MAE602_British Poetry till 17th Century

William Shakespeare’s Sonnets 93 4.0 Learning Objectives After reading this lesson, students will be able to:  Explain the structure of a Shakespearean sonnet  Analyze the themes and tone of Sonnet  Describe how Shakespeare uses figurative language in this sonnet 4.1 Introduction Over an extended period from 1592 to 1598, the year in which Francis Meres referred to The Sonnets are Shakespeare’s most popular works. Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets, likely composed Shakespeare’s “sugred sonnets”: In 1609 Thomas Thorpe published Shakespeare’s sonnets. The majority of the sonnets (1-126) are addressed to a young man, with whom the poet has an intense romantic relationship. The poet spends the first seventeen sonnets trying to convince the young man to marry and have children; beautiful children that will look just like their father, ensuring his immortality. Many of the remaining sonnets in the young man sequence focus on the power of poetry and pure love to defeat death and “all oblivious enmity”. The final sonnets (127-154) are addressed to a promiscuous and scheming woman known to modern readers as the dark lady. Both the poet and his young man have become obsessed with the raven-haired temptress in these sonnets, and the poet’s whole being is at odds with his insatiable “sickly appetite”. The tone is distressing, with language of sensual feasting, uncontrollable urges, and sinful consumption. Although love is the overarching theme of the sonnets, there are three specific underlying themes: (1) the brevity of life, (2) the transience of beauty, and (3) the trappings of desire. Shakespeare likely did not write his sonnets with a conscious emphasis on literary devices, and early editors of the sonnets paid little attention to such devices (with the exception of metaphor and allusion). However, in the era of postmodern literary theory and close reading, much weight is given to the construction or deconstruction of the sonnets and Shakespeare’s use of figures of speech such as alliteration, assonance, antithesis, enjambment, metonymy, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

94 British Poetry Till 17th Century synecdoche, oxymoron, personification and internal rhyme. Shakespeare’s sonnets are written predominantly in a meter called iambic pentameter, a rhyme scheme in which each sonnet line consists of ten syllables. The syllables are divided into five pairs called iambs or iambic feet. An iamb is a metrical unit made up of one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable. 4.2 Sonnet 110 Alas, 'tis true I have gone here and there Alas! 'tis true, I have gone here and there, And made my self a motley to the view, Gored mine own thoughts, sold cheap what is most dear, Made old offences of affections new; Most true it is, that I have looked on truth Askance and strangely; but, by all above, These blenches gave my heart another youth, And worse essays proved thee my best of love. Now all is done, have what shall have no end: Mine appetite I never more will grind On newer proof, to try an older friend, A god in love, to whom I am confined. Then give me welcome, next my heaven the best, Even to thy pure and most most loving breast. Summary Sonnet 110 is one of 154 sonnets written by the English playwright and poet William Shakespeare. Sonnet 110 was published along with the other sonnets in the 1609 Quarto. The CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

William Shakespeare’s Sonnets 95 sonnet falls in place with the Fair Youth sequence of Shakespeare’s sonnets, in which the poet expresses his love towards a young man. The mystery of the young man is still unknown today. However, there are many different theories by various scholars of who this young man may be. There has been much debate whether or not this sonnet was written about Shakespeare’s disdain with the stage and actors. Whereas others have interpreted sonnet 110 as the poet confessing his love to a young man. The poet confesses that he had been in error, and that he had formed new acquaintance.It’s true. I have ranged widely, made myself a fool, squandered my treasure, and hurt my old lover by taking a new. I have truly given truth a sideways glance, but I swear this brought youth back to my heart. Experiment proved that you are the best that love has to offer. It is ended. Take what will not end. Never again will I whet my appetite on new loves to test the old, my one and only god of love. You are next to my heaven. Take me back to your pure and loving breast. Sonnet 110 is an English or Shakespearean sonnet. The English sonnet has three quatrains, followed by a final rhyming couplet. It follows the typical rhyme scheme of the form ABAB CDCD EFEF GG and is composed in iambic pentameter, a type of poetic metre based on five pairs of metrically weak/strong syllabic positions. The 7th line exemplifies a regular iambic pentameter. Commentary Sonnet 110 is a continuation of Sonnet 109, which established the poet’s return to the fair lord after having been unfaithful. In Sonnet 109, the speaker vows to “bring water for my stain,” or cleanse the “stain” on the purity of his love for the fair lord with his own tears. Both sonnets together are an apology for philandering. The idea of being welcomed back, put forth in the final couplet (“Then give me welcome”) echoes the previous sonnet: “...if I have ranged,/Like him that travels, I return again.” The immorality discussed in this sonnet is tied to Shakespeare’s occupation as a playwright; this and the following sonnet take a rueful approach to that station in life. Although wealthy, dignified people attended plays, and though playwrights were admired to a degree, a career in the theater was linked to loose morals. Specifically, in line 2 the speaker admits to having “made my CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

96 British Poetry Till 17th Century self a motley to the view.” The term “motley” refers to either playing a fool, or the clothes worn by the fool, which were patchwork. In Sonnet 111, he refers to “public means which public manners breeds,” in effect blaming his behavior on a life in the theater. The meaning of line 3, “Gored mine own thoughts, sold cheap what is most dear,” suggests a physical and emotional unfaithfulness. The word “gored” implies an injury from the horn of an animal, and also calls to mind the dried blood and guts of the noun form, “gore.” The idea of selling something “most dear” for a cheap price is likely figurative, though it could refer to the speaker’s prostitution; either sexual prostitution or the figurative prostitution of his “own thoughts,” dedicating his time to thinking about other love affairs. In lines 10-11, the speaker declares, “Mine appetite I never more will grind/On newer proof,” referring to the satisfaction of his sexual urges. The word “grind” appears in five other instances in Shakespeare, all of which are descriptions of unpleasant physical experiences. Here, it calls to mind the image of sharpening a blade on a grindstone to make it keener (like an appetite). The idea of having a keen sexual appetite appears in Sonnet 118, too: “Like as, to make our appetite more keen,/With eager compounds we our palate urge.” The comparison of the fair lord to a deity in the last 3 lines of this sonnet echoes the theme of Sonnets 105 and 108. “A god in love” clearly refers to the “older friend” of line 11, who is the fair lord. This idea is enforced by line 13, when the poet asks for welcome into the arms of the fair lord, which to him is the best thing beside heaven. However, the phrase “thy pure and most most loving breast” which ends the sonnet can be read as contradictory; though the breast is “pure,” the double superlative “most most” can be read to mean that the fair lord himself has more lovers than anyone else. 4.3 Sonnet 116 Let me not to the marriage of true minds Let me not to the marriage of true minds Admit impediments. Love is not love CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

William Shakespeare’s Sonnets 97 Which alters when it alteration finds, Or bends with the remover to remove: O no; it is an ever-fixed mark, That looks on tempests, and is never shaken; It is the star to every wandering bark, Whose worth’s unknown, although his height be taken. Love’s not Time’s fool, though rosy lips and cheeks Within his bending sickle’s compass come; Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks, But bears it out even to the edge of doom. If this be error and upon me proved, I never writ, nor no man ever loved. Summary Sonnet 116 is about love in its most ideal form. The poet praises the glories of lovers who have come to each other freely, and enter into a relationship based on trust and understanding. The first four lines reveal the poet’s pleasure in love that is constant and strong, and will not “alter when it alteration finds.” The following lines proclaim that true love is indeed an “ever- fix'd mark” which will survive any crisis. In lines 7-8, the poet claims that we may be able to measure love to some degree, but this does not mean we fully understand it. Love’s actual worth cannot be known – it remains a mystery. The remaining lines of the third quatrain (9-12), reaffirm the perfect nature of love that is unshakeable throughout time and remains so “ev'n to the edge of doom”, or death. In the final couplet, the poet declares that, if he is mistaken about the constant, unmovable nature of perfect love, then he must take back all his writings on love, truth, and faith. Moreover, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

98 British Poetry Till 17th Century he adds that, if he has in fact judged love inappropriately, no man has ever really loved, in the ideal sense that the poet professes. Commentary Sonnet 116 is one of the most famous poems in the entire sequence. The definition of love that it provides is among the most often quoted and anthologized in the poetic canon. Essentially, this sonnet presents the extreme ideal of romantic love: it never changes, it never fades, it outlasts death and admits no flaw. What is more, it insists that this ideal is the only love that can be called “true”—if love is mortal, changing, or impermanent, the speaker writes, then no man ever loved. The basic division of this poem’s argument into the various parts of the sonnet form is extremely simple: the first quatrain says what love is not (changeable), the second quatrain says what it is (a fixed guiding star unshaken by tempests), the third quatrain says more specifically what it is not (“time’s fool” — that is, subject to change in the passage of time), and the couplet announces the speaker’s certainty. What gives this poem its rhetorical and emotional power is not its complexity; rather, it is the force of its linguistic and emotional conviction. The language of Sonnet 116 is not remarkable for its imagery or metaphoric range. In fact, its imagery, particularly in the third quatrain (time wielding a sickle that ravages beauty’s rosy lips and cheeks), is rather standard within the sonnets, and its major metaphor (love as a guiding star) is hardly startling in its originality. But the language is extraordinary in that it frames its discussion of the passion of love within a very restrained, very intensely disciplined rhetorical structure. With a masterful control of rhythm and variation of tone — the heavy balance of “Love’s not time’s fool” to open the third quatrain; the declamatory “O no” to begin the second — the speaker makes an almost legalistic argument for the eternal passion of love, and the result is that the passion seems stronger and more urgent for the restraint in the speaker’s tone. In Sonnet 116 the chief pause in sense is after the twelfth line. Seventy-five per cent of the words are monosyllables; only three contain more syllables than two; none belong in any degree to the vocabulary of ‘poetic’ diction. There is nothing recondite, exotic, or metaphysical in the thought. There are three run-on lines, one pair of double-endings. There is nothing to remark about the rhyming except the happy blending of open and closed vowels, and of liquids, nasals, and stops; nothing to say about the harmony except to point out how the fluttering accents in the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

William Shakespeare’s Sonnets 99 quatrains give place in the couplet to the emphatic march of the almost unrelieved iambic feet. In short, the poet has employed one hundred and ten of the simplest words in the language and the two simplest rhyme-schemes to produce a poem which has about it no strangeness whatever except the strangeness of perfection. 4.4 Sonnet 129 The expense of spirit in a waste of shame The expense of spirit in a waste of shame Is lust in action; and till action, lust Is perjured, murderous, bloody, full of blame, Savage, extreme, rude, cruel, not to trust, Enjoy'd no sooner but despised straight, Past reason hunted, and no sooner had Past reason hated, as a swallow'd bait On purpose laid to make the taker mad; Mad in pursuit and in possession so; Had, having, and in quest to have, extreme; A bliss in proof, and proved, a very woe; Before, a joy proposed; behind, a dream. All this the world well knows; yet none knows well To shun the heaven that leads men to this hell. Summary Sonnet 129 is all about lust and the physical bodies of both male and female. It’s about sex, bodily functions and the potency involved in the act of love making. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

100 British Poetry Till 17th Century This complex poem grapples with the idea of sexual desire as it exists in longing, fulfillment, and memory. (That is to say, it deals with lust as a longing for future pleasure; with lust as it is consummated in the present; and with lust as it is remembered after the pleasurable experience, when it becomes a source of shame.) At the beginning of the poem, the speaker says that “lust in action”— that is, as it exists at the consummation of the sexual act — is an “expense of spirit in a waste of shame.” He then devotes the rest of the first quatrain to characterizing lust as it exists “till action”— that is, before the consummation: it is “perjured, murderous, bloody, full of blame, Savage, extreme, rude, cruel, not to trust.” In the second quatrain, the speaker jumps between longing, fulfillment, and memory. No sooner is lust “enjoyed” than it is “despised.” When lust is longing, the fulfillment of that longing is hunted “past reason”; but as soon as it is achieved, it becomes shameful, and is hated “past reason.” In the third quatrain, then, the speaker says that lust is mad in all three of its forms: in pursuit and possession, it is mad, and in memory, consummation, and longing (“had, having, and in quest to have”) it is “extreme.” While it is experienced it might be “a bliss in proof,” but as soon as it is finished (“proved”) it becomes “a very woe.” In longing, it is “a joy proposed,” but in memory, the pleasure it afforded is merely “a dream.” In the couplet, the speaker says that the whole world knows these things well; but nevertheless, none knows how to shun lust in order to avoid shame: “To shun the heaven that leads men to this hell.” Commentary Sonnet 129 is a typical Shakespearean sonnet in form, written in iambic pentameter with twelve lines rhymed abab, cdcd, efef, and a closing couplet rhymed gg. Unlike the majority of William Shakespeare’s sonnets, however, it is not addressed to a particular individual but is directed to an audience, as a sermon is. Yet one of these poems, Sonnet 129, goes against the grain. It’s unusually desperate, full of male anguish and cuts to the core. It gives us an insight into Shakespeare’s deepest fears and feelings about lust, specifically the lust of the male for the female. But he doesn’t use the first person ‘I’ and there’s no mention of me, myself, thyself, thou or thy. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

William Shakespeare’s Sonnets 101 Strange, because in all the other sonnets the references are personal. Sonnet 129 reads like a torturous statement of someone hurt, wounded and wronged. It’s as if William Shakespeare the man is declaring his hatred of that old demon lust and at the same time condemning all women. The situation of the speaker of this poem is that of a person who has experienced each stage of lust, and who is therefore able to articulate the shame he now feels with reference to his past desire and its consummation. Though the lust of this poem is not explicitly sexual, it is described in highly carnal language — bloody, full of blame, savage, rude, swallowed bait. The most important device of this poem is its rapid oscillation between tenses and times; it jumps between the stages of lust almost uncontrollably, and in so doing creates a composite picture of its subject from all sides — each tinged by the shameful “hell” the speaker now occupies. Another important device, and a rare one in the sonnets, is the poem’s impersonal tone. The speaker never says outright that he is writing about his own experience; instead, he presents the poem as an impersonal description, a catalogue of the kinds of experience offered by lust. But the ferocity of his description belies his real, expressive purpose, which is to rue his own recent surrender to lustful desire. (The impersonal tone is exceedingly rare in the sonnets, and is invoked only when the speaker seeks most defensively to deflect his words away from himself — as in Sonnet 94, where his tone of impersonal description covers a deep-seated vulnerability.) 4.5 Sonnet 130 My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lips' red; If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun; If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head. I have seen roses damask'd, red and white, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

102 British Poetry Till 17th Century But no such roses see I in her cheeks; And in some perfumes is there more delight Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks. I love to hear her speak, yet well I know That music hath a far more pleasing sound; I grant I never saw a goddess go; My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground: And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare As any she belied with false compare. Note Dun (3): i.e., a dull brownish gray. Than the breath...reeks (8): i.e., than in the breath that comes out of (reeks from) my mistress. Rare (13): Special. She (14): Woman. Belied (14): Misrepresented. With false compare (14): i.e., by unbelievable, ridiculous comparisons. Summary Sonnet 130 is an unusual poem because it turns the idea of female beauty on its head and offers the reader an alternative view of what it’s like to love a woman, warts and all, despite her shortcomings. The poet says that his mistress’s eyes are not as bright as the sun “My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun;” and even a red coral stone is brighter and redder than her lips “Coral is far more red than her lips’ red;” and when snow is white colored, her breasts instead are brown “If CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

William Shakespeare’s Sonnets 103 snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;” and if hairs are like wires, then it appears as if black wires are growing on her head “If If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head;” He says he has seen roses both red and white “I have seen roses damasked, red and white,” but his mistress’ cheeks do not resemble the rosy hue of a rose “But no such roses see I in her cheeks;” and though some perfumes smell sweeter and stronger “And in some perfumes is there more delight” than the breath of his mistress which reeks “Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks.” He says that he loves hearing his mistress speak “I love to hear her speak, yet well I know” even though he knows that music is sweeter to listen to “That music hath a far more pleasing sound” and he has never seen a goddess move “I grant I never saw a goddess go;” and all he has seen is his mistress who walks on the ground “My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground.” He says his mistress and love is a rare one “And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare” and she is as special as those women who poets have always made false comparisons of beauty “As any she belied with false compare.” Commentary Sonnet 130 carries within it similar themes to those traditional sonnets – Female Beauty, The Anatomy and Love – but it approaches them in a thoroughly realistic way; there is no flowery, idealistic language. The poetic speaker opens Sonnet 130 with a scathing remark on his beloved’s eyes: they are ‘nothing like the sun’. As per Elizabethan tradition, such a comparison would have been almost expected, however the poetic speaker continues to deride his beloved’s appearance by slashing any attempt to match her to things found in nature. If snow is white, her skin is not – dun is another word for grey-brown; her hair is described as black wires, and she does not have a pleasant flush to her cheeks. He goes so far as to condemn the smell of her, and the sound of her voice. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

104 British Poetry Till 17th Century Sonnet 130 satirizes the tradition – stemming from Greek and Roman literature – of praising the beauty of one’s affection by comparing it to beautiful things, typically in a hyperbolic manner. For example, it was not uncommon to read love poems that compared a woman to a river, or the sun. Therefore, the imagery used throughout the poem would have been recognizable to contemporary readers of the Sonnet because it was playing with an established tradition that contemporary poets would have made use of quite frequently, so far as to lead it to become cliché. Sonnet 130 is the poet’s pragmatic tribute to his uncomely mistress, commonly referred to as the dark lady because of her dun complexion. The dark lady, who ultimately betrays the poet, appears in sonnets 127 to 154. Sonnet 130 is clearly a parody of the conventional love sonnet, made popular by Petrarch and, in particular, made popular in England by Sidney’s use of the Petrarchan form in his epic poem Astrophel and Stella. Shakespeare utilizes a new structure, through which the straightforward theme of his lover’s simplicity can be developed in the three quatrains and neatly concluded in the final couplet. Sonnet 130 stands alone as a unique and startlingly honest love poem, an antithesis to the sweet conventions of Petrarchan ideals which were prominent at the time. It is written in iambic pentameter, with a rhyming couplet at the end. 4.6 Sonnet 138 When my love swears that she is made of truth WHEN my love swears that she is made of truth, I do believe her, though I know she lies, That she might think me some untutor'd youth, Unskilful in the world's false forgeries. Thus vainly thinking that she thinks me young, Although I know my years be past the best, I smiling credit her false-speaking tongue, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

William Shakespeare’s Sonnets 105 Outfacing faults in love with love's ill rest. But wherefore says my love that she is young? And wherefore say not I that I am old? O, love's best habit is a soothing tongue, And age, in love, loves not to have years told. Therefore I'll lie with love, and love with me, Since that our faults in love thus smother'd be. Lies (2): meaning both “tells lies” and “lies (has sex) with other men.” That (3): So that. Vainly (5): wrongly. Simply (7): i.e., Like a simpleton. Credit (7): believe. Wherefore (9): why. Unjust (9): dishonest (about her fidelity). Habit (11): guise. Age in love (12): older lovers. Therefore I lie...me (13): Notice again the double meaning of lie. The line can also be interpreted as “That is why I sleep with her and she with me.” Summary The poet says when his mistress is truthful to him and swears on it “When my love swears that she is made of truth” he believes her even though he knows she may be lying “I do believe her, though I know she lies,” he does this so that she will think him to be some uneducated young CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

106 British Poetry Till 17th Century man “That she might think me some untutored youth” who knows nothing about the tricks of the world “Unlearned in the world’s false subtleties.” He feels himself vain in thinking that his mistress regards him as a young man “Thus vainly thinking that she thinks me young,” even though she knows that he is past his prime “Although she knows my days are past the best,” he gives her credit for her lies “Simply I credit her false speaking tongue;” and in this way both he and his mistress suppresses the truth “On both sides thus is simple truth suppressed.” He asks why she doesn’t admit she is a liar “But wherefore says she not she is unjust?” and why doesn’t she admit that he is old “And why doesn’t he too say that he is old?” because it is easy to love seemingly trustworthy people “O love’s best habit is in seeming trust,” and people who are old hate their ages discussed “And age in love loves not t’ have years told.” In line 9, the word “unjust” is taken by Atkins to mean either “dishonest” or “unfaithful”; the editor leans toward the second option because it is in keeping with the rest of his interpretation, but it is clear that the word refers to some “falseness in matters of the heart”. In line 12, the term “lie with” also furthers Atkins’s argument for an elaborate pun, declaring that the speaker lies with the mistress rather than to her. This is why he sleeps with her and she with him “Therefore I lie with her, and she with me,” and in their own faults and lies, they flatter themselves “And in our faults by lies we flattered be.” The ending couplet provides, according to Moore, an interesting twist when “deception and love making become one: to lie is to lie with” However, Vendler has a slightly different take on the poem as a whole in response to the final volta. She notes that the pronouns “I” and “she” share a mutual verb, becoming “we” with “our” shared faults. The end of the poem shows the final progression of the lovers’ relationship, beginning with anger, then suppressed anger, followed by game playing, then the realization of the absurdity of truthfulness, finally ending with the admission of flattery when each lover suppresses frank speech in order to lie to and with each other. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

William Shakespeare’s Sonnets 107 Commentary Sonnet 138 is one of the most famous of William Shakespeare’s sonnet. Making use of frequent puns (“lie” and “lie” being the most obvious), it shows an understanding of the nature of truth and flattery in romantic relationships. The poem has also been argued to be biographical: many scholars have suggested Shakespeare used the poem to discuss his frustrating relationship with the Dark Lady, a frequent subject of many of the sonnets. (To note, the Dark Lady was definitely not Shakespeare’s wife, Anne Hathaway.) The poem emphasizes the effects of age and the associated deterioration of beauty, and its effect on a sexual or romantic relationship. Sonnet 138 begins with the speaker discussing how his love speaks word of truth, but the next line states \"I do believe her, though I know she lies.” This sets the tone for the rest of the sonnet because he knows that his lover is lying. He chooses to deny it and accept her lie. The line \"That she might think me some untutored youth\" points to the speaker’s self-conscious about his age. He stresses his awareness that his best days are behind him; a truth that his lover knows but ignores. He understands that both are lying to each other for the sake of their relationship to live. When the speaker states, \"Simply I credit her false-speaking tongue\" he is accepting her lies. The speaker and his lover are hiding their transgression by not bringing to light the issue that they are insecure about, i.e., \"Therefore I lie with her and she with me, and in our faults by lies we flattered be.” At the end of the sonnet, the speaker and his lover accept their flaws. The Sonnets as a whole show us that time is the poet’s great nemesis and, although the dominant theme in Sonnet 138 is the comfort that lies bring to an insecure mind, a discourse on the ravages of time is once again present. A variation of Sonnet 138 was originally included in The Passionate Pilgrim (1599), along with sonnet 144. There are minor differences between the two poems and for those who wish to do a comparison of the two I reprint it here: Short Questions and Answers Based on Sonnet 138 1. What is the main idea of Sonnet 138? Ans. The theme in Sonnet 138 is that love is not an age and love consists of lies. Age does not matter if two people are in love with each other. Therefore, age should never separate a couple from happiness. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

108 British Poetry Till 17th Century 2. Is the speaker in this poem young or old? Explain how you know, using evidence from the poem. Ans. The speaker is old. He says of his love, “Thus vainly thinking that she thinks me young although she knows my days are past the best.” His love says that he is young, but he is saying that he knows that she has a “false speaking tongue,” even though he pretends he believes her. 3. In what way does the speaker’s love lie to him? Explain using evidence from the poem. Ans. She lies about his age. He says of her, “she thinks me young/although she knows my days are past the best.” So, she knows he is old, but she lies to him by saying that he is young. 4. Explain the meaning of the line “love’s best habit is in seeming trust.” Ans. When we love someone, we give them the benefit of the doubt, even when we know they are flattering us. So, because he loves her, and she him, they put on the appearance of believing the flattering lies of the other one. 4.7 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. What are the characteristics of Shakespearean sonnets? 2. Critics are divided over whether Shakespeare’s sonnets really do contain expressions of homoerotic desire. What do you think? 3. The color black is used frequently in the dark lady sonnets to characterize the woman’s dark identity. What other instances of color symbolism appear in the sonnets? Find at least three examples of color symbolism and explain them. 4. How does the poet’s love for the young man differ from his love for the Dark Lady? 5. In the sonnets, what views does Shakespeare express regarding the nature of true love and the miseries of misguided love? 6. What role does nature play in the sonnets? Is nature linked with one specific theme? If so, which theme, and how? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

William Shakespeare’s Sonnets 109 7. Discuss the theme of immortality as presented in the sonnets, citing specific lines as support for your views. 8. In Sonnet 116, what is the significance of the opening stanza? How does he describe true love? 9. Sonnet 130 is filled with negative images of his mistress. How does he describe her? What is the purpose of these negative images? 10. Describe the poetic devices in Sonnets 129, 130 and 138. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. A sonnet has lines __________. (a) 12 (b) 14 (c) 24 (d) 20 2. A Petrarchan sonnet has two parts, they are __________. (a) Octave and sestet (b) Octavius and perius (c) Petrachus and sion (d) Octopus and quadrains 3. A Shakespearean sonnet has two parts. The first part has __________ lines and the second part has __________ lines. (a) 10, 4 (b) 8, 6 (c) 12, 2 (d) 6, 8 4. The second part of a Shakespearean sonnet is called __________. (a) Hexagon (b) Triplet (c) Sestet (d) Couplet 5. Shakespeare wrote __________ sonnets. (a) 120 (b) 154 (c) 144 (d) 164 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

110 British Poetry Till 17th Century 6. Shakespeare is known mostly for his __________. (a) Dramas (b) Novels (c) Stories (d) Poetry 7. Who is called the “Bard of Avon”? (a) Edmund Spenser (b) William Shakespeare (c) Geoffrey Chaucer (d) John Milton 8. William Shakespeare is the writer of which century? (a) 14 (b) 15 (c) 16 (d) 17 9. Shakespeare was born on __________. (a) 1564 (b) 1600 (c) 1580 (d) 1570 10. Shakespeare has immortalized his love for his __________ in his sonnets. (a) Wife (b) Dark lady (c) Black beauty (d) White lady Answers 1. (b), 2. (a), 3. (c), 4. (d), 5. (b), 6. (a), 7. (b), 8. (c), 9. (a), 10. (b). 4.8 References 1. http://www.shakespeare-online.com/sonnets/138detail.html > 2. Blake Jason boulerice.Kissel, Adam ed. “Shakespear’s Sonnets 3. ://www.shakespeare-online.com/sonnets/sonnetintroduction.html > 4. Shakespeare, William. Shakespeare’s Sonnets.Ed. Tucker Brooke. London: Oxford UP: 1936. Smith, Hallett. The Tension of the Lyre. San Marino: Huntington Library, 1981. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

William Shakespeare’s Sonnets 111 5. Shakespeare, William. Sonnet 116.Ed. Amanda Mabillard. Shakespeare Online. 8 Dec. 2012. < http://www.shakespeare-online.com/sonnets/116detail.html > 6. Shakespeare, William. Sonnets.Ed. Thomas Tyler. London: D. Nutt, 1890. Shakespeare Online. 20 Aug. 2013. < http://www.shakespeare-online.com/sonnets/110.html >. 7. Reading Shakespeare’s Sonnets by Don Paterson. 8. Love Poems and Sonnets of William Shakespeare. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Unit 3 CHAPTER 5 LITERARY TERMS Structure: 5.0 Learning Objectives 5.1 Literary Terms 1. Elegy 2. Blank Verse 3. Assonance 4. Epic 5. Ode 6. Heroic Couplet 7. Ballad 8. Sonnet 9. Pastoral 10. Conceit 11. Lyric 5.2 Figure of Speech 1. Iambic Pentameter 2. Metonymy 3. Simile 4. Metaphor

Literary Terms 113 5. Synecdoche 6. Personification 7. Rhyme 8. Oxymoron 9. Hyperbole 10. Irony 11. Onomatopoeia 5.3 References 5.0 Learning Objectives After reading this lesson, students will be able to:  Define and describe differing literary devices  Explain why and how literary devices are used in text  Identify literary devices in text samples  Identify different figures of speech with examples 5.1 Literary Terms 1. ELEGY Original Scope In ancient Greece, where it originated, the term Elegy covered war songs, love poems, political verses, lamentations for the dead, in fact a wide range of subjects, both grave and gay. The Greeks judged this composition by its form not by its subject matter. It was written in the elegiac measure, a couplet composed of a dactylic hexameter followed by a dactylic pentameter. Any poem written in this meter ranked as an elegy, whatever its theme might be. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

114 British Poetry Till 17th Century Modern Connotation An elegy nowadays takes its name from its subject matter, not from its form. While no rules are laid down for the metre, the theme of an elegy must be mournful or sadly reflective. It is usually a lamentation for the dead, though it may be inspired by other somber themes, such as unrequited love, the fall of a famous city, and the like. It is written as a tribute to something loved and lost. Thus, in writing an elegy, an English poet is not limited to any one form, but may choose whatever seems to him most fitting. Though some of the most touching poems of personal loss have been written in very simple language, the formal elegy usually aims at an effect of dignity and solemnity without a sense of strain or artificiality. This was magnificently achieved by Thomas Gray in his Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard and the form he adopted quatrains in iambic pentameter (lines of ten syllables, alternately short and long) was ideal for his purpose. We read it, however as it was intended to be read, as a conscious work of art, not a spontaneous expression of sorrow. In English literature, an elegy is a poem of serious reflection, usually a lament for the dead. Other Features The elegy lends itself more readily than other forms of poetry to discursive reflections on the part of the poet. Death is so vast and evocative a subject that it leads the poet to regions of thought he might not normally explore. Sometime death is the inspiration and sole theme. Milton laments the degradation of poetry and religion in Lycidas, an elegy on the death of a learned friend, Edward king, whom he sincerely mourned. Though grief is the dominant emotion in the early part of the elegy, the note often changes towards the close t one of resignation or even joy as the poet reconciles himself to the inevitable, or expresses his faith in immortality and future reunion. Thus, Lycidas closes on a note of optimism; Weep no more, woeful shepherds, weep no more, For Lycidas, your sorrow, is not dead Sunk though he be beneath the watery floor. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 115 In Shelley’s Adonais, an elegy on the death of Keats, the transition from mourning to consolation and then to triumph occurs long before the close: Nor let us weep that our delight is fled Far from these carrion kites that scream below -------- The Personal Elegy During the renaissance a new kind of elegy was introduced into English poetry. It followed a convention by which the poet represented himself as a shepherd bewailing the loss of a companion. The manner of speech and the setting were borrowed from rustic life, and whatever the poet had to say or describe was phrased accordingly. This convention lasted down to modern times. Milton’s Lycidas, and Mathew Arnold’s Thyresis, in memory of his friend the poet A. H. Clough, are both pastoral elegies, employing pastoral images and sentiments. This is how Milton recalls his past association with Edward King in Lycidas: For we were nursed upon the self same hill, Fed the same flock, by fountain, shade and rill. Elegy is a form of poetry natural to the reflective mind. It may treat of any subject, but it must treat of no subject for itself; but always and exclusively with reference to the poet. As he will feel regret for the past or desire for the future, so sorrow and love became the principal themes of the elegy. Elegy presents everything as lost and gone or absent and future. 2. BLANK VERSE Definition of Blank Verse Blank verse is a literary device defined as unrhyming verse written in iambic pentameter. In poetry and prose, it has a consistent meter with 10 syllables in each line (pentameter); where, unstressed syllables are followed by stressed ones, five of which are stressed but do not rhyme. It is also known as unrhymed iambic pentameter. It has been described as “probably the most common and influential form that English Poetry has taken since the 16th century”, and Paul Fussell has estimated that “about three quarters of all English poetry is in blank verse”. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

116 British Poetry Till 17th Century History of English Blank Verse The first documented use of blank verse in the English language was by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey in his translation of the Aeneid (composed c. 1540; published posthumously, 1554– 1557). He may have been inspired by the Latin original as classical Latin verse did not use rhyme; or possibly he was inspired by Ancient Greek verse or the Italian verse form of versi sciolti, both of which also did not use rhyme. The 1561 play Gorboduc by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville was the first English play to use blank verse. Christopher Marlowe was the first English author to achieve critical notoriety for his use of blank verse. The major achievements in English blank verse were made by William Shakespeare, who wrote much of the content of his plays in unrhymed iambic pentameter, and Jhon Milton, whose Paradise Lost is written in blank verse. Marlowe and then Shakespeare developed its potential greatly in the late 16th century. Marlowe was the first to exploit the potential of blank verse for powerful and involved speech: You stars that reign'd at my nativity, Whose influence hath allotted death and hell, Now draw up Faustus like a foggy mist Into the entrails of yon labouring clouds, That when they vomit forth into the air, My limbs may issue from their smoky mouths, So that my soul may but ascend to Heaven. Shakespeare developed this feature, and also the potential of blank verse for abrupt and irregular speech. For example, in this exchange from King John, one blank verse line is broken between two characters: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 117 My lord? A grave. He shall not live. Enough Features of Blank Verse  Blank verse poetry has no fixed number of lines.  It has a conventional meter that is used for verse drama and long narrative poems.  It is often used in descriptive and reflective poems and dramatic monologues.  Blank verse can be composed in any kind of meter, such as iamb, trochee, spondee, and dactyl. Function of Blank Verse Originating from Latin and Greek sources, blank verse is widely employed as a vehicle in English dramatic poetry and prose, to create specific grandeur. Blank verse has similarity to normal speech but it is written in a variety of patterns, which bring interruptions such as pauses. Therefore, the intention is to produce a formal rhythmical pattern that creates musical effect. Hence, it tends to capture the attention of the readers and the listeners, which is its primary objective. 3. ASSONANCE Definition of Assonance Assonance is the repetition of a vowel sound or diphthong in non-rhyming words. To qualify as assonance, the words must be close enough for the repetition of the sound to be noticeable. Assonance is a common literary technique used in poetry and prose and is widely found in English verse. Many examples of assonance can be found in prose and poetry. Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words. It is used to reinforce the meanings of words or to set the mood. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

118 British Poetry Till 17th Century Significance of Assonance in English While many may think that rhyme is one of the fundamental aspects of poetry, it was not at all common in Old English verse. The lexicon of old English did not include many rhyming words. Instead, the chief poetic techniques of old English storytellers were rhythm and meter, and consonance and assonance. Rhyme only became popular in English poetry later, after the Germanic language took on many new words from romance languages. this is because romance languages like French, Italian , and Spanish have many more words with similar endings . indeed rhyme was quite popular in the troubadour tradition, which began in France in the late 11th century and spread to Spain and Italy. Rhyme remained common in English verse for several hundred years. Difference between Assonance, Consonance and Alliteration and Slant Rhyme The techniques of assonance, alliteration, consonance, sibilance, and slant rhyme are all closely related and include the repetition of certain sounds in quick succession. Assonance is the figurative term used to refer to the repetition of a vowel sound in a line of text or poetry. The words have to be close enough together for the repetition to be noticeable. Tongue twisters often use a combination of alliteration (repetition of same beginning consonant sound) and two different forms of assonance – or the repetition of two different vowel sounds. This is what makes them so difficult to say. Assonance is used for some of the same reasons as alliteration. It can affect the rhythm, tone, and mood of a text. The repetition of certain vowel sounds – think short vowels sounds from the letters u or o – can create a melancholy mood. The word Assonance starts with a vowel and the Consonance starts with a consonant. While Slant includes the repetition of sounds that are similar but not quite rhyming. Examples of Assonance 1. The light of the fire is a sight. (repetition of the long i sound). 2. Go slow over the road. (repetition of the long o sound). 3. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers (repetition of the short e and long i sounds). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 119 4. Sally sells sea shells beside the sea shore (repetition of the short e and long e sounds). 5. Try as I might, the kite did not fly. (repetition of the long i sound). Examples of Assonance in Literature 1. Edgar Allan Poe’s “Annabelle Lee”: “And so all the night-tide, I lie down by the side of my darling – my darling – my life and my bride” (repetition of the long i sound) 2. William Blake’s “Tyger”: “Tyger, Tyger burning bright in the forest of the night” (repetition of the long i sound) 3. From William Wordsworth’s “Daffodils”: “A host of golden daffodils” (repetition of the long o sound) 4. From the movie My Fair Lady: “The rain in Spain stays mainly on the plain.” (repetition of the long a sound) Question Why were assonance, consonance, and alliteration an important part of Old English poetry? Ans: There were not many rhyming words in old English and thus the poets used the techniques of assonance, consonance, and alliteration to provide phonemic unity and rhythm. Poets in old English did not like rhyming words and actively avoided them until forced to include them later on. Rhyming words were more important that assonance, consonance, and alliteration, but old English poets could not think of enough of them. Old English was a Romance language, and thus there were not many words that ended in the same way, making it difficult to find rhymes to use. 4. EPIC Definition of Epic The word Epic is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective, “epikos”, which means a poetic story. In literature, an epic is a long narrative poem, which is usually related to heroic deeds of a person of an unusual courage and unparalleled bravery. In order to depict this bravery and courage, the epic uses grandiose style. An epic is a genre of poetry which is traditionally known as epic poetry. An Epic is a long, narrative poem that usually talks about the heroic CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

120 British Poetry Till 17th Century accomplishments and events that are symbolic to the culture of the poet. Various ancient wrote Epic poetry to tell tales of profound adventures and heroic deeds. In modern terminology an Epic Epic is often referred to other forms of art, such as Epic theatre, films, music, novels, plays, television shows, and video games, where the theme of the story is that of grandeur and heroism, similar to an Epic poetry. Most western Epic (including Virgil’s Aeneid and Dante’s divine comedy) bashfully presents itself as a extension of the tradition started by these poems. Classical Epic recount a journey, either physical as written by Odysseus in the odyssey or mental as written by Achilles in the Iliad or both. Epics highlight cultural benchmarks and to define or call into question cultural values. Next type of Epic poetry is epyllion. It is a crisp narrative poem with romantic or mythological themes. The term, meaning “little epic”, was used in the nineteenth century. It refers primarily to the erudite poems of the Hellenistic period. Similar works were composed in Rome during the age of the neoterics; to a lesser degree, the term includes some poems of the English renaissance, particularly those influenced by Ovid. The most well known example of classical Epyllion is may be Catullus 64. Some of the main characteristics of Epic are 1. Mainly begins in the Medias res. 2. Covers many nations, the world or the universe. 3. Starts with calling to amuse (epic invocation). 4. Starts with a statement about the theme. 5. Uses of epithets. 6. Contains long lists also known as an epic catalogue. 7. Contains long and formal speeches. 8. Shows divine intervention on human affairs. 9. Features heroes that embark lives according to the values of the civilization. 10. Often features the tragic hero’s descent into the underworld or hell. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 121 The most prominent examples of Epic poetry are 1. Ancient Greek Iliad and Odyssey, 2. Virgil’s Aeneid, 3. The ancient Indian Ramayana and Mahabharata, 4. Dante’s Divine Comedy, 5. The Portuguese Lusiads and John Milton’s Paradise Lost. Types of Epics  Folk epic: Oral compositions passed on from one storyteller to another storyteller and changes over time.  Literary epic: Written compositions that remain unchanged over generations of time Function of Epic As the Epic poem is the earliest form of poetry, it is the earliest form of entertainment as well Epic were written to commemorate the struggles and adventures of kings and warriors. The main function of Epic poetry was to elevate the status of the hero among the audiences to inspire them to be ready to perform heroic actions. Epic obtained most of its themes from the exploits performed by legendary characters and their illustrious ancestors, that is why these exploits became examples for others to follow, and still lived in books, it is through Epic , models of ideal heroic behavior were supplied to the common people. Moreover, epics also were collections of historical events not recorded in common history books- the reason that they are read today to be enjoyed and be informed regarding the past. Epic of Growth and Epic of Art An Epic is either a result of natural growth in popular song and story or of conscious literary effort on the part of the artist. The former is variously called the folk Epic, Epic of growth, or authentic Epic; the latter, the literary Epic or Epic of art. The authors of some folk Epic remain unknown to this day, as in the case of the English Beowulf, the Germanic Nibelungenlied, and the French song of Roland. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

122 British Poetry Till 17th Century A literary Epic on the other hand, is a work of art deliberately planned in the Epic manner in imitation of its original prototype. In modern times, however, the heroic style has gone out of favour,l and the Epic, like the poetic drama, has almost ceased to exist. Thomas Hardy’s great Epic drama of the Napoleonic wars, the dynasts, is indeed designed on the grand scale, but the author’s attitude and treatment are very different from that of his predecessors. Mock Epic Italy and France set the fashion for a parody of the Epic form, which later found imitators in England. In this a theme obviously unworthy of the serious Epic and incident quite trifling in itself is clothed in all the traditional paraphernalia and solemn dignity of the epic form. There was a classical precedent in the battle of the frogs and mice, a Greek parody of the Iliad. The finest example in English verse is pope’s Rape of the Lock, which celebrates an absurdly trivial theme the theft of a lock of hair from a girl’s head in the epic manner. 5. ODE Like its parent form, the lyric, the ode is of Greek origin. It is a serious and dignified composition, almost always in rhyme and longer than the lyric proper. It is often in the form of an address, and is sometimes used to commemorate an important public occasion. Each of these characteristics may be analyzed separately as follows: (a) It is exalted in subject matter, and elevated in tone and style. Neither the theme nor its treatment can be trivial or undignified. The poet is serious both in the choice of his subject and the manner of its presentation. (b) It is longer than the lyric proper, for the emotion it embodies is of a kind that admits of development. It does not, like the lyric, aim at giving the effect of “unpremeditated art.” (c) Unlike other forms of verse it is often addressed directly to the being or object it treats of. The opening lines sometimes contain an apostrophe or appeal, which is characteristic of the whole treatment of the poem. Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind begins “O wild West Wind”; Keats Ode on a Grecian Urn, “Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” (d) Sometimes it has for its theme an important public event like a national jubilee, the death of a distinguished personage, the commemoration of the founding of a great university. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 123 Marvell’s Upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland and Tennyson’s Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington is instances in point. Ode is derived from a Greek word aeidein, which means to chant or sing. Ode is a lyric poem, typically one in the form of an address to a particular subject, written in varied or irregular metre. An ode is a kind of poem, usually praising something. ... An ode is a form of lyric poetry — expressing emotion — and it’s usually addressed to someone or something, or it represents the poet’s musings on that person or thing, as Keats’ ode tells us what he thought as he looked at the Grecian urn. An ode is a form of poetry such as sonnet or elegy. Ode is a literary technique that is lyrical in nature, but not very lengthy. There are three typical forms of odes: the Pindaric, Horatian, and Irregular. A Pindaric Ode is a poem with set meter and rhyme just like all other odes. It is defined by three triads: the strophe and the antistrophe being of the same stanza form and an epode as the final which is different. This form of Ode was named after the writer Pindar. A classic Ode is structured in three major parts: the strophe, the antistrophe, and the epode. Different forms such as the homostrophic ode and the irregular ode also exist. Greek odes were originally poetic pieces performed with musical accompaniment. An ode is a form of poetry such as sonnet or elegy. Ode is a literary technique that is lyrical in nature, but not very lengthy. You have often read odes in which poets praise people, natural scenes, and abstract ideas. An Irregular Ode is a poem with meter and rhyme just like all other odes but has no set pattern. Each line rhymes somewhere throughout. An ode is a kind of poem, usually praising something. Except for a few attempts in the Pindaric or the Horatian form, the English Ode has pursued a course of its own as regards subject matter and style, treatment and outlook, not strictly bound by classical traditions. It is either Regular, consisting of a series of exactly similar stanzas, like the Odes of Shelley and Keats or Irregular, when each stanza follows a different arrangement, as in Wordsworth’s Immortality Ode and several of the Odes of Tennyson and Bridges. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

124 British Poetry Till 17th Century 6. HEROIC COUPLET Introduction Heroic couplet was first used in England by Chaucer, who probably derived it from older French verse. Many of his Canterbury tales are related in heroic couplets. He was followed by Spenser, who employed it for his Mother Hubbard’s tale, a satirical narrative in verse. The Elizabethan used it with equal skill in their poetry and drama, some like Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, employing it occasionally for the sake of variety or to round off a passage and other, like Marlowe in his hero and Leander, adopting it for story telling in verse. Definition A couplet is a pair of successive lines of metre in poetry. A couplet usually consists of two successive lines that rhyme and have the same metre. ... In a formal (or closed) couplet, each of the two lines is end-stopped, implying that there is a grammatical pause at the end of a line of verse. Heroic couplets are paired, rhyming lines of poetry (usually iambic pentameter) found in epic or long narrative English poetry and translations. As you’ll see, there are a variety of qualities that distinguish heroic couplets from regular couplets. A heroic couplet is a rhyming couplet, or pair of lines with end rhymes in iambic pentameter, meaning there are five iambic ‘feet’ on each line. The heroic couplet traditionally appears in long, narrative poems called epics, but it can also be used in mock epics that parody the ‘heroic’ tone of epic poetry. Example The heroic couplet consists of two iambic pentameters (line of ten syllables) rhyming together. The following is an example: We think/our fa/ther fools,/so wise/we grow, Our wi/ser sons,/no doubt,/will think/us so A couplet is a literary device that can be defined as having two successive rhyming lines in a verse, and has the same meter to form a complete thought. It is marked by a usual rhythm, rhyme scheme, and incorporation of specific utterances. A closed couplet is two lines of verse that usually rhyme (but not always) and that express a complete thought. A heroic couplet is much the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 125 same, but is always rhymed and is always in iambic pentameter. So, in a sense, a heroic couplet is a subset of closed couplets Characteristics of Heroic Couplets 1. There is a pause at the end of the first line, indicated by a comma, signifying partial completion of the sense. 2. There is a pause at the end of the couplet, indicated by a full stop, signifying full completion of the sense. 3. The couplet is closed, not requiring the aid of either a predecessor or a successor to complete its meaning. 4. The rhyme is single, the rhyming parts of each line, grow and so, being single syllables. 5. The number of syllables is ten, the odd ones unaccented or short, the even accented or long. 6. Group lines in pairs. Grouping lines in pairs is referred to as a couplet. 7. Make the paired lines rhyme with end rhymes. This is also referred to as a rhyming couplet. 8. Use iambs. 9. Place five iambs in each line. 10. Close your lines. 7. BALLAD Introduction Like the epic, the ballad arises out of folk literature. It is one of the oldest forms in English, older than Chaucer, and is one of the few that are of native growth. Originally it was sung from village to village, to the accompaniment of a harp or a fiddle, by a strolling singer or bands of singers, who earned a living in this way. The minstrel usually sang in the chimney corner of the farm house or on the village green where a knot of eager listeners would assemble to be entertained. In Scott’s lay of the last minstrel, we see him welcomed to the castle hall. In its earliest stages the song must have been accompanied by a crude tribal dance, as its very name CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

126 British Poetry Till 17th Century seems to imply for ballad, etymologically, means a dancing song. In the days before printing was invented it was handed down by oral tradition, each successive generation or locality making its own alterations to suit contemporary or local condition. Most of the ancient English ballads were collected in bishop Percy’s Relinquish of ancient English poetry, published in 1765. Definition The ballad is a poem that is typically arranged in quatrains with the rhyme scheme ABAB. Ballads are usually narrative, which means they tell a story. Ballads began as folk songs and continue to be used today in modern music. A ballad is a song that tells a story, and it can be dramatic, funny, or romantic. You can find ballads in a variety of musical styles, from country- western to rock ‘n’ roll. The ballad is an old musical form. Ballads are often by anonymous composers, passed down from generation to generation. Distinguish Features Ballads do not have the same formal consistency as some other poetic forms, but one can look for certain characteristics that identify a ballad, including these: 1. Simple language. 2. Stories. 3. Ballad stanzas. 4. Repetition. 5. Dialogue. 6. Third-person objective narration. Kinds of Ballad Ballads are primarily of two kinds, the ballad of growth (also called the authentic ballad), of unknown authorship. Which has been in existence for ages , and the ballad of art or literary ballad, which may be described, in the words of W. H. Hudson, “as a literary development of the traditional form” the one is genuine, having grown up naturally among a primitive race, and the other imitative, being a conscious attempt at the ballad manner. Some of the best known among the authentic ballads are Cherry Chase, the Wife of Usher’s well, and sir Patrick Spens. A minor CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 127 form of the ballad of art, as in the case of the epic, is the mock ballad, in which a comic theme is treated with the seriousness appropriate top a ballad. In everything but its humorous subject, it follows its model closely. Example of Ballad The horse|fair Ann|et rode|upon| He amb|led like|the wind|, With sil|ver he|was shod|before, With burn|ing gold|behind/. Questions 1. What do you mean by ballad? Write the history of ballad. 2. Write the kinds of ballad. 8. SONNET A sonnet is a one-stanza, 14-line poem, written in iambic pentameter. The sonnet, which derived from the Italian word sonetto, meaning “a little sound or song,” is a popular classical form that has compelled poets for centuries. The most common — and simplest — type is known as the English or Shakespearean sonnet, but there are several other types. Characteristics of Sonnet Before William Shakespeare’s day, the word sonnet could be applied to any short lyric poem. In Renaissance Italy and then in Elizabethan England, the sonnet became a fixed poetic form, consisting of 14 lines, usually iambic pentameter in English. Different types of sonnets evolved in the different languages of the poets writing them, with variations in rhyme scheme and metrical pattern. But all sonnets have a two-part thematic structure, containing a problem and solution, question and answer, or proposition and reinterpretation within their 14 lines and a volta, or turn, between the two parts. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

128 British Poetry Till 17th Century Sonnets share these characteristics 1. Fourteen lines: All sonnets have 14 lines, which can be broken down into four sections called quatrains. 2. A strict rhyme scheme: The rhyme scheme of a Shakespearean sonnet, for example, is ABAB/CDCD/EFEF/GG (note the four distinct sections in the rhyme scheme). 3. Written in iambic pentameter: Sonnets are written in iambic pentameter, a poetic meter with 10 beats per line made up of alternating unstressed and stressed syllables. A sonnet can be broken into four sections called quatrains. The first three quatrains contain four lines each and use an alternating rhyme scheme. The final quatrain consists of just two lines, which both rhyme. Each quatrain should progress the poem as follows: 1. First quatrain: This should establish the subject of the sonnet. Number of lines: four; rhyme scheme: ABAB 2. Second quatrain: This should develop the sonnet’s theme. Number of lines: four; rhyme scheme: CDCD 3. Third quatrain: This should round off the sonnet’s theme. Number of lines: four; rhyme scheme: EFEF 4. Fourth quatrain: This should act as a conclusion to the sonnet. Number of lines: two; rhyme scheme: GG Sonnet Form The original form of the sonnet was the Italian or Petrarchan sonnet, in which 14 lines are arranged in an octet (eight lines) rhyming ABBA ABBA and a sestet (six lines) rhyming either CDECDE or CDCDCD. The English or Shakespearean sonnet came later, and, as noted, is made of three quatrains rhyming ABAB CDCD EFEF and a closing rhymed heroic couplet, GG. The Spenserian sonnet is a variation developed by Edmund Spenser in which the quatrains are linked by their rhyme scheme: ABAB BCBC CDCD EE. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 129 Since its introduction into English in the 16th century, the 14-line sonnet form has remained relatively stable, proving itself a flexible container for all kinds of poetry, long enough that its images and symbols can carry detail rather than becoming cryptic or abstract, and short enough to require a distillation of poetic thought. For more extended poetic treatment of a single theme, some poets have written sonnet cycles, a series of sonnets on related issues often addressed to a single person. Another form is the sonnet crown, a sonnet series linked by repeating the last line of one sonnet in the first line of the next until the circle is closed by using the first line of the first sonnet as the last line of the last sonnet. Questions 1. Define the word sonnet and its use in literature. 2. Write the characteristics of sonnet. 9. PASTORAL Pastoral literature, class of literature that presents the society of shepherds as free from the complexity and corruption of city life. Many of the idylls written in its name are far remote from the realities of any life, rustic or urban. The tension between an idealized view of nature and a more realistic one is a major theme in English literature. In fact, this theme gave rise to its own branch of literature. Pastoral literature is, to put it simply, literature that deals with people living off the land, dealing with all of the challenges and blessing of nature. In many cases, pastoral literature tends to show a more optimistic view of this lifestyle, as works in this branch of literature are often intended for urban audiences. To get a better sense of how pastoral literature works, let’s examine a few examples from its rich history. Pastoral literature, class of literature that presents the society of shepherds as free from the complexity and corruption of city life. Many of the idylls written in its name are far remote from the realities of any life, rustic or urban. Among the writers who have used the pastoral convention with striking success and vitality are the classical poets Theocritus and Virgil and the English poets Edmund Spenser, Robert Herric, John Milton, P.B. Shelley, and Mathew Arnold. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

130 British Poetry Till 17th Century In English poetry there had been some examples of pastoral literature in the earlier 16th century, but the appearance in 1579 of Edmund Spenser’s Shepheardes Calender, which imitated not only classical models but also the Renaissance poets of France and Italy, brought about a vogue for the pastoral. The climax of this phase of the pastoral tradition was reached in the unique blend of freshness and learned imitation achieved by the poetry of Herrick and of Andrew Marvell. Later 17th century work, apart from that of Milton, was more pedantic. The 18th century revival of the pastoral mode is chiefly remarkable for its place in a larger quarrel between those Neoclassical critics who preferred “ancient” poetry and those others who supported the “modern.” This dispute raged in France, where the “ancient” sympathy was represented in the pastoral convention by Rene Rapin, whose shepherds were figures of uncomplicated virtue in a simple scene. The “modern” pastoral, deriving from Bernard de Fontenelle, dwelled on the innocence of the contemporary rustic (though not on his miseries). In England the controversy was reflected in a quarrel between Alesander Pope and Ambrose Philip, though the liveliest pastorals of the period were by John Gay, whose mode was burlesque (and whose Beggar’s Opera is ironically subtitled “A Newgate Pastoral” — Newgate being one of London’s prisons). Characteristics of Pastoral  Pastoral poetry is a very ancient genre of poetry.  It deals with the loves and lives of shepherds and shepherdesses, and other such country folk.  The countryside is idealized, since writers of the genre are usually city people. pastoral theme  A pastoral lifestyle (see pastoralism) is that of shepherds herding livestock around open areas of land according to seasons and the changing availability of water and pasture. It lends its name to a genre of literature, art, and music that depicts such life in an idealized manner, typically for urban audiences. Questions 1. What is Pastoral? How pastoral reflect in literature? 2. Describe the characteristics of Pastoral. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 131 5. CONCEIT The word conceit was originally coined in the context of poetry, deriving from the root concept, conceive. It has subsequently been extended to other forms of literature, the performing arts, painting, photography, and even architecture. Much like a builder with a hammer, writers use different tools to set the tone or mood of a piece. A conceit is one such device. Popular in Renaissance literature, a conceit is a cross between a metaphor or a simile. Like a metaphor, a conceit makes a comparison, but the objects are very dissimilar. This ingenious wordplay could make you think about something in a new way. In modern literary criticism, more common with genre fiction. Conceit often means an extended rhetorical device, summed up in a short phrase that refers to a situation which either does not exist, or exists rarely, but is needed for the plot. Definition A conceit is a kind of metaphor that compares two very unlike things in a surprising and clever way. Often, conceits are extended metaphors that dominate an entire passage or poem. Metaphysical poet John Donne was known for his conceits (often called metaphysical conceits). Example of Conceit in Donne’s “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,” The conceit of this poem by John Donne is that two lovers are described as the two points of a compass. This is another example of a metaphysical conceit. If they be two, they are two so. Another example such as “Faster than light travel” and “superior alien science” are from science fiction. Conceits usually demand your attention because the comparison seems so farfetched. For example, “A broken heart is like a damaged clock.” Historically, conceits are unique because they weren’t just one line or phrase but rather a whole poem or section of a work. These literary devices come in two types: a Petrarchan and metaphysical conceit. Petrarchan Conceits A Petrarchan conceit is typically found in poems about lamented love, common in Renaissance writing. In these works of art, the writer uses an unlikely connection between a natural element and a lover. For example, “Roses danced in the apples of her cheeks” or, “Her CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

132 British Poetry Till 17th Century eyes shined brighter than the moon.” Petrarchan conceits show you the beauty and grace of their love through magnanimous comparisons. Metaphysical Conceits While Petrarch an conceits are pretty straightforward, metaphysical conceits are harder to identify. These conceits use complex logic to make an unlikely comparison between the world and a person or concept. Associated with metaphysical poets like John Donne, metaphysical conceits might take a complicated topic like lover’s souls and compare them to a compass. While the comparison might seem absurd, the legs of a compass can never truly part, just like a lover’s souls. Conceit in Literature Conceits can be used in all different types of poetry, but are more commonly found in metaphysical and Renaissance poetry. This literary call to action can really garner a reader’s attention because the comparison being made is so strange. Conceit was a very popular literary device at one point in time, and is not necessarily used all that much nowadays. However, many authors still like to create an unusual or even farfetched extended metaphor that counts as a conceit example in order to surprise and intrigue their readers. Through the use of conceit, writers are able to provide a new way of looking at a situation or object. Questions 1. What do you mean by conceit? Justify with example. 2. What is difference between Petrarchan and Metaphysical conceits? 11. LYRIC Origin Greek song was divided into two classes, melic or lyric song, which was sung by a single voice to the accompaniment of a lyre; and choric song, which was intended for collective singing to the accompaniment of instrumental music, supplemented, probably, by a dance. The first of these divisions is responsible for he lyric as we know it in English verse. True to its Greek origin, it still has the two characteristics implied in the above description: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 133 (a) It is an expression of a single emotion, (b) It is a musical composition. Lyric poetry is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person. The term derives from a form of Ancient Greek literature, the lyric, which was defined by its musical accompaniment, usually on a stringed instrument known as a lyre. The term owes its importance in literary theory to the division developed by Aristotle between three broad categories of poetry: lyrical, dramatic, and epic. Types of Lyric There are several types of lyric used in poems such as given below:  Elegy: An elegy is a mournful, sad, or melancholic poem or a song that expresses sorrow for someone who has bee lost, or died. Originally, it followed a structure using a meter alternating six foot and five foot lines. However, modern elegies do not follow such a pattern, though the mood of the poem remains the same.  Ode: An ode is a lyric poem that expresses intense feelings, such as love, respect, or praise for someone or something. Like an elegy, an ode does not follow any strict format or structure, though it uses refrains or repeated lines. It is usually longer than other lyrical forms, and focuses on positive moods of life.  Sonnet: A sonnet uses fourteen lines, and follows iambic pentameter with five pairs of accented and unaccented syllables. The structure of a sonnet, with predetermined syllables and rhyme scheme, makes it flow off the tongues of readers in way similar way to a on song on the radio.  Dramatic Monologue: A dramatic monologue has theatrical quality, which means that the poem portrays a solitary speaker communing with the audience, without any dialogue coming from other characters. Usually, the speaker talks to a specific person in the poem.  Occasional Poetry: Poets write occasional poetry for specific occasions such as weddings, anniversaries, birthdays, victories, and dedications, such as John Dryden’s “Annus Mirabilis,” and Edmund Spencer’s “Epithalamion.” CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

134 British Poetry Till 17th Century Example of Lyric in Literature O Captain My Captain by Walt Whitman “O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, The ship has weather’d every rack, the prize we sought is won, The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring; But O heart! heart! heart!” This is the first stanza of Whitman’s famous elegy. Notice its mood, which is somber, and filled with intense sadness. Still, the words are giving melodic flow due to lyrical quality. Question 1. Write the different types of lyrics. 2. What is origin of lyric and how it work in literature. 5.2 Figure of Speech Figures of speech are a very important method of communication in our society. They specify between different shades of meaning and give more accurate descriptions. Some examples of common figures of speech include the simile, metaphor, pun, personification, hyperbole, understatement, paradox and oxymoron. A figure of speech is a phrase or word having different meanings than its literal meanings. It conveys meaning by identifying or comparing one thing to another, which has connotation or meaning familiar to the audience. That is why it is helpful in creating vivid rhetorical effect. 1. IAMBIC PENTAMETER Iambic pentameter is a type of metric line used in traditional English poetry and verse drama. The term describes the rhythm, or meter, established by the words in that line; rhythm is measured in small groups of syllables called “feet”. “Iambic” refers to the type of foot used, here CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 135 the iamb, which in English indicates an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (as in above). “Pentameter” indicates a line of five “feet”. Iambic pentameter is the most common meter in English poetry; it is used in the major English poetic forms, including blank verse, the heroic couplet, and some of the traditionally rhymed stanza forms. It is used both in early forms of English poetry and in later forms; William Shakespeare famously used iambic pentameter in his plays and sonnets. As lines in iambic pentameter usually contain ten syllables, it is considered a form of decasyllabic verse. William Shakespeare was famous for using iambic pentameter in his sonnets. Here’s one example from his Sonnet 18: Shall I/compare/thee to/a summer’s/day?/ 2. METAPHOR A metaphor makes a comparison between two unlike things or ideas. Examples include  Heart of stone  Time is money  The world is a stage  She’s a night owl  He’s an ogre 3. SIMILE A simile is a comparison between two unlike things using the words “like” or “as.” Examples include  As slippery as an eel  Like peas in a pod  As blind as a bat CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

136 British Poetry Till 17th Century  Eats like a pig  As wise as an owl 4. METONYMY Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept. Here are some examples of metonymy  Crown (For the power of a king)  The White House (Referring to the American administration)  Dish (To refer an entire plate of food)  The Pentagon (For the Department of Defense and the offices of the US Armed Forces)  Pen (For the written word)  Sword (For military force)  Hollywood (For US Cinema)  Hand (For help) Consider this quote which is a metonymic adage coined by English author Edward Bulwer- Lytton in 1839 for his play Richelieu; Or the Conspiracy: “The pen is mightier than the sword.” 5. SYNECDOCHE Synecdoche occurs when a part is represented by the whole or, conversely, the whole is represented by the part. Examples include:  Wheels – a car  The police – one policeman  Plastic – credit cards  Coke – any cola drink CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 137  Hired hands – workers 6. PERSONIFICATION Personification gives human qualities to non-living things or ideas. Examples include:  The flowers nodded.  The snowflakes danced.  The thunder grumbled.  The fog crept in.  The wind howled. 7. RHYME A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds (usually, exactly the same sound) in the final stressed syllables and any following syllables of two or more words. Most often, this kind of “perfect” rhyming is consciously used for effect in the final positions of lines of poems and songs. More broadly, a rhyme may also variously refer to other types of similar sounds near the ends of two or more words. Furthermore, the word rhyme has come to be sometimes used as a shorthand term for any brief poem, such as a rhyming couplet or nursery rhyme. Types of Rhyme Scheme There are a number of rhyme schemes used in poetry; some of the most popular of which include: 1. Alternate rhyme: It is also known as ABAB rhyme scheme, it rhymes as “ABAB CDCD EFEF GHGH.” 2. Ballade: It contains three stanzas with the rhyme scheme of “ABABBCBC” followed by “BCBC.” 3. Monorhyme: It is a poem in which every line uses the same rhyme scheme. 4. Couplet: It contains two-line stanzas with the “AA” rhyme scheme, which often appears as “AA BB CC and DD…” CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

138 British Poetry Till 17th Century 5. Triplet: It often repeats like a couplet, uses rhyme scheme of “AAA.” 6. Enclosed rhyme: It uses rhyme scheme of “ABBA” 7. Terza rima rhyme scheme: It uses tercets, three lines stanzas. Its interlocking pattern on end words follows: ABA BCB CDC DED and so on. 8. Keats Odes rhyme scheme: In his famous odes, Keats has used a specific rhyme scheme, which is “ABABCDECDE.” 9. Limerick: A poem uses five lines with a rhyme scheme of “AABBA.” 10. Villanelle: A nineteen-line poem consisting of five tercets and a final quatrain. It uses a rhyme scheme of “A1bA2, abA1, abA2, abA1, abA2, abA1A2.” Short Examples of Rhyme Scheme 1. The sun is shining bright This is a lovely sight. 2. You are like a day of May And I as worthless as hay. 3. This is poor Mr. Potter Walking a road with his daughter 8. OXYMORON An oxymoron is two contradictory terms used together. Examples include:  Peace force  Kosher ham  Jumbo shrimp  Sweet sorrow  Free market CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literary Terms 139 9. HYPERBOLE Hyperbole uses exaggeration for emphasis or effect. Examples include:  I’ve told you to stop a thousand times.  That must have cost a billion dollars.  I could do this forever.  She’s older than dirt.  Everybody knows that. 10. IRONY Irony occurs when there’s a marked contrast between what is said and what is meant, or between appearance and reality.  “How nice!” she said, when I told her I had to work all weekend. (Verbal irony).  A traffic cop gets suspended for not paying his parking tickets. (Situational irony).  The Titanic was said to be unsinkable but sank on its first voyage. (Situational irony).  Naming a tiny Chihuahua Brutus. (Verbal irony).  When the audience knows the killer is hiding in a closet in a scary movie, but the actors do not. (Dramatic irony). 11. ONOMATOPOEIA Onomatopoeia is the term for a word that sounds like what it is describing. Examples include:  Whoosh  Splat  Buzz  Click  Oink CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

140 British Poetry Till 17th Century 5.3 References 1. A Glossary of Literary Terms – M.H. Abrams 2. Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms – Chris Baldick CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Unit 4 CHAPTER 6 JOHN DONNE: POET AND THE AGE SATYRE: OF RELIGION THE GOOD MORROW John Donne (22 January 1572 – 31 March 1631) Structure: 6.0 Learning Objectives 6.1 John Donne: Poet and the Age 6.2 “The Good – Morrow” 6.3 “Satyre: Of Religion” 6.4 References

142 British Poetry Till 17th Century 6.0 Learning Objectives After reading this lesson, students will be able to:  Study the satire of religion  Analyze the irony in the poem  To study the metaphysical concept 6.1. John Donne: Poet and the Age Introduction John Donne was an English poet and cleric in the Church of England. He is considered the pre-eminent representative of the metaphysical poets. His works are noted for their strong, sensual style and include sonnets. love poems, religious poems, Latin translations, songs, satires and sermons. His poetry is noted for its vibrancy of language and inventiveness of metaphor, especially compared to that of his contemporaries. Donne’s style is characterized by abrupt openings and various paradoxes, ironies and dislocations. These features, along with his frequent dramatic or everyday speech rhythms, his tense syntax and his tough eloquence, were both a reaction against the smoothness of conventional Elizabethan poetry and an adaptation into English of European baroque and mannerist techniques. His early career was marked by poetry that bore immense knowledge of English society and he met that knowledge with sharp criticism. Another important theme in Donne’s poetry is the idea of true religion, something that he spent much time considering and about which he often theorized. He wrote secular poems as well as erotic and love poems. He is particularly famous for his mastery of metaphysical conceits. Despite his great education and poetic talents, Donne lived in poverty for several years, relying heavily on wealthy friends. He spent much of the money he inherited during and after his education on womanising, literature, pastimes, and travel. The age of Donne was an age of transition, standing midway between the age of Shakespeare and the Jacobean age (1572-1631). The age of Donne would effectively and substantially cover CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)