CU-BBA-SEM IV- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY-SECOND DRAFT

Figure 2.2 Why is Tracy Nelson’s performance so Poor? 2.3 THE LANGUAGE OF RESEARCH 2.3.1 Concepts It is necessary to have a common ground on which to understand and communicate information about objects and events in order to do so effectively. This is accomplished through the use of concepts. When it comes to events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviours, a concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics that are associated with them. Concepts are formed through the classification and categorization of objects or events that share characteristics that go beyond any single observation. Instead of a single example, what comes to mind when thinking of a spreadsheet or a warranty card is your collective memories of all spreadsheets and all warranty cards, from which you abstract a set of specific and definable characteristics that are unique to each spreadsheet or warranty card. 2.3.2 Constructs Concepts have progressive levels of abstraction, which refer to the degree to which the concept refers to something objective or does not refer to something objective. Table is a concept that can be objectively defined. The moment we point to a table, we instantly recall in our minds various characteristics of every table in the room. The visualisation of an abstraction such as personality is much more difficult. Constructs are a term used to describe 51

such abstract concepts. A construct is a mental image or abstract concept that has been created specifically for the purpose of research and/or theory-building. The more basic and concrete concepts are combined to form larger, more complex constructs, which is especially useful when the idea or image we want to convey cannot be observed directly. 2.3.3 Definitions Confusion over the meaning of concepts can detract from the value of a research study without the researcher or the client even being aware of it. If the parties involved have different interpretations of the same words, then the parties are not communicating effectively. Definitions are one method of minimising this danger. Figure 2.3 Constructs Composed of Concepts in a Job Redesign 2.3.4 Variables Variable is frequently used as a synonym for construct, which is a technical term that refers to the property under investigation. The term \"variable\" refers to a symbol that represents an occurrence, act, characteristic, trait, or attribute that can be measured and to which we can assign values. The relationships between variables are of particular interest to researchers. There are two different kinds of variables. There are two types of variables: the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV) 2.3.5 Propositions and Hypotheses Theory A proposition is defined as a statement about observable phenomena (concepts) that can be judged to be true or false based on whether or not the statement is true. When a proposition is formulated in order to be tested empirically, we refer to it as a hypothesis. It is tentative and 52

conjectural in nature because a hypothesis is a declarative statement about the relationship between two or more variables and it is based on speculation. Furthermore, hypotheses have been defined as statements in which we assign variables to different cases. An instance of a case is defined in this context as the entity or thing that the hypothesis refers to. The variable is the characteristic, trait, or attribute that is imputed to the case in the hypothesis and can be measured. 2.3.6 Models The term model is used in business research and other fields of business to represent phenomena through the use of analogy, and it is most commonly found in finance. An example of a model is one that is constructed to study some aspect of a system or the system as a whole, and that is defined as follows: A key distinction between models and theories is that theories serve as explanations, whereas models serve as representations of reality. 2.4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS According to our understanding of the research process, the management question, including its elaboration, selection, formulation, exploration, and refinement, is the most important activity in the sequence. Stage 1. Clarifying the Research Question Stage 2. Proposing Research Stage 3. Designing the Research Stage 4. Data Collection and Preparation Stage 5. Data Analysis and Interpretation Stage 6. Reporting the Results 2.4.1 Clarifying the Research Question A useful way to approach the research process is to first state the basic dilemma that prompted the research and then attempt to develop additional questions by gradually breaking down the original question into more specific ones, as shown in the diagram. The management–research question hierarchy is the result of this process, and it can be thought of as the final product. The management dilemma serves as the starting point for the process at the most general level. If you have any of the following symptoms, you may be dealing with a real problem.  Costs are increasing.  The discovery of a costly chemical compound that could be used to improve the efficacy of a pharmaceutical.  Increasing the number of tenants who vacate an apartment complex.  Sales are on the decline.  Increasing the turnover of employees in a restaurant. 53

 An increase in the number of product defects that occur during the manufacturing of an automobile 2.4.2. Proposing Research Resource Allocation and Budgets Data collection necessitates a significant investment of time and resources but may consume less of the budget than clients anticipate. Employees must be compensated, training and travel must be provided, and any other expenses incurred must be reimbursed; however, this phase of the project typically consumes no more than one-third of the total research funding budget. Obviously, the geographic scope and number of observations required have an impact on the cost, but a large portion of the cost is relatively insensitive to the size of the data collection effort. So one guideline might be that (1) project planning; (2) data collection; (3) analysis, interpretation, and reporting each account for approximately the same amount of the budget. It is possible that a budget will require extensive development and documentation, such as in grant and contract research, or that it will require less attention, such as some in-house projects or investigations funded entirely by the researcher's own resources. The researcher who is seeking funding must be able to not only persuasively justify the costs of the project, but also identify the sources and methods of funding that will be utilised. When it comes to organisations where research is purchased and cost containment is critical, one author distinguishes three types of budgets:  Rule-of-thumb budgeting: Using the rule of thumb method of budgeting, a fixed percentage of some criterion is taken into consideration. Manufacturers may base their budget for marketing research on a percentage of sales revenues from the previous year, as an example.  Departmental or functional area budgeting: A portion of total expenditures in a unit is allocated to research activities under the auspices of departmental or functional area budgeting. Functional budgets are frequently used to manage research activities in government agencies, non-profit organisations, and the private sector, among other things. Units such as human resources, marketing, and engineering are then given the authority to approve projects on their own behalf, if they so choose.  Task budgeting: It is used to identify specific research projects to support on an ad hoc basis through task budgeting. This type of analysis is the least proactive, but it does allow for a definitive cost-benefit analysis to be performed. Valuing Research Information A properly designed research study should assist managers in avoiding losses and increasing sales or profits; otherwise, research can be considered wasteful. The decision maker is looking for a firm cost estimate for a project, as well as an equally precise assurance that the 54

study will yield useful information for him or her. Even if the researcher is able to provide accurate cost and information estimates, the managers must still determine whether the benefits outweigh the costs. The following methods can be used to evaluate the research information:  Ex Post Facto Evaluation  Prior or Interim Evaluation  Option Analysis  Decision Theory The Research Proposal A research proposal also may be oral, wherein all aspects of the research are discussed but not codified in writing. This is more likely when a manager directs his or her own research or the research activities of subordinates. 2.4.3 Designing the Research The research design serves as a road map for achieving objectives and answering questions in the study. When it comes to designing a study, the availability of a large number of methods, techniques, procedures, protocols, and sampling plans can make the process difficult. Examples of secondary data studies and case studies include surveying respondents and conducting experiments. Simulations are another option. Is it preferable to administer a survey by mail, computer, telephone, Internet, or personal interview if one is chosen? Should all relevant data be collected all at once, or should it be collected on a regular basis? Is there a specific structure that the questionnaire or interview guide will follow? What question wording should be used in this situation? Should the responses be scaled, or should they be left open-ended? What methods will be used to ensure reliability and validity? Will the interviewer's personality traits have an impact on the responses to the measurement questions? Is there any kind of training that should be provided to the data collectors? Is it necessary to take a sample or a census? What types of sampling should be taken into account? All of these considerations are just a few of the choices that must be made when only one method is chosen. Sampling Design Once the target population (those people, events, or records that contain the desired information and can answer the measurement questions) has been identified, it is necessary to decide whether a sample or an entire census will be used to conduct the research project. Taking a census necessitates the researcher's examination and counting of all elements within the target population. A sample examines a subset of the target population, and the subset must be carefully chosen in order to accurately represent the target population in question. The researcher must decide which and how many people to interview, what events and how many people to observe, or which and how many records to examine if sampling is chosen. 55

Pilot Testing Pilot testing is typically used to gather data during the data-gathering phase of the research process. When a researcher is attempting to condense the project time frame, it is possible that pilot testing will be skipped. A pilot test is carried out in order to detect flaws in the design and instrumentation, as well as to provide proxy data for the selection of a probability sample. This means that it should recruit participants from the target population and conduct simulations of the procedures and protocols that have been established for data collection. 2.4.4 Data Collection and Preparation From a simple observation at a single location to a grandiose survey of multinational corporations at multiple locations throughout the world, the collection of data can take many shapes and forms. The method that is chosen will have a significant impact on how the data is collected. Among the devices used to record raw data are questionnaires, standardized tests, observational forms, laboratory notes, and instrument calibration logs, to name a few examples. After that, the data has been edited and transformed into a format that allows for analysis. The use of alphanumeric codes to reduce the responses to a more manageable system for storage and future processing is necessary because it is impractical to include raw data in a report at this time. The codes are organised according to various decision rules that the researcher has developed to aid in the sorting, tabulating, and analysing of the data. Personal computers have made it possible to consolidate editing, coding, and data entry into fewer steps, even when the final analysis will be performed on a larger system than the one used for data entry. 2.4.5 Data Analysis and Interpretation Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing summaries, looking for patterns, and applying statistical techniques. Scaled responses on questionnaires and experimental instruments often require the analyst to derive various functions, as well as to explore relationships among variables. Further, researchers must interpret these findings in light of the client’s research question or determine if the results are consistent with their hypotheses and theories. Increasingly, managers are asking research specialists to make recommendations based on their interpretation of the data. 2.4.6 Reporting the Results Finally, it is necessary to prepare a report and communicate the findings and recommendations to the manager in order for them to be used in the decision-making process as intended. When creating a report, the researcher considers the target audience, the occasion, and the purpose of the research before deciding on the style and organisation of the report. Applications research findings may be communicated through various means, 56

including telephone conference calls, written reports and oral presentations, or through a combination of any or all of these methods. 2.5 RESEARCH PROCESS ISSUES The desire for research to be thoroughly grounded in management decision priorities is a good thing. However, research studies can stray from their intended purpose or become less effective than they should be. 1. The Favoured-Technique Syndrome 2. Company Database Strip-Mining 3. Unsearchable Questions 4. Ill-Defined Management Problems 5. Politically Motivated Research 2.5.1 The Favoured-Technique Syndrome Some researchers are shackled to their methods. This is done by recasting the management question in a way that is amenable to their preferred methodology—for example, a survey. Others might prefer to place more emphasis on the case study, and still others might not consider taking either approach at all. Experimentation is not something that all researchers are comfortable with. It is believed that the past reluctance of most social scientists to employ experimental designs has slowed the advancement of scientific research in that field. The availability of a technique is a critical factor in determining how research will be carried out or whether a particular study can be carried out successfully. The special competencies of individuals who are knowledgeable and skilled in some techniques but not in others cause them to become blinded by their own special competencies. Their concern for technique dominates the decisions about what will be studied (both investigative and measurement questions) and how it will be studied (both experimental and measurement questions) (research design). The development of numerous standardised customer satisfaction questionnaires has occurred since the introduction of total quality management (TQM). 2.5.2 Company Database Strip-Mining The existence of a pool of information or a database can divert the attention of a manager, thereby appearing to reduce the need for further investigation. For example, managers frequently hear from their superiors, \"We should use the information we already have before collecting more,\" which demonstrates the research-as-expense rather than an investment mentality. Large amounts of data can be provided by modern management information systems, which are extremely efficient. This is not the same as claiming that modern management information systems provide substantial knowledge in the traditional sense. Originally, each field in a database was created for a specific reason, a reason that might or might not be compatible with the management question that the organisation is currently grappling with. 57

2.5.3 Unresearchable Questions Not all management questions can be answered by research, and not all research questions can be answered by management questions. A question must be researchable if it is one that can be answered through observation or other forms of data collection, such as surveys. Many questions cannot be answered solely on the basis of the information available at the time. When making management decisions, it is common to have to weigh questions of value and policy. 2.5.4 Ill-Defined Management Problems Some categories of problems are so complex, value-laden, and constrained by constraints that they prove to be intractable to traditional methods of problem analysis and formulation. When compared to well-defined problems, the characteristics of these questions are almost diametrically opposed to those of those problems. Specifically, it is pointed out that poorly defined research questions are the least susceptible to attack from quantitative research methods because such problems have too many interconnected facets for measurement to handle accurately and efficiently. Yet another point of view contends that there are some research questions of this nature for which methods do not currently exist or, even if methods were to be invented, they would still fail to provide the data necessary to answer them effectively. Researchers who are just starting out should avoid problems that aren't well defined. Even seasoned researchers will want to conduct a thorough exploratory study before moving forward with the most recent approaches. 2.5.5 Politically Motivated Research It's important to remember that a manager's motivations for seeking research aren't always immediately apparent. Managers may express a genuine desire to obtain specific information on which to base a decision in order to make a decision. This is the ideal environment for conducting high-quality research. Sometimes, on the other hand, a research study may not be particularly desirable but is nonetheless approved, primarily because its presence may help win approval for a particular manager's pet project. Other times, research may be authorized as a measure of personal protection for a decision maker in the event that he or she is later criticised for their decisions. As a result of these less-than-ideal circumstances, the researcher may have a more difficult time convincing the manager to support an appropriate research design. 2.6 SUMMARY  Whenever a researcher has direct contact with a participant, he or she should share the study's benefits with them, taking care not to exaggerate or understate the importance of the benefits. 58

 When participants are only told a portion of the truth, or when the truth is completely compromised, deception has occurred on their behalf. Some people believe that something like this should never happen. Others propose two reasons for deception:  to prevent participants from biassing the results of a survey or experiment before it takes place, and  to safeguard the confidentiality of a third party (e.g., the sponsor).  When engaging with a research client or sponsor, it is important to keep ethical considerations in mind as well. The right to ethically performed research is guaranteed to sponsors who engage in product, market, people, financial, or other types of research.  An effective sponsor–researcher relationship cannot be established unless both parties fulfil their respective responsibilities, and a number of essential obstacles are removed  The right of the sponsor to high-quality research is a significant ethical factor for both the researcher and the sponsoring organisation. This right implies the following obligations:  Establishing a research plan that is appropriate for the study question.  Increasing the value of the sponsor in relation to the resources invested.  The following are the fundamental principles of the scientific method:  Observation of phenomena in their natural environment.  Variables, methods, and procedures that are clearly defined  Hypotheses that can be empirically tested  The capability of ruling out competing hypotheses.  The use of statistical rather than linguistic evidence to support conclusions.  Self-correction is a process that occurs automatically.  Research process has following stages  Clarifying the Research Question  Proposing Research  Designing the Research  Data Collection and Preparation  Data Analysis and Interpretation  Reporting the Results  Research studies can stray from their intended purpose or become less effective than they should be.  The Favoured-Technique Syndrome  Company Database Strip-Mining  Unresearchable Questions  Ill-Defined Management Problems  Politically Motivated Research 59

2.7 KEYWORDS  Data mining ethics: Privacy and consent are the two most important ethical considerations while mining data in cyberspace.  Confidentiality: Employer-employee trust is built on confidentiality, and business owners have a responsibility to keep employee information safe and secure. Employees will feel more secure knowing that their personal data is being kept safe and used appropriately. Sharing their information is not only a violation of their privacy, but it also undermines employee trust, confidence, and loyalty. It will also result in a reduction in productivity.  Knowledge gap: The knowledge gap refers to a disparity between the poor's access to information and tools and the developing world's access to, recognition of, and promotion of creativity.  Concepts: Concepts have progressive levels of abstraction, which refer to the degree to which the concept refers to something objective or does not refer to something objective  Constructs: A construct is a mental image or abstract concept that has been created specifically for the purpose of research and/or theory-building. The more basic and concrete concepts are combined to form larger, more complex constructs, which is especially useful when the idea or image we want to convey cannot be observed directly.  Variable: The term \"variable\" refers to a symbol that represents an occurrence, act, characteristic, trait, or attribute that can be measured and to which we can assign values  Task budgeting: It is used to identify specific research projects to support on an ad hoc basis through task budgeting. This type of analysis is the least proactive, but it does allow for a definitive cost-benefit analysis to be performed. 2.8LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Which of the following organizations are likely to use businessresearch? Why? How? a. Manufacturer of breakfast cereals b. Manufacturer of nuts, bolts, and other fasteners c. The Federal Trade Commission d. A hospital e.A company that publishes business 60

2.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Define Ethics in research 2. Why ethics is important in Research? 3. How to overcome the language problems in ethics? 4. What do you mean by right to privacy? 5. Elucidate Knowledge gap? Long Questions 1. What are the ethical practices that is to be followed in Research? 2. Explain about the Research Process. 3. What are the tips to be followed in the language of Research? 4. Explain about the issues in Research Process. 5. Explain about the research and the scientific method B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. ______ serves as a road map for achieving objectives and answering questions in the study. a. Research idea b. Research design c. Research proposal d. Research description 2. _______ refers to systematic collection and analysis of data with the purpose of finding answers to problems facing manage is carried out in order to detect flaws in the design and instrumentation, as well as to provide proxy data for the selection of a probability sample a. Pilot Testing b. Test Research c. Market Research d. Product Research 3. When participants are only told a portion of the truth, or when the truth is completely compromised, _______ has occurred on their behalf D a. Confusion b. Problem c. Conflict d. Deception 61

4. _______ from participants is simply a question of thoroughly disclosing the methods of the proposed survey or other research design before requesting permission to proceed with the study. a. Informed consent b. Debriefing c. Data mining d. Confidentiality 5. _______ are formed through the classification and categorization of objects or events that share characteristics that go beyond any single observation. a. Constructs b. Concepts c. Variables d. Models Answers 1-b, 2-a, 3-d. 4-a, 5-b 2.10 REFERENCES References book  R1, Business Research Methods – Alan Bryman& Emma Bell, Oxford University Press.  R2, Research Methodology - C.R. Kothari  R2, Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, Levine Stephan, Krehbiel Berenson Textbook references  T1, SPSSExplained,ISBN:9780415274104,Publisher:TataMcgrawHill  T2, Sancheti&Kapoor,BusinessMathematics,SultanChand,NewDelhi 62

UNIT 3: FORMULATIONOFRESEARCH STRUCTURE 3.0 Learning Objectives 3.1 What is a Research Problem? 3.2 Selecting the Problem 3.3 Necessity of Defining the Problem 3.4 Technique Involved in Defining a Problem 3.5 Characteristics of a research problem 3.6 Characteristics of a research problem statement 3.7 Summary 3.8 Keywords 3.9 Learning Activity 3.10 Unit End Questions 3.11 References 3.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Describe the characteristics of a research problem  How to select a research problem  Describe about the techniques involved in the formulation of a research  List the necessity of a research problem  Explain the importance of defining a problem 3.1 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM? Research problem definition: A research problem is defined as a topic of interest that necessitates an in-depth understanding of a specific topic, condition, contradiction, or difficulty. So, what exactly is the research problem? Finding answers to questions or strengthening existing findings in order to bridge the knowledge gap in order to solve problems is what a research problem is. What is research problem statement? 63

Generally speaking, a research problem statement is defined as a problem that must be addressed. In general, it is defined as a discrepancy in knowledge about a particular issue or problem. A functional research problem contributes to the closure of a knowledge gap in a field, which can lead to additional research. An accurate statement of the problem aids in the identification of the motivation for the research project's conduct. 3.2 SELECTING THE PROBLEM The research problem that will be investigated must be carefully chosen before beginning. When selecting a research problem or a subject for investigation, a researcher should consider the following considerations: Because it will be difficult to bring anything new to the table in this situation. In addition, controversial subjects should not be chosen by a typical researcher because they are difficult to investigate. Problems that are either too narrow or too vague should be avoided. The subject chosen for investigation should be familiar and feasible, so that the related research material or sources of information are easily accessible. Even in that case, it is extremely difficult to provide definitive ideas about how a researcher should go about obtaining ideas for his or her research. In order to accomplish this, a researcher should make contact with an expert or a professor at the University who is already involved in research projects. Reading articles published in current literature on the subject and considering how the techniques and ideas discussed therein might be applied to the solution of other problems is also an option for him. He may share his thoughts on a problem with others who are interested in hearing them. As a result, he should make every effort possible to choose a problem of interest. A few other criteria that must be taken into consideration when selecting a research problem are the significance of the subject, the qualifications and training of the researcher, the costs involved, and the amount of time that will be available. Or, to put it another way, before making the final decision on which problem to pursue, a researcher must ask himself the following questions: What you want to know is whether or not he is well-equipped to carry out the research given his previous experience. Whether the study is within the scope of his financial resources. Is it possible to obtain the necessary cooperation from those who will be required to participate in the research as subjects? If the answers to all of these questions are affirmative, it is possible to be confident in the feasibility of the study's implementation. 64

6.Prior to selecting a problem, it is necessary to conduct preliminary research. There are times when conducting research on a problem that is very similar to one that has already been done may not be necessary in these situations. Although it is not always necessary, when the field of investigation is new and does not yet have a well-developed set of techniques available, a brief feasibility study should always be carried out. If the subject for research is chosen properly, taking into consideration the points mentioned above, the research will not be a tedious drudgery, but rather will be a labour of love for the researcher. In fact, enthusiasm for one's job is required. The subject or problem that is chosen must be interesting to the researcher and must occupy a prominent position in his or her thoughts in order for him or her to put forth the effort necessary to complete the study. 3.3 NECESSITY OF DEFINING A PROBLEM What is the purpose of a problem statement for research purposes? In research, a problem statement seeks to accomplish the following goals: 1. In the research proposal, make a point of highlighting the significance of the topic. 2. Place the problem in a proper context before proceeding. 3. Set up a framework for analysing and reporting on results. We've all heard the adage that a problem that is clearly stated is a problem that is half solved. This statement indicates the need for a research problem to be identified and defined. The problem that needs to be investigated must be clearly defined, as this will aid in the separation of relevant data from irrelevant data. A properly defined research problem will allow the researcher to stay on track, whereas an ill-defined problem may cause roadblocks to the researcher's progress. Questions such as: What information is to be gathered? What are the relevant characteristics of data that need to be investigated? What relationships are going to be investigated. What methods are going to be employed for this purpose? Other questions of a similar nature arise in the mind of the researcher, who can only effectively plan his strategy and find answers to all of these questions if the research problem has been clearly defined. As a result, properly defining a research problem is a pre-requisite for any study and is a step of critical importance in the research process. In fact, the formulation of a problem is frequently more important than the solution to it. We can only devise a research design and carry out all of the consequential steps involved in conducting research if we first carefully define the research problem and then carefully detail it. 3.4 TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM The proper and clear definition of a research problem is a critical component of any research study and should never be rushed through. Although this is true in theory, in practise it is frequently overlooked, resulting in a slew of issues later on. So the research problem needs to be defined in a systematic manner, with appropriate weighting given to all of the pertinent 65

points. According to the technique, the following steps should be carried out in a sequential fashion, generally one after the other: (i) Statement of the problem in a general way. (ii) Understanding the nature of the problem. (iii) Surveying the available literature (iv) Developing the ideas through discussions; and (v) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition. A brief description of all these points will be helpful (i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First and foremost, the problem should be stated in a broad, general manner, with either a practical concern or a scientific or intellectual interest as the overarching consideration. In order to accomplish this, the researcher must become completely immersed in the subject matter about which he wishes to pose a problem. The researcher may conduct some type of preliminary survey, which is referred to as a pilot survey, in the case of social research because it is deemed necessary to conduct some field observation in the field of social research. The researcher can then either state the problem himself or seek the assistance of a guide or a subject expert in order to complete the task. Often, the guide will present the problem in broad terms, and it will be up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase it in operational terms, as appropriate. If there is a directive from an organisational authority, the problem can be stated in the appropriate manner. The problem, when stated in a broad general way, may contain a number of ambiguities that must be resolved through careful consideration and re-consideration of the problem. At the same time, it is necessary to consider the feasibility of a particular solution, and this should be kept in mind when stating the problem. (ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood. (iii) Surveying the available literature: The next step in defining the problem is to gain a clear understanding of its origins and characteristics. Having a discussion with those who first brought it up will be the most effective way to gain a better understanding of the problem and the objectives that they had in 66

mind when they brought it up. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should re- examine all of the factors that led him to make a general statement about the problem in the first place. In order to gain a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can engage in discussion with those who are well-versed in the problem at hand or in problems that are similar to the one in question. The researcher should also consider the context in which the problem is to be studied and understood, as well as the problem itself. (iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: When people talk about a problem, they often come up with useful information. A variety of new ideas can be generated as a result of such an exercise. Thus, a researcher must discuss his or her problem with colleagues and others who have sufficient experience in the same field or in working on similar problems as the one under consideration. An experience survey is a term that is frequently used to describe this type of survey. People with a wealth of knowledge and experience are in a position to educate the researcher on various aspects of his proposed study, and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher in the long run. They assist him in narrowing his concentration of attention to specific aspects of the subject matter. It is important to note that discussions with such individuals should not be limited to the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also include topics such as the general approach to the given problem, techniques that could be used, potential solutions, and so on. (v) Rephrasing the research problem: Last but not least, the researcher must take the time to rephrase the research problem into a feasible working proposition. The task of rephrasing a problem into analytical or operational terms is not difficult once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, as well as the environment (within which the problem has to be studied), discussions about the problem, and a survey and examination of the available literature, have all been completed. By rephrasing, the researcher attempts to define the research problem in the most specific terms possible, increasing the likelihood that it will be operationally viable and assisting in the development of working hypotheses. In addition to what has already been stated, the following considerations must be taken into consideration when defining a research problem: a) There should be a clear definition of all technical terms and words or phrases that have special meanings and are used in the formulation of the problem statement. b) The basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly stated in the research proposal or manuscript. c) The importance of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the problem selection) should be stated in a straightforward fashion. 67

d) When defining the problem, the researcher should take into account the suitability of the time period and the data sources that are available to him or her. This must be stated explicitly when defining a research problem. e) When defining a research problem, it is necessary to specify the scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied. 3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM Make sure to fulfil these essential characteristics to have an effective research problem. Due to the variety of research, we conduct; it is not possible to inculcate all these characteristics. However, ensure to consider and cover most of these characteristics to enable people to look at, examine, and understand the marketing research problem. 1. Covers the essential needs or issues: In order to conduct research, the researcher must have a specific problem statement. It is unlikely that your research will be taken seriously unless you address the critical issues. If these issues are not of high importance, the research project may end up wasting both time and money. Make certain that you do not overlook the more critical needs and concerns in order to develop effective marketing strategies. 2. The problem is stated logically and clearly: If you are unable to state the problem logically or clearly in the research proposal, the problem is most likely a weak one, or it is most likely a non-problem. This can be tested by condensing the specific problem into one paragraph and checking that it makes sense and covers all of the important points. Talk about the issue or problem with other people, and if this is not understood by even a small number of people, consider a more logical approach to specifying the situation or problem. 3. The research is based on actual facts and evidence (non-hypothetical): There is a significant distinction between beliefs and facts. Please refrain from using fictional characters. Research must be based on actual facts, rather than on assumptions or beliefs. Hypothetical events will have no beneficial effect on the research. Unless you base your conclusions on facts and evidence, you cannot consider the findings of the research to be true or accurate. It has to make a meaningful and testable hypothesis suggestion. 4. The research problem generates and encourages research questions: The research must generate a large number of questions. These questions should be more specific to the research, highlighting different components or aspects of the problem as they are explored. These questions must aid in the better understanding of the issue by providing a solid framework for further investigation. Formulating such questions is a difficult task that must be accomplished correctly. 68

5. It fits the budget and time frame: Research is based on facts and findings, and there must be a large number of cases or findings to back up the research findings and conclusions. A research project that is based on limited data will be ineffective in testing or satisfying a theory. If data is not available for research purposes, it is not logical to proceed with the research in question. 6. Sufficient data can be obtained: Ascertain that the research activity can be completed within the budget and time constraints. Take into account the logistical considerations to ensure a successful research project. Failure to complete the research due to a lack of funds and manpower to complete it within a specified timeframe will be a monumental waste of time and resources. Only those problems should be pursued that are feasible. 7. The problem has an unsatisfactory answer or is a new problem: Make certain that there has been little, or no research done on the subject. Unless there is a known solution to the problem that has been tried and tested, it is probably best to move on and not waste time looking for something that has already been found and studied in depth. 3.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM STATEMENT The following are the characteristics of a problem statement for a research project:  It is necessary to close the knowledge gap.  It must be significant in the sense that it makes a positive contribution to the research project.  It must be of assistance in further research.  You must have a clear understanding of the problem based on the information you have gathered.  It must be in the researcher's best interests and be appropriate for his or her time, knowledge, skills, and available resources.  The approach to problem-solving must be ethical in nature.  It is possible to use conventional research methods. 3.7 SUMMARY  A research problem statement is defined as a problem that must be addressed. In general, it is defined as a discrepancy in knowledge about a particular issue or problem. A functional research problem contributes to the closure of a knowledge gap in a field, which can lead to additional research  In research, a problem statement seeks to accomplish the following goals: 69

 In the research proposal, make a point of highlighting the significance of the topic.  Place the problem in a proper context before proceeding.  Set up a framework for analysing and reporting on results.  According to the technique, the following steps should be carried out in a sequential fashion, generally one after the other:  statement of the problem in a general way.  understanding the nature of the problem;  surveying the available literature  developing the ideas through discussions; and  rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.  Make sure to fulfill these essential characteristics to have an effective research problem. Due to the variety of research, we conduct, it is not possible to inculcate all these characteristics. However, ensure to consider and cover most of these characteristics to enable people to look at, examine, and understand the marketing research problem. 3.8 KEYWORDS  Research problem: A research problem is defined as a topic of interest that necessitates an in-depth understanding of a specific topic, condition, contradiction, or difficulty.  Research design: The research design is the blueprint for fulfilling objectives and answering questions. Selecting a design may be complicated by the availability of a large variety of methods, techniques, procedures, protocols, and sampling plans.  Research proposal: A research proposal also may be oral, wherein all aspects of the research are discussed but not codified in writing.  Pilot test: A pilot test is conducted to detect weaknesses in design and instrumentation and to provide proxy data for selection of a probability sample  Research objectives: The goals to be achieved by conducting research.  Deliverables: The term used often in consulting to describe research objectives to a research client.  Problem: A problem occurs when there is a difference between the current conditions and a more preferable set of conditions. 3.9LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Evaluate the following statements of business research problems. For each provide a decision statement and corresponding research objectives: 70

 A farm implement manufacturer: Our objective is to learn the most effective form of advertising so we can maximize product line profits.  The producer of a television show: We have a marketing problem. The program’s ratings are low. We need to learn how we can improve our ratings. 3.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Define Research Problem 2. Why is defining a problem is so important? 3. What do you mean by understanding the nature of the research problem? 4. Whether research problem should be based on facts or imagination? 5. Distinguish research problem and research problem statement. Long Questions 1. How do you define a research problem? Give three examples to illustrate your answer. 2. Describe fully the techniques of defining a research problem. 3. Describe about the techniques involved in the formulation of a research 4. List the necessity of a research problem 5. Describe the characteristics of a research problem B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. ______ is defined as a topic of interest that necessitates an in-depth understanding of a specific topic, condition, contradiction, or difficulty a. Research idea b. Research problem c. Research design d. Research description 2. _______ that are either too narrow or too vague should be avoided. a. Data b. Problems c. Errors d. Conflicts 3. It is not recommended to choose a topic that has already been covered _______ because of its difficulty a. extensively 71

b. partially c. not known d. imaginable 4. _______ generates and encourages research questions. a. Research proposal b. Thinking c. Research problem d. Doubts 5. A Research problem does not have time frame. a. True b. False c. Both are correct d. Neither true nor false Answers 1-b, 2-b, 3-a. 4-c, 5-b 3.11 REFERENCES References book  R1, Business Research Methods – Alan Bryman& Emma Bell, Oxford University Press.  R2, Research Methodology - C.R. Kothari  R2, Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, Levine Stephan, Krehbiel Berenson Textbook references  T1,SPSSExplained,ISBN:9780415274104,Publisher:TataMcgrawHill  T2, Sancheti&Kapoor,BusinessMathematics,SultanChand,NewDelhi 72

UNIT 4: BUILDING HYPOTHESIS STRUCTURE 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 What is a Research Hypothesis? 4.2 Essential Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis 4.3 Types of Research Hypothesis 4.3.1 Simple Hypothesis 4.3.2 Complex Hypothesis 4.3.3 Directional Hypothesis 4.3.4 Non-directional Hypothesis 4.3.5 Associative and Causal Hypothesis 4.3.6 Null Hypothesis 4.3.7 Alternative Hypothesis 4.4 How to Formulate an Effective Research Hypothesis 4.5 Importance of a Testable Hypothesis 4.6 Summary 4.7 Keywords 4.8 Learning Activity 4.9 Unit End Questions 4.10 References 4.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Describe what is a research process.  Explain about the types of hypotheses  How to formulate an effective hypothesis  Describe the essential characters of a good hypothesis.  Explain the importance of a testable hypothesis. 73

4.1 WHAT IS A RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS? Generally speaking, a hypothesis is a proposition or a set of propositions that are put forth as an explanation for the occurrence of a specific group of phenomena. A hypothesis may be asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation, or it may be accepted as highly probable in light of established facts. Predictive statements that can be tested using scientific methods are frequently used to establish a relationship between an independent variable and some dependent variable in a research hypothesis. For example, consider statements like the following ones:  “Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not receiving counselling” Or  “The automobile A is performing as well as automobile B.” These are hypotheses that can be objectively verified and tested, as opposed to other hypotheses. As a result, we can conclude that a hypothesis state what we are looking for and that it is a proposition that can be tested to determine whether or not it holds up under scrutiny. 4.2 ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:  The hypothesis should be concise and specific. As long as the hypothesis is not specific and clear, the inferences drawn on its basis will not be considered reliable.  The hypothesis should be able to be tested in some way. It has happened more than once that research programmes have become bogged down in a swamp of unverifiable true hypotheses. In order to make a hypothesis testable, the researcher may need to conduct some preliminary research. A hypothesis is testable if it can be supported by other deductions, which can then be confirmed or disproved by observation, as defined by the Scientific Method.  If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, the relationship between variables should be stated in the hypothesis. The scope of the hypothesis should be limited, and it should be specific. A researcher should keep in mind that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable, and he should develop hypotheses that are narrower in scope.  The hypothesis should be stated in as simple a manner as possible in order for it to be easily understood by all parties involved. However, it is important to remember that the simplicity of a hypothesis has absolutely nothing to do with its significance.  In order to be consistent with the majority of known facts, a hypothesis must be consistent with a significant body of established facts. To put it another way, it should be the one that the judges believe is the most probable. 74

 The hypothesis should be able to be tested within a reasonable amount of time. Even if a hypothesis is excellent, it should not be used if it cannot be tested in a reasonable amount of time. After all, one cannot spend a lifetime collecting data to test a hypothesis.  The hypotheses must explain the facts that led to the need for an explanation in the first place. To put it another way, one should be able to deduce the original problem condition by applying the hypothesis in conjunction with other well-known and accepted generalisations. As a result, a hypothesis must actually explain what it claims to explain; it must also be supported by empirical evidence. 4.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS Hypotheses for research can be divided into seven categories, which are as follows: 4.3.1 Simple Hypothesis It is used to predict the relationship between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable in a single-factor model.Exampleeating ice cream causes running temperature is a kind of simple hypothesis. 4.3.2 Complex Hypothesis It makes predictions about the relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables (also known as dependent variables). Example In chilly weather, consuming ice cream causes a rise in body temperature and school absenteeism. 4.3.3 Directional Hypothesis It is derived from theory and specifies the expected direction that should be followed in order to determine the relationship between two variables. Furthermore, it implies the intellectual commitment of the researcher to a specific outcome. Example Participants who have been sleep deprived for 24 hours will have more cold symptoms in the week following a virus exposure than participants who have not been sleep deprived”; the hypothesis compares the two groups/conditions and specifies which one will have more/less, be faster/slower, etc. 4.3.4 Non-directional Hypothesis However, it does not provide a prediction as to the precise direction or nature of the relationship between the two variables. It is necessary to use a non-directional hypothesis when there is no underlying theory or when the findings contradict previous research. Example: “There will be a difference in the number of cold symptoms reported in the following week after exposure to a virus for participants who have been sleep deprived for 24 hours versus those who have not.” 4.3.5 Associative Hypothesis 75

The associative hypothesis is a definition of interdependence among variables. A change in one variable causes a change in the other variable as a result of that change. Example: Patients' happiness is linked to health care professionals' communication abilities and the cost of service. 4.3.6 Causal Hypothesis The causal hypothesis, on the other hand, proposes that the independent variable has an effect on the dependent as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable. Example: In patients who receive pin site treatment with hydrogen proxidide, the prevalence of pin site infection is lower than in individuals who receive pin site care with Betadine solution. 4.3.7Null Hypothesis To support the researcher's findings that there is no relationship between two variables, it states a negative statement.Example: We can use ice cream as an example. To his father, the child has proposed a null hypothesis, indicating that consuming ice cream has no effect on running temperature, i.e. the null hypothesis. 4.3.8Alternative Hypothesis It asserts that there is a relationship between the two variables of the study and that the findings are significant in relation to the research topic under consideration. Example: Father is attempting to demonstrate a link between eating ice cream and running temperature, i.e., alternative hypothesis. 4.4 HOW TO FORMULATE AN EFFECTIVE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS A hypothesis is a prediction that you make prior to conducting an experiment in order to test it. The standard format is as follows: If [cause], then [effect], and then [rationale]. The world of experience optimization is characterized by strong hypotheses that are composed of three distinct parts: a definition of the problem, a proposed solution, and a result (or outcome). A testable hypothesis is not a straightforward assertion. An intricate statement, it must provide a clear introduction to a scientific experiment, as well as the experiment's intentions and the outcomes that could result from them. In order to construct a compelling hypothesis, there are several considerations that must be taken into account.  In your own words, describe the problem that you are attempting to solve.  Make certain that the hypothesis defines the topic and the focus of the experiment in clear and understandable terms.  Write the hypothesis as an if-then statement to make it easier to understand. 76

 Follow the steps in this template: If a specific action is taken, then a specific result can be expected as a result.  Define the variables in your programme.  Independent variables are those that can be manipulated, controlled, or otherwise altered in some way. Independent variables are variables that are separate from the other factors in the study.  Dependent variables, as the name implies, are variables that are dependent on other variables in the study. It has an impact on them because it affects the independent variable. Example – Formulation of a research problem Figure 4.1 Formulation of effective research hypothesis Problem State the problem that you are trying to solve. Make sure that the hypothesis clearly defines the topic and the focus of the experiment.  Experience optimization has the greatest impact when it is used to resolve a problem in the customer's journey. In order to define a hypothesis, you must first identify a meaningful problem: an issue or pain-point in your visitor's experience that you would like to alleviate or eliminate.  When validating your problem, use both qualitative and quantitative data sources. When thinking about the user experience, it's easy to fall into the trap of making assumptions about what the user wants. It is critical to use data to confirm the nature of the problem you are attempting to resolve.  Explain the situation from the visitor's point of view. This will allow you to gain a deeper understanding of the problem and generate hypotheses that will get to the root of the problem. 77

 When attempting to validate a problem, use the following format: Figure 4.2 Problem Problem definition: Users don't see the filters on our search results page. Data validation: Less than 15% of users use filters when searching for products, which is very low compared to industry standards. Solution After that, make a suggestion for a solution. Without using screenshots, describe the change in such a way that someone who reads the hypothesis can understand what has happened. Afterwards, include a rationale that provides a theory about why this solution is the most appropriate for solving the identified problem. Proposed solution: Move the filters to the left side of the results. Rationale: This is the most common place for filters to be; users are more likely to notice them there. Result Finally, predict a result that ties your hypothesis back to your key business metrics. Include metrics that determine the success or failure of your experiment. Once you know those, decide on the specific metrics you'll use to track success in the experiment or campaign. Primary metric: % of users who use filters will increase What does success look like: % of users who move on to a product page will increase; purchase rate will increase? 4.5 IMPORTANCE OF A TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS If you want to design and conduct an experiment using the scientific method, you must first ensure that your hypothesis can be tested. Some essential criteria must be met in order for a hypothesis to be considered testable: 78

 There must be a possibility to prove that the hypothesis is true.  There must be a possibility to prove that the hypothesis is false.  The results of the hypothesis must be reproducible. The hypothesis and the results will be ambiguous if these criteria are not followed. A significant conclusion will not be drawn from the experiment as a result. What have been your previous experiences with developing hypotheses for scientific experiments and experiments? What obstacles did you have to overcome? What strategies did you use to overcome these difficulties? Please let us know what you think in the comments section of this post. You can also check out our Q&A forum, where you can get answers to frequently asked questions about various aspects of research writing and publishing from our team, which includes subject-matter experts, eminent researchers, and publication experts, among other people. 4.6 SUMMARY  A hypothesis is a proposition or a set of propositions that are put forth as an explanation for the occurrence of a specific group of phenomena.  A hypothesis may be asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation, or it may be accepted as highly probable in light of established facts  The hypothesis should be concise and specific. As long as the hypothesis is not specific and clear, the inferences drawn on its basis will not be considered reliable.  Hypotheses for research can be divided into seven categories, which are as follows: a. Simple Hypothesis b. Complex Hypothesis c. Directional Hypothesis d. Non-directional Hypothesis e. Associative and Causal Hypothesis f. Null Hypothesis g. Alternative Hypothesis  A hypothesis is a prediction that you make prior to conducting an experiment in order to test it. The standard format is as follows: If [cause], then [effect], and then [rationale]. 4.7 KEYWORDS  Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an assumption, an idea that is proposed for the sake of argument so that it can be tested to see if it might be true. In the scientific method, the hypothesis is constructed before any applicable research has been done, apart from a basic background review. 79

 Null Hypothesis: The null hypothesis states that a population parameter (such as the mean, the standard deviation, and so on) is equal to a hypothesized value. The null hypothesis is often an initial claim that is based on previous analyses or specialized knowledge.  Alternate Hypothesis: The alternative hypothesis states that a population parameter is smaller, greater, or different than the hypothesized value in the null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is what you might believe to be true or hope to prove true.  Scientific method: The scientific method was first outlined by Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) to provide logical, rational problem solving across many scientific fields. The basic steps of the scientific method are: 1) make an observation that describes a problem, 2) create a hypothesis, 3) test the hypothesis, and 4) draw conclusions and refine the hypothesis.  Verifiability: Verifiability means that an experiment must be replicable by another researcher. To achieve verifiability, researchers must make sure to document their methods and clearly explain how their experiment is structured and why it produces certain results.  Predictability: Predictability in a scientific theory implies that the theory should enable us to make predictions about future events. The precision of these predictions is a measure of the strength of the theory. 4.8LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define each of the following concepts, and then operationally define each one by providing correspondence rules between the definition and the scale: a. A good bowler b. The television audience for The Tonight Show c. Purchasing intention for an iPhone d. Consumer involvement with cars e. A workaholic 4.9UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Define Hypothesis. 2. List the types of Hypothesis. 3. Distinguish Null and Alternate Hypothesis 4. Define Non directional hypothesis. 80

5. What do you mean by associative and casual hypothesis? Long Questions 1. Explain the importance of a testable hypothesis 2. Discuss the process of research in detail 3. Classify the types of hypotheses. 4. How to formulate an effective hypothesis? Explain 5. Interpretthe essential characters of a good hypothesis. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. ______ can be tested using scientific methods are frequently used to establish a relationship between an independent variable and some dependent variable in a research hypothesis. a. Predictive variables b. Predictive statements c. Conclusive statements d. Conclusive variables 2. It is used to predict the relationship between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable in a single-factor model. a. Directional Hypothesis b. Complex Hypothesis c. Simple Hypothesis d. Non-Directional Hypothesis. 3. A change in one variable causes ______ as a result of that change a. a conflict and error b. scientific errors c. a change in the other variable d. no change in the other variable 4. It does not provide a prediction as to the precise direction or nature of the relationship between the two variables a. Directional Hypothesis b. Complex Hypothesis c. Simple Hypothesis d. Non-Directional Hypothesis. 5. A hypothesis is a prediction that you make prior to conducting an experiment in order to test it. The standard format is as follows: a. If [cause], then [effect], and then [rationale]. 81

b. If [effect], then [cause], and then [rationale]. c. If [cause], then [rationale], and then [effect]. d. If [effect], then [rationale], and then [cause]. Answers 1-b, 2-c, 3-c, 4-d, 5-b 4.10 REFERENCES References book  R1, Business Research Methods – Alan Bryman& Emma Bell, Oxford University Press.  R2, Research Methodology - C.R. Kothari  R2, Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, Levine Stephan, Krehbiel Berenson Textbook references  T1,SPSSExplained,ISBN:9780415274104,Publisher:TataMcgrawHill  T2, Sancheti&Kapoor,BusinessMathematics,SultanChand,NewDelhi 82

UNIT 5: RESEARCH DESIGN STRUCTURE 5.0 Learning Objectives 5.1 Meaning of Research 5.2 Need for Research Design 5.3 Features of a Good design 5.4 Important concepts relating to Research Design 5.5 Different Research Designs 5.5.1 research design in case of exploratory research studies 5.5.2 research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies 5.5.3 research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies. 5.6 Basic principles of Experimental designs 5.6.1 Principle of Replication 5.6.2 Principle of Randomization 5.6.3 Principle of Local Control 5.7 Summary 5.8 Keywords 5.9 Learning Activity 5.10 Unit End Questions 5.11 References 5.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Describe the nature of Research design  Identify the features of a good design  State the need for research design  Explain the different research design  Describe the basic principles of experimental design 83

5.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.” More explicitly, the designing decisions happen to be in respect of:  What is the study about?  Why is the study being made?  Where will the study be carried out?  What type of data is required?  Where can the required data be found?  What periods of time will the study include?  What will be the sample design?  What techniques of data collection will be used?  How will the data be analysed?  In what style will the report be prepared? In light of the aforementioned design decisions, it is possible to divide the overall research design into the following sections: the sampling design, which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study. the observational design, which deals with the conditions under which the observations are to be made; and the analysis design, which deals with the results of the analysis. This section discusses the statistical design, which is concerned with the question of how many items are to be observed, as well as how the information and data collected will be analysed. the operational design, which is concerned with the techniques that can be used to carry out the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical, and observational designs, among others. Based on the information presented above, we can list the following as the most important characteristics of a research design: Specifically, it is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information that will be used to investigate the research problem. A data collection strategy specifies which approach will be used for data collection and analysis. 84

It also includes time and cost budgets, as most studies are completed within these two constraints. In a nutshell, research design must include at the very least the following elements:  a clear statement of the research problem.  procedures and techniques to be used for information gathering.  the population to be studied; and  methods to be used in processing and analysing data. 5.2 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN Research design is required because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby ensuring that research is as efficient as possible, yielding the greatest amount of information with the least amount of effort, time, and financial resources. In the same way that a well-thought-out and prepared blueprint (also known as a map of the house) is required for better, more cost-effective, and more aesthetically pleasing house construction, a well-thought-out and prepared research design or plan is required in advance of data collection and analysis for our research project. It is the planning in advance of the methods to be used for collecting relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis that is known as research design. This planning is done with the goal of the research in mind as well as the availability of personnel, time, and money. When creating the research design, extreme care should be taken to ensure that no mistakes are made, as any mistakes could have disastrous consequences for the entire project. In fact, the design of the research study has a significant impact on the reliability of the conclusions reached, and as such, it serves as the solid foundation for the entire edifice of the research project. Even in this case, many people are not aware of the importance of a well- thought-out research design at all times. Despite its importance, this issue is not given the attention that it deserves. As a result, many studies fail to achieve the objectives for which they were conducted. In fact, they may even come to incorrect conclusions in some cases. If the research project is not carefully planned, it may end up being a complete waste of time and resources for everyone involved. As a result, it is critical that an efficient and appropriate design be developed prior to the commencement of research operations. The design assists the researcher in organizing his ideas in such a way that it will be possible for him to identify and correct flaws and inadequacies later on. A design of this nature can even be shared with others for their feedback and critical evaluation. As a result, it will be difficult for the critic to provide an in- depth analysis of the proposed study in the absence of such a course of action. 85

5.3 FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN Flexible, appropriate, efficient, and cost-effective are just a few of the adjectives that describe a good design, among others. Generally speaking, a good design is one that minimises bias while simultaneously increasing the reliability of the data collected and analysed. In many investigations, the design that results in the smallest amount of experimental error is considered to be the best design. In a similar vein, a design that yields the greatest amount of information and allows for the consideration of numerous different aspects of a problem is considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design in many research problems. So, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem as well as the nature of the problem that is being studied, as shown in the diagram. In one situation, a design may be perfectly adequate; however, in another, it may be found wanting in one or more aspects in the context of another research problem. There is no single design that can be used to solve all of the different types of research problems. In order to develop a research design that is appropriate for a specific research problem, it is usually necessary to take into account the following factors: (1) the means of obtaining information. (2) availability and skills of the researcher and his or her staff, if any. (3) objective of the problem to be studied. (4) nature of the problem to be studied; and (5) availability of time and money for the research. If the research study is exploratory or formulative in nature, with the primary emphasis on the discovery of new ideas and insights, the research design that is most appropriate must be flexible enough to allow for the consideration of many different aspects of a phenomenon to be taken into consideration. The accuracy of a study's description of a situation or of an association between variables (or in what are known as descriptive studies) becomes a major consideration, and a research design that minimises bias and increases the reliability of the evidence collected is considered to be a good design in these situations. Researchers conducting studies to determine whether or not a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables holds true must employ a design that allows for inferences about causality while also minimising bias and increasing reliability, among other things. The task of classifying a particular study into a specific group is, however, the most difficult in practise because a single study may contain elements of two or more different studies' functions. When it comes to categorising studies, it is only on the basis of their primary function that they can be classified as exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-testing studies, and it is only on this basis that the choice of a research design can be made in the case of a specific study. 86

Furthermore, when developing the relevant details of the research design, such as the experimental design, survey design, sample design, and the like, consideration must be given to the availability of time, money, the skills of the research staff, and the means of obtaining the information. 5.4 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGN Different research designs can be conveniently described if they are divided into the following categories: 1. Descriptive research design: It is a theory-based design method that is created through the collection, analysis, and presentation of data. This enables a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research as well as the results obtained. The use of descriptive design aids in the understanding of the research's purpose by others. It is possible to conduct exploratory research if the problem statement is not clearly defined. 2. Experimental research design: Experimental research is used to establish a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation in a laboratory setting. It is a causal design in which the impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed and interpreted. Consider the influence of an independent variable such as price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty, which is monitored. It is a highly practical research method in that it contributes to the solution of a specific problem that has been identified. The independent variables are changed in order to track the effect of the change on the dependent variable. It is frequently used in social sciences to observe human behaviour by comparing and contrasting two groups of people. Researchers can manipulate the actions of participants and observe how those around them react in order to gain a better understanding of social psychology and human behaviour. 3. Correlational research design: This type of research necessitates the participation of two distinct groups. When evaluating a relationship between two different variables, there are no assumptions made, and statistical analysis techniques are used to calculate the relationship between the variables. 4. Diagnostic research design: In statistics, a correlation coefficient is a measure of the relationship between two variables whose values are between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is pointing in the direction of one, it indicates a positive relationship between the variables, and if it is pointing in the direction of zero, it indicates a negative relationship between the two variables. This research design is divided into three sections: 87

 Inception of the issue  Diagnosis of the issue  Solution for the issue 5. Explanatory research design: Explanatory research design is a method of further exploring a researcher's ideas and thoughts on a subject by utilizing those ideas and thoughts. Researchers explain previously undiscovered aspects of a subject as well as the what, how, and why of research questions in their findings. 5.5 HIERARCHY OF INFORMATION-BASED DECISION MAKERS Different research designs can be conveniently described if they are divided into the following categories: 1.Research design in case of exploratory research studies. 2.research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and 3.Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies. We take up each category separately. 5.5.1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies: The term \"formulative research studies\" refers to research studies that are exploratory in nature. The primary goal of such studies is to formulate a problem in order to conduct a more precise investigation or to develop working hypotheses from an operational standpoint. It is the discovery of new ideas and insights that is the primary focus of such research. As a result, the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to allow for the consideration of various aspects of the problem under investigation to be considered. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is required because the research problem, which is initially defined broadly, is transformed into one with a more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure in order to collect relevant data in a timely manner. It is generally agreed that the following three methods should be considered in the context of research design for such studies: a) The survey of concerning literature. b) The experience survey and c) The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples. Surveying relevant literature turns out to be the most straightforward and fruitful method of defining precisely the research problem or formulating research hypotheses. The hypotheses put forth by previous researchers may be reviewed, and their usefulness as a basis for further investigation may be assessed. It may also be considered whether the hypotheses that have 88

already been stated suggest the development of new hypotheses. While the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others, he or she should also review and formulate hypotheses for the purposes of deriving the relevant hypotheses from the available material. Apart from that, the researcher may as well conduct a bibliographical survey of studies that have already been conducted in his or her area of interest in order to more precisely formulate the problem. It is important for him to try to apply concepts and theories that have been developed in different research contexts to the field in which he is currently working. The works of creative writers can sometimes serve as a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation, and as such, the researcher may wish to investigate their works further. The term \"experience survey\" refers to a survey of people who have had hands-on experience with the problem under investigation. The goal of such a survey is to gain insight into the relationships between variables as well as new ideas that are relevant to the research problem being investigated. People who are competent and who can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents for such a survey in order to ensure that different types of experience are represented in the results. The investigator may then conduct interviews with the respondents who have been chosen. The researcher is responsible for creating an interview schedule that will allow for the systematic questioning of informants. It is important, however, that the interview maintains flexibility in that the respondents should be given the opportunity to raise issues and questions that the investigator had not previously considered. In general, the experience- gathering interview is likely to be lengthy and may last several hours, depending on the circumstances. Thus, it is frequently considered desirable to send a copy of the questions that will be discussed with the respondents well in advance of the actual discussion. This will also provide the respondents with an opportunity to do some preliminary thinking about the various issues involved in order to be better prepared to contribute when the interview takes place. The researcher may be able to more concisely define the problem as a result of conducting an experience survey, which will aid in the formulation of the research hypothesis. This survey may also provide information on the practical aspects of conducting various types of research, such as the availability of funding. For the purpose of developing hypotheses for future research, the analysis of \"insight- stimulating\" examples can be very useful. It is particularly well suited for use in areas where there is little previous experience to act as an advisor. This method entails conducting an in- depth investigation of a small number of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is interested. If any existing records are found, they may be examined, unstructured interviewing may be conducted, or some other approach may be used to accomplish this goal. The investigator's attitude, the intensity of the study, and the researcher's ability to draw together disparate pieces of information into a unified interpretation are the primary 89

characteristics that distinguish this method as a suitable procedure for eliciting insights from participants. What kinds of examples are to be chosen and studied, and how will they be chosen and studied? There isn't a simple answer to this question. Experience has shown that for specific problems, certain types of situations are more appropriate than others, depending on the situation. Among the many examples of \"insight-stimulating\" cases are the reactions of strangers, the reactions of marginalised individuals, the study of individuals who are in the process of transitioning from one stage to another, the reactions of individuals from different social strata, and other similar cases. In general, cases that provide sharp contrasts or have distinguishing characteristics are considered to be more useful when using this method of hypotheses formulation than cases that do not. Consequently, whatever method or research design is used in an exploratory or formulative research study that merely leads to new insights or hypotheses, the most important thing to remember is that the study must remain flexible so that many different aspects of a problem can be considered as and when they arise and are brought to attention by the researcher. 5.5.2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies: Studies that describe the characteristics of a specific individual or of a group are known as descriptive research studies. Diagnostic research studies are concerned with determining the frequency with which something occurs or its relationship to another phenomenon and are known as diagnostic research studies. Diagnostic research studies are studies that are conducted to determine whether or not certain variables are associated with another. The opposite is true: descriptive research is characterised by studies that are concerned with specific predictions, the narration of facts and characteristics concerning an individual or a group, or the analysis of a situation. This category encompasses the vast majority of social research. According to the requirements of the research design, both descriptive and diagnostic studies have a lot in common, and as a result, we can group these two types of research studies together. Researchers must be able to clearly define what they want to measure and find appropriate methods for measuring it in both descriptive and diagnostic studies. They also must have a clear definition of the \"population\" they want to study in both descriptive and diagnostic studies. Because the goal of the aforementioned studies is to obtain complete and accurate information, the procedure that will be used must be meticulously planned. The research design must include sufficient safeguards against bias and must maximise reliability while also taking into consideration the feasibility of completing the research study within a reasonable time frame. When designing such studies, it is important to be as rigid as possible and to pay close attention to the following factors: a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?) 90

b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be adopted?) c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?) d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should e) the data be related?) f) Processing and analysing the data. g) Reporting the findings. In a descriptive/diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done carefully, the study may not provide the desired information. Then comes the question of selecting the methods by which the data are to be obtained. In other words, techniques for collecting the information must be devised. While designing data- collection procedure, adequate safeguards against bias and unreliability must be ensured. Whichever method is selected, questions must be well examined and be made unambiguous; interviewers must be instructed not to express their own opinion; observers must be trained so that they uniformly record a given item of behaviour. It is always desirable to pretest the data collection instruments before they are finally used for the study purposes. In other words, we can say that “structured instruments” are used in such studies. In most of the descriptive/diagnostic studies the researcher takes out sample(s) and then wishes to make statements about the population on the basis of the sample analysis or analyses. More often than not, sample has to be designed. Different sample designs have been discussed in detail in a separate chapter in this book. Here we may only mention that the problem of designing samples should be tackled in such a fashion that the samples may yield accurate information with a minimum amount of research effort. Usually one or more forms of probability sampling, or what is often described as random sampling, are used. To obtain data free from errors introduced by those responsible for collecting them, it is necessary to supervise closely the staff of field workers as they collect and record information. Checks may be set up to ensure that the data collecting staff perform their duty honestly and without prejudice. “As data are collected, they should be examined for completeness, comprehensibility, consistency and reliability.” The data collected must be processed and analysed. This includes steps like coding the interview replies, observations, etc.; tabulating the data; and performing several statistical computations. To the extent possible, the processing and analysing procedure should be planned in detail before actual work is started. This will prove economical in the sense that the researcher may avoid unnecessary labour such as preparing tables for which he later finds he has no use or on the other hand, re-doing some tables because he failed to include relevant data. Coding should be done carefully to avoid error in coding and for this purpose the 91

reliability of coders needs to be checked. Similarly, the accuracy of tabulation may be checked by having a sample of the tables re-done. In case of mechanical tabulation, the material (i.e., the collected data or information) must be entered on appropriate cards which is usually done by punching holes corresponding to a given code. The accuracy of punching is to be checked and ensured. Finally, statistical computations are needed and as such averages, percentages and various coefficients must be worked out. Probability and sampling analysis may as well be used. The appropriate statistical operations, along with the use of appropriate tests of significance should be carried out to safeguard the drawing of conclusions concerning the study. Last of all comes the question of reporting the findings. This is the task of communicating the findings to others and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner. The layout of the report needs to be well planned so that all things relating to the research study may be well presented in simple and effective style. Thus, the research design in case of descriptive/diagnostic studies is a comparative design throwing light on all points narrated above and must be prepared keeping in view the objective(s) of the study and the resources available. However, it must ensure the minimisation of bias and maximisation of reliability of the evidence collected. The said design can be appropriately referred to as a survey design since it takes into account all the steps involved in a survey concerning a phenomenon to be studied. The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of research studies can be conveniently summarised in tabular form as under: Table 5.1 Research design 92

5.5.3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies: Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability but will permit drawing inferences about causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments. Professor R.A. Fisher’s name is associated with experimental designs. Beginning of such designs was made by him when he was working at Rothamsted Experimental Station (Centre for Agricultural Research in England). As such the study of experimental designs has its origin in agricultural research. Professor Fisher found that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into different blocks and then by conducting experiments in each of these blocks, whatever information is collected and inferences drawn from them, happens to be more reliable. This fact inspired him to develop certain experimental designs for testing hypotheses concerning scientific investigations. Today, the experimental designs are being used in researches relating to phenomena of several disciplines. Since experimental designs originated in the context of agricultural operations, we still use, though in a technical sense, several terms of agriculture (such as treatment, yield, plot, block etc.) in experimental designs. 5.6 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs: (1) the Principle of Replication. (2) the Principle of Randomization; and (3) Principle of Local Control. 5.6.1 Principle of Replication According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose, we may divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. We can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can then collect the data of yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we 93

draw without applying the principle of replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. Conceptually replication does not present any difficulty, but computationally it does. For example, if an experiment requiring a two-way analysis of variance is replicated, it will then require a three-way analysis of variance since replication itself may be a source of variation in the data. However, it should be remembered that replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be estimated. 5.6.2 Principle of Randomization When we conduct an experiment, the Randomization Principle protects us from the effect of extraneous factors by ensuring that the results are as random as possible. In other words, according to this principle, we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be grouped together under the general heading of \"chance.\" Consider the following scenario: if we plant one variety of rice in the first half of a field and another variety in the other half, it is possible that the soil fertility in the first half of the field will be different from the soil fertility in the other half. It is possible that our results are not realistic if this is the case. It is possible to assign the variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling technique, i.e., we can apply the randomization principle and protect ourselves from the effects of the extraneous factors in such a situation (soil fertility differences in the given case). Therefore, we can get a better estimate of the experimental error by applying the principle of randomization to the experiment. 5.6.3 Principle of Local Control In experimental designs, the Principle of Local Control is yet another important principle to consider. A known source of variability is deliberately made to vary over as wide a range as possible under the conditions of the experiment, and this must be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and therefore eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should design the experiment in such a way that we can perform a two- way analysis of variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components: components attributed to treatments (in our case, rice varieties), components attributed to an extraneous factor (in our case, soil fertility), and components attributed to error in the experiment. To put it another way, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then divide each of these blocks into parts equal to the number of treatments being administered. The treatments are then assigned to these sections of a block in a random manner. Blocking is the term used to describe the process of dividing a field into several homogeneous sections. For the purposes of a two-way analysis of variance, blocks are the levels at which we maintain a fixed value for an extraneous factor so that we can measure its contribution to the 94

total variability of the data. For the short version, we can eliminate the variability caused by extraneous factor(s) from the experimental error by employing the principle of local control. 5.7 SUMMARY  The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”.  Research design must include at the very least the following elements:  a clear statement of the research problem.  procedures and techniques to be used for information gathering.  the population to be studied; and  methods to be used in processing and analysing data.  In order to develop a research design that is appropriate for a specific research problem, it is usually necessary to take into account the following factors:  the means of obtaining information.  availability and skills of the researcher and his or her staff, if any.  objective of the problem to be studied.  nature of the problem to be studied; and  availability of time and money for the research.  Different research designs can be conveniently described if they are divided into the following categories:  Descriptive research design  Experimental research design  Correlational research design  Diagnostic research design  Explanatory research design  Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:  the Principle of Replication  the Principle of Randomization  Principle of Local Control 5.8 KEYWORDS  Research design: A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.  Descriptive research design: It is a theory-based design method that is created through the collection, analysis, and presentation of data. 95

 Experimental research design: Experimental research is used to establish a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation in a laboratory setting.  Correlational research design: When evaluating a relationship between two different variables, there are no assumptions made, and statistical analysis techniques are used to calculate the relationship between the variables.  Explanatory research design: Explanatory research design is a method of further exploring a researcher's ideas and thoughts on a subject by utilizing those ideas and thoughts 5.9 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Confronted by low sales, the president of Oaks International Inc. asks a research company to study the activities of the customer relations department in the corporation. What are some of the important reasons that this research project may fail to make an adequate contribution to the solution of management problems? 5.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Define Research design. 2. Identify the features of a good design 3. List the different types of research design 4. What is descriptive research? 5. Where will you apply experimental research? Long Questions 1. Explain the nature of research design. 2. Discussthe features of a good research design in a research 3. Identifythe need and role of research design in the research. 4. Classifythe different types of research design. 5. Discussthe hierarchy of information-based decision makers in detail. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. ______ is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure a. Research manuals b. Blueprint c. Research design d. Research plan 96

2. ______ specifies which approach will be used for data collection and analysis. a. Data collection strategy b. Data selection strategy c. Data analysis strategy d. Data verification strategy 3. It is a theory-based design method that is created through the collection, analysis, and presentation of data. a. Experimental research design b. Descriptive research design c. Explanatory research design d. Diagnostic research design 4. It is used to establish a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation in a laboratory setting. a. Experimental research design b. Descriptive research design c. Explanatory research design d. Diagnostic research design 5. Identify the basic principles of Experimental design a. the Principle of Replication. b. the Principle of Randomization; and c. Principle of Local Control d. All the above Answers 1-c, 2-a, 3-b, 4-a, 5-d 97

5.11 REFERENCES References books  R1, Business Research Methods – Alan Bryman& Emma Bell, Oxford University Press.  R2, Research Methodology - C.R. Kothari  R2, Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, Levine Stephan, Krehbiel Berenson Textbook references  T1,SPSSExplained,ISBN:9780415274104,Publisher:TataMcgrawHill  T2, Sancheti&Kapoor,BusinessMathematics,SultanChand,NewDelhi 98

UNIT 6: TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN-1 STRUCTURE 6.0 Learning Objective 6.1 Meaning of Exploratory Research 6.2 Methods of Exploratory research 6.2.1 Primary research methods 6.2.2 Secondary research methods 6.3 Steps to conduct an Exploratory research 6.4 Characteristics of Exploratory research 6.5 Importance of Exploratory research 6.6 Advantages of Exploratory research 6.7 Disadvantages Exploratory research 6.8 Meaning of descriptive research 6.9 Types of Descriptive research 6.10 Characteristics of descriptive research 6.11 Applications of descriptive research 6.12 Advantages of descriptive research 6.13 Disadvantages of descriptive research 6.14 Summary 6.15 Keywords 6.16 Learning Activity 6.17 Unit End Questions 6.18 References 6.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Describe the steps to conduct an Exploratory research  Explain the types of descriptive research.  State the applications of Exploratory research  List the advantages and disadvantages of descriptive research 99

 Explain the merits and demerits of descriptive research 6.1 MEANING OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH Exploratory research is conducted on problems that have not been investigated clearly and there is not much information available on it. the purpose of conducting exploratory research is to develop more understanding about the problem and there is no surety that the research will provide any conclusive outcomes. Exploratory research is defined as research that is used to investigate a problem that has not yet been clearly defined by the researcher. It is being carried out in order to gain a better understanding of the current problem, but it will not produce conclusive results in this case. Typically, a researcher will begin with a broad concept and use the research as a means of identifying issues that can be the focus of future research efforts. An important consideration is that the researcher must be willing to alter his or her course in response to the discovery of new information or insight. In most cases, this type of investigation is carried out when the problem is still in its early stages. Grounded theory approach or interpretive research are terms that are frequently used to describe how this method is used to answer questions such as what, why, and how. Consider the following scenario: A juice bar owner believes that increasing the variety of juices will result in an increase in customers; however, he is unsure and requires more information to make this determination. For this reason, the proprietor decides to conduct an exploratory research study in order to determine whether expanding their juice selection will enable him to attract more customers, or whether there is an alternative idea that is superior. In addition, a podcast survey template can be used to collect feedback about podcast consumption metrics from existing listeners as well as from other podcast listeners who are not currently subscribed to this channel, which is an example of exploratory research. This assists the podcast's creator in creating curated content that will be more appealing to a larger audience. 6.2 METHODS OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH While it may appear to be difficult to conduct research on something about which there is little information, there are several methods that can be used to assist a researcher in determining the best research design, data collection methods, and subject selection for their project. There are two types of research that can be conducted: primary research and secondary research. There are a variety of methods that can be used by a researcher under each of these two categories. The information gathered from these studies can be either qualitative or quantitative in nature. Research designs such as the following are some of the most widely used in the field: 100