feels as if it belongs in Roman or Greek mythology and then undercuts it with “and sometimes tea.” By using “take” to pivot between the “high” and “low” worlds — one can “take counsel” and one can “take tea” — Pope uses the conventions of the heroic couplet and bends them to his own comedic design. Closing Thoughts In both its original and parodic forms, the heroic couplet is an important part of Western poetry’s evolution. With its driving rhythm, tight rhyme, and syntactical independence, it mirrors the subject matter it portrays—tales of adventure, war, magic, true love, and yes, even a stolen lock of hair. Because of its structure and its history and tradition, the heroic couplet is usually quite recognizable, allowing us to bring additional context to the poems we read. Being able to identify heroic couplets in a poem allows us to see how they might influence and shape our reading and interpreting experiences. 9.5 Blank Verse Blank verse is poetry with a consistent meter but no formal rhyme scheme. Unlike free verse, blank verse has a measured beat. In English, the beat is usually iambic pentameter, but other CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)