Psychology of Women Issues and manual

730 Psychology of Women achievements and to adult socioeconomic status and lifestyle. An undergraduate degree is now a necessary minimum requirement for the pursuit of many occupations, and graduate or professional educa- tion is the only route to careers in many professions. All workers, men and women, earn more with increasing levels of education. Education is crucial for economic power (Wycott, 1996) and independence (Cardoza, 1991). In short, appropriate educational preparation is a major ‘‘gateway’’ to occupational entrance. Education creates options, while lack of educa- tion closes them; without options, the concept of ‘‘choice’’ itself has no real meaning. Thus, the decisions individuals make concerning their edu- cation, both in terms of level and major areas of study, will be among the most important career decisions they ever make. Further, success and survival in the educational programs chosen will be critical to the suc- cessful implementation of these career decisions. Studies commissioned by the American Association of University Women (1992, 1999, 2002) and reviews done by Sadker and Sadker (1994) and Zittleman and Sadker (2003) document the continuing dis- advantaged position of girls in our educational system. Researchers have concluded that girls receive less attention from teachers than do boys, that teachers have stereotyped views of the sexes, and that teach- ing materials such as textbooks continue to have gender-biased content or to marginalize or ignore women. For example, Siegel and Reis (1998) found that although teachers perceived gifted girls as working harder and doing better work than gifted boys, they gave the boys higher grades. In another study (Fennema et al., 1998), teachers contin- ued to perceive that boys are better at math and that they like it better in comparison to gifted girls. Research by Brody (1997) and others has also convincingly docu- mented a decline in self-esteem among girls, but not boys, from ele- mentary to middle and high school. For example, 55 percent of elementary school girls agreed with the statement ‘‘I am good at a lot of things,’’ but this percentage declined to 29 percent in middle school and 23 percent in high school. Interestingly, girls who pursued math and science courses and who participated in sports maintained their self-esteem over this time period (American Association of University Women, 1992). Because of the combination of lack of support with out- right discouragement and harassment, Sandler and Hall (1996) described our schools as providing a ‘‘chilly educational climate’’ for girls and women. When girls enter college, they can expect to encounter an educa- tional environment that may continue to be ‘‘chilly.’’ Sexual harass- ment, being discouraged from classroom participation, and lack of support and mentoring can affect women in any major, but these and other subtle or direct messages that ‘‘she doesn’t belong’’ are particu- larly true in male-dominated fields such as engineering and the

Women’s Career Development 731 physical sciences (see the discussion of the experiences of ‘‘token’’ women in the next section on barriers to equity). Ehrhart and Sandler (1987) documented other types of differential treatment of women in higher education such as disparaging women’s intellectual capabilities or professional potential, using sexist humor, advising women to lower their academic and career goals, and focusing on marriage and chil- dren as a potential barrier to the career development of women but as an advantage for men. As stated by Pearson, Shavlik, and Touchton (1988): The present record of higher education, in spite of some significant efforts, is not particularly good. Female students, on the whole, still expe- rience a loss of personal and career confidence over the period they spend in higher education, even when they make very high grades. For men, the reverse is true. One of the most basic and important concepts summarizing the dif- ficulties faced by women in higher education is Freeman’s (1979) con- cept of the null educational environment. A null environment is one that neither encourages nor discourages individuals—it simply ignores them (Betz, 1989; Freeman, 1979). Its outcome is to leave the individual at the mercy of whatever environmental or personal resources to which she or he has access. The effects of null environments on women were first postulated by Freeman (1979) following her study of students at the University of Chicago. Students were asked to describe the sources and extent of environmental support they received for their educational and career goals. Although both male and female students reported being ignored by faculty (thus experiencing what Freeman dubbed the null educa- tional environment), male students reported more encouragement and support from others in their environments, for example, parents, friends, relatives, and significant others. When added to the greater occurrence of negative messages regarding women’s roles and, in particular, regarding women’s pursuit of careers in fields traditionally dominated by men, the effect of the faculty simply ignoring the women students was a form of passive discrimination— discrimination through failure to act. As stated by Freeman (1979), ‘‘An academic situation that neither encourages nor discourages students of either sex is inherently discriminatory against women because it fails to take into account the differentiating external environments from which women and men students come,’’ where external environments refer to difference in familial, peer, and societal support for career pursuits (p. 221). In other words, professors do not have to overtly discourage or discriminate against female students; society has already placed count- less negative marks on the female student’s ‘‘ballot,’’ so a passive

732 Psychology of Women approach, a laissez-faire attitude, is enough to contribute to her failure. Career-oriented female students, to survive, must do it without much support from their environments (Betz, 1989). Discrimination can thus result from acts of omission as well as com- mission, and both have negative effects on females’ progress and success in higher education. Leppel (2001) illustrates a phenomenon akin to the null environment, using women in nontraditional majors as an example: they may feel both more negative pressure and less positive emotional support from friends and family than women in more traditional majors, and in many cases, these students then change to traditional majors. It is not enough to avoid discriminating—positive support must be provided to counteract other negative environmental influences. Thus if we are not actively supporting and encouraging women, we are, in effect, leaving them at the mercy of gender-role and occupational stereotypes. Eccles (1987) stated it well when she wrote: ‘‘Given the omnipre- sence of gender-role prescriptions regarding appropriate female life choices, there is little basis for females to develop non-traditional goals if their parents, peers, teachers, and counselors do not encourage them to consider these options’’ (p. 164). Failure to support her may not be an error of commission, like overt discrimination or sexual harassment, but it is an error of omission because its ultimate consequences are the same: limitations on a woman’s ability to fully develop and utilize her skills and talents in educational and career pursuits. SUPPORTS TO WOMEN’S CAREER CHOICES Among the factors that have been found to facilitate women’s career achievements, including perceiving a broader array of career options, are a number of variables which, by their absence, can serve as bar- riers. Just as unsupportive environments can serve as barriers, support- ive environments can be very helpful. One of the most crucial areas of support is that from families, especially parents and older relatives, and this has been found true for women of all racial and ethnic groups. Studies by Fisher and Padmawidjaja (1999), Pearson and Bieschke (2001), and Juntunen, Barraclough, Broneck, Seibel, Winlow, and Morin (2001), among others, have found parental support and availability to be very important in the career aspirations and achievements of Mexican American, African American, and Native American, as well as white, women. Kitano and Perkins (1996) noted that high-achieving girls in Latino and Asian cultures are those with extra encouragement from their families. A number of other studies have found maternal employment, partic- ularly in nontraditional career fields, is related to daughters’ higher ca- reer aspirations (e.g., Selkow, 1984). Gomez, Fassinger, Prosser, Cooke,

Women’s Career Development 733 Mejia, and Luna (2001) found that although Latina high achievers came from families where traditional gender-roles were emphasized, most also had nontraditional female role models—for example, their mothers were often nontraditionally employed or, if homemakers, held leader- ship roles in community organizations. On the other hand, Hackett, Esposito, and O’Halloran (1989) and Weishaar, Green, and Craighead (1981), among others, have reported that the presence of a supportive male family member was important in girls’ pursuit of nontraditional career fields. Many women pursuing nontraditional career fields relied heavily on male mentors (Betz, 2002), since no female mentors were available in their environments. In addition to supportive family and mentors, much previous research has shown the importance of personality factors such as instru- mentality, internal locus of control, high self-esteem, and a feminist ori- entation in women’s career achievements (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987; Fassinger, 1990). Instrumentality, one of the critical factors in Farmer’s (1997) study, refers to a constellation of traits that were previously called ‘‘masculinity’’ but were seen eventually to reflect a collection of charac- teristics having to do with independence, self-sufficiency, and the feeling that one was in control of one’s life. It has also been described as ‘‘agency’’ and has much in common with self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). The possession of instrumental traits does not mean that one cannot also possess the most traditionally feminine traits of nurturance and sensitivity to others. These characteristics are now referred to as ‘‘expres- siveness’’ or ‘‘communion.’’ Together, instrumentality and expressive- ness form the ‘‘androgynous’’ personality style, which is thought to be desirable for both women and men. Thus, positive factors related to sup- port and mentoring from others, along with a personality characterized by high self-esteem and self-efficacy and a sense of self-sufficiency and instrumentality, can help women reach their career goals. WOMEN OF COLOR: CONTINUING DOUBLE JEOPARDY Before moving to a discussion of barriers to success in the work- place, explicit attention should be paid to the status and unique con- cerns of women of color. Although research on women of color is also mentioned where relevant throughout this chapter (see also chapter 2 in this volume), a few more general factors should be mentioned. The disadvantages facing women in the labor force are accentuated for women of color, who have often been described as facing the ‘‘dou- ble jeopardy’’ of both gender and race discrimination (Beale, 1970; see also Gomez et al., 2001). Women of color are employed in proportions comparable to that of white women, but earn less than either white women or minority men. Lesbians and physically disabled women also earn less than heterosexual white women (Yoder, 1999).

734 Psychology of Women With reference to specific groups, African American women have achieved higher educational and occupational levels and have had more options compared to African American men (Jewell, 1993), but they have also often been found in menial jobs such as maids and nan- nies at a ratio exceeding that of white women and still make less money than do both white women or African American men (DeVaney & Hughey, 2000). Since they are the most likely group to be supporting a child or children alone, this can create a special hardship. See Bingham, Ward, and Butler (2006) for a recent review of issues in the career devel- opment and career counseling of African American women. Latinos currently represent the largest minority group in the United States, 32.8 million or 12.5 percent of the U.S. population in the 2000 census. The achievement of Latino men and women both in terms of educational and occupational levels lags well behind that of other U.S. minorities except for Native Americans (Arbona & Novy, 1991; Flores, Navarro, & Ojeda, 2006). Mexican American women lag behind other women of Hispanic ethnicity in college completion rates (Flores et al., 2006), and adult Latinas have higher unemployment rates and lower labor-force participation rates in comparison to Latino males or white women. They also lag behind Latino men who, on the average, earned poorer grades in college. In understanding the career behavior of Latinas, Flores et al. (2006) urge the assessment of individual adherence to traditional Latino/Latina cultural values—although greater adher- ence may impair individual career development, counseling interven- tions must take an attitude of respect toward the value systems of the culture if they are to be ultimately successful. Asian American women are somewhat more likely than other groups of women to be found in occupations emphasizing math or technology, but they are still predominately found in traditionally female fields and, like other groups of women, earn less money than men (Ali, Lewis, & Sandal, 2006). Finally, Native American women, including Native Hawaiians, are almost absent from our literature (Bowman, 1998) and are the most occupationally disadvantaged and the most likely to be unemployed of any group of women. McCloskey and Mintz (2006) have carefully reviewed issues that must be considered in aiding the career develop- ment of Native American women. Clearly, the career development needs of women of color must receive more of our attention. EXTERNAL BARRIERS TO EQUITY Discrimination The barrier of discrimination has long been discussed as crucial in women’s attempt to attain equity in the workplace (see Fassinger,

Women’s Career Development 735 2002a; Phillips & Imhoff, 1997). Although outright gender discrimina- tion is against the law, informal discrimination continues to exist (Fitz- gerald & Harmon, 2001). For example, although women may be allowed to enter a male-dominated workplace, it may be made clear to them, overtly or more subtly, that they are not welcome. Messages ranging from overt verbal harassment to simply being ignored and receiving no social support from colleagues can make a work environ- ment very unpleasant, and less obvious forms of discrimination in pay, promotions, and perquisites of the job may exist as well (Fitzgerald & Harmon, 2001). The importance of promotions is related to the continuing existence of the ‘‘glass ceiling,’’ which refers to artificial barriers, based on attitu- dinal or organizational bias, that prevent some groups of people from advancing in an organization, and in particular keep only a very small number of women at top levels of management (Yoder, 1999). In 1995 the Department of Labor’s Federal Glass Ceiling Commission con- cluded that there still existed a corporate ceiling, as evidenced by the fact that only 3–5 percent of senior corporate leadership positions were held by women, far fewer than their proportionate representation in the labor force. The commission reported that, although the notion of a ‘‘glass ceiling’’ implies subtlety, the ceiling for women of color is by no means subtle and is better depicted as a ‘‘concrete wall’’ (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995, pp. 68–69). Another barrier to women in nontraditional careers is that of being a ‘‘token.’’ First described by Kanter (1977), tokens are people who in gender or race (or both) constitute less than 15 percent of their work group. Tokens experience stress, social isolation, heightened visibility, and accusations of role violations (‘‘you don’t belong here’’). Research on women of color who are double tokens, such as the African American women firefighters studied by Yoder and Aniakudo (1997) and the Afri- can American women police officers studied by Martin (1994), shows that these women faced insufficient instruction, coworker hostility, silence, overly close and punitive supervision, lack of support, and ster- eotyping—an unwavering message of exclusion and a hope that they would fail (Yoder & Aniakudo, 1997). These studies suggest that both race and gender are barriers to these women’s satisfaction and success. As one African American firefighter put it, ‘‘being a black female—it was like two things needed to be proven’’ (Yoder & Aniakudo, 1997, p. 336). Sexual Harassment Sexual harassment also continues to be a major problem in the workplace, with serious consequences for both women and organiza- tions. Sexual harassment is described in detail by authors such as

736 Psychology of Women Fitzgerald (1993, 2003); Koss, Goodman, Browne, Fitzgerald, Keita, and Russo (1994); Mackinnon and Siegel (2003); and Norton (2002). Research now distinguishes two categories of sexual harassment, ‘‘quid pro quo’’ harassment and ‘‘hostile environment’’ harassment. Quid pro quo harassment refers to situations in which an employee is asked to give in to a supervisor’s sexual demands in exchange for pay, a pro- motion, or continued employment, with the implied threat of loss of raise or promotion, or even loss of employment, if the employee refuses to comply. Hostile environment harassment refers to instances where the employee is subject to sexual innuendo, sexist or sexually oriented comments, physical touching, or sexually oriented posters or cartoons placed in the work area. The issue here is making women workers ‘‘sex objects’’ at work. Women are there to make a living and advance their careers, and sexual harassment can seriously interfere with those aims. Although sexual harassment is not limited to men harassing women— women can harass men, and same-sex harassment can also occur—the vast majority (90%) of complaints involve men harassing women. On the basis of large-scale surveys of working women, Fitzgerald (1993) esti- mated that one of every two will be harassed during their work lives. Gutek (1985) reported even greater likelihoods of harassment for His- panic and African American women. Although responses to sexual har- assment are beyond the scope of this chapter, suffice it to say that this is a major barrier to women’s equity in the workplace. Research has shown decreases in job satisfaction and organizational commitment, job with- drawal, increased symptoms of anxiety and depression, and higher levels of stress-related illness as responses to sexual harassment (Norton, 2002). Clearly these are mental health as well as economic issues and can seri- ously compromise job performance and job satisfaction. Multiple Roles Another of the persistent conditions affecting women’s equity in the workplace, and their job satisfaction, is that, while their workforce par- ticipation has increased dramatically, their work at home has not decreased. Although multiple roles are in general positive for mental health, the picture becomes more complex when women are expected to shoulder the major burden of homemaking and child care. As well stated by Barnett and Hyde (2001), ‘‘there are upper limits to the bene- fits of multiple roles’’ (p. 789) when the number of roles becomes too great or the demands of one role become excessive—this would seem to apply to the case where the woman is now expected to cope with two full-time jobs, one outside and the other inside the home. Instead of ‘‘having it all,’’ women are ‘‘doing it all’’ (Fitzgerald & Harmon, 2001, p. 215).

Women’s Career Development 737 Research suggests that few men view parenting and homemaking as their responsibility—they are primarily available to ‘‘help out’’ (Farmer, 1997). Yoder (1999) summarized data showing that, on average, women in married couples do 33 hours of household chores weekly, compared to 14 for their husbands. This constitutes 70 percent of the workload for women and 30 percent for men—not including child care. Counting child care, these women are working a full-time job at home, in addition to what they are doing at their place of employment. These figures describe African American and Latina/Latino couples as well. Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg noted that there can be no equity in the workplace until men assume equal sharing of homemaking and parent- ing roles (Farmer, 1997). A related problem is the lack of organizational structures and sup- port systems for employees with families. Subsidized child or elder care, paid family leave, flextime, job sharing, and telecommuting can greatly ease the burdens of managing home, family, and careers, bur- dens carried mostly by women (Fitzgerald & Harmon, 2001). The United States is still the only developed country in the world without a national childcare policy nor a systematic means of addressing the seri- ous problems of elder care (Fitzgerald & Harmon, 2001). SUPPORTS TO CAREER ACHIEVEMENT AND SATISFACTION A useful framework for considering supports to women’s career devel- opment has come from Fassinger’s (2002b) series of studies on diverse groups of eminent women. Using qualitative methodologies and modi- fied grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), they have studied eminent African American and Caucasian women (Richie, Fassinger, Lenn, John- son, Prosser, & Robinson, 1997), Asian American women (Prosser, Cho- pra, & Fassinger, 1998), lesbians (Hollingsworth, Tomlinson, & Fassinger, 1997), Latinas (Gomez et al., 2001), and women with physical and sensory disabilities (Noonan, Gallor, Hensler-McGinnis, Fassinger, Wang, & Goodman, 2004). They summarize findings of the supports that enabled these women to persist and succeed in spite of extensive experience with oppression with the words ‘‘persistence, connection, and passion’’ (Richie et al., 1997). These might also be viewed as strengths of women that carry them through or enable them to surmount the barriers they confront. Persistence is critical to succeeding in the face of obstacles, and strong self-efficacy expectations for one’s career, self-esteem, and sense of purpose are essential to persistence. The characteristics of instru- mentality discussed previously—the sense of being in control of one’s own life and destiny, of being agentic, able to act on one’s own behalf—are also important to persistence. Related to both self-efficacy and instrumentality is ‘‘coping efficacy,’’ which plays an increasingly important role in Lent, Brown, and

738 Psychology of Women Hackett’s (1994, 2000) social cognitive career theory. In their words, ‘‘When confronted with adverse contextual conditions, persons with a strong sense of coping efficacy (beliefs regarding one’s capabilities to negotiate particular environmental obstacles) may be more likely to persevere toward their goals’’ (Lent et al., 2000, p. 76). Gomez et al. (2001) found coping strategies especially important to their highly achieving Latinas, as did Richie et al. (1997) with highly achieving African Americans and white women. These strategies include tenacity and persistence; flexibility; creativity; reframing and redefining challenges, barriers, or mistakes; maintaining a balanced perspective in understanding how racism and sexism may affect career-related behav- iors; developing support networks congruent with personal style, values, and culture; and developing bicultural skills where applicable. (Gomez et al., 2001, p. 298) Connection refers to the essential part played by familial and peer/ friend support in facilitating persistence in one’s goals. There is ample literature documenting the importance of family, including spouse and children, friends both at work and outside of work, and mentors. This importance has been shown for women of color as well as for white women. As a few examples, Gilbert (1994) and Gomez et al. (2001) dis- cussed the crucial role of a supportive spouse in managing both career and home/family responsibilities. Gomez et al. (2001) reported that supportive families were crucial in maintaining women’s career com- mitment after the birth of children. Richie et al. (1997) emphasized the importance of interconnectedness with others in the continuing high achievement of both African American and white women. Connection may also be facilitated by a feminist orientation, which gives women a sense of community beyond themselves. Feminist orientation has con- sistently been shown to be a facilitative factor in women’s career achievements (Fassinger, 1990). Finally, passion is, for some women, loving what they do; for others, it’s feeling that they have made a difference in the world (Gomez et al., 2001). For many women, this is the sense of a life’s ‘‘calling.’’ Although not all people, women or men, are lucky enough to have such a passion in their work, helping people find careers about which they can feel passionate should be one of the goals of the psychologist. IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERVENTIONS The preceding sections of this chapter have emphasized the impor- tance to women of successful career development, as well as success in their personal relationships, yet have also outlined ways in which women continue to lag behind men in both the variety of career options

Women’s Career Development 739 they consider and the subsequent success in these pursuits. Psychologists and educators may be able to help women to close these gaps. In general, suggestions for interventions can be divided into those facilitating the ca- reer choice process and those enabling the career adjustment process. Counseling for Career Choice Because a sexist society and stereotypic socialization have often stood in the way of women’s pursuit of a full range of career options, research supports overt attempts to restore options that society has taken away. In other words, psychologists need to remain aware of the possible impact of sexism and stereotyping in concert with null envi- ronments and to accept the role of active options restorers. The following guidelines for assisting women in the process of mak- ing educational and career decisions are derived from the literature reviewed in the first part of this chapter. They can be used by psychol- ogists, counselors, educators, parents, and those in positions to influ- ence public policy (see Fassinger, in press). 1. Encourage high-quality and extensive education and training. Do not overlook the importance of technical schools, two-year and community colleges, and the military for excellent training and education. 2. Adopt the rule that one cannot take too much math. Encourage young women to stay in math coursework as long as possible. Math background opens options and prevents others from being eliminated by default. 3. When in doubt, stress decisions that eliminate the fewest options, such as staying in school and continuing in math. 4. Serve as a catalyst for the creation of new learning experiences for women, so that they can fully develop all their capabilities, including those not reinforced by traditional gender stereotyping. 5. Explore a woman’s outcome expectations and barriers to her goal pur- suits, with the idea of helping her to develop coping mechanisms, coping self-efficacy, and barrier-surmounting sources of social support. 6. Remember that all it takes is one supportive psychologist, counselor, teacher, or parent to enrich the null environment. 7. Assess the role of culture and ethnicity in the client’s career planning. Help her to make decisions that, as far as possible, integrate her individ- ual and cultural values. 8. Integrate facilitative psychological and career theories as appropriate in counseling and educational practice. Using Theories to Guide Practice Several major theories of career development have particular rele- vance to the career choice process of women. The first of these is social

740 Psychology of Women cognitive theory, based originally on the theory of Albert Bandura (1997). This theory supports the idea of continuing growth through one’s lifetime as a result of new learning experiences and new ideas. Below are more detailed suggestions for the uses of social cognitive and trait-factor theories in career choice counseling with women. Social Cognitive Theory It is important to informally or formally assess a woman’s self- efficacy beliefs for career fields. Informal assessment may include gen- eral questions regarding her beliefs in her competence in domains relevant to her career decision making, performance, or advancement. For a young woman, questions might include: . ‘‘What would you ideally like to do for a career?’’ . ‘‘What is holding you back from your ideal?’’ . ‘‘What career fantasies have you had and what keeps you from pursuing them?’’ . ‘‘What careers would you pursue if you thought you could do anything?’’ The purpose of these questions is to identify self-imposed limits on what she can do. It may be that these are realistic limits if the girl or woman does not actually have the aptitude for that area, but the real contribution of self-efficacy is that it focuses our attention on people who are unrealistically underestimating their capabilities. The evidence is clear that women are particularly prone to underestimate their capa- bilities and must accordingly have these beliefs challenged. Further probing when a young woman reports herself unable to master a spe- cific domain of behavior should focus on the quality of her background experiences—if she dropped out of math in 10th grade because ‘‘math was for boys,’’ then it is no wonder she lacks confidence and compe- tence in math. Low self-efficacy for career tasks and fields, because it leads to avoidance, can become a self-fulfilling prophecy—we avoid what we fear, so we don’t learn it and never become good at it, thereby verify- ing our perceptions of ourselves as incompetent. Someone, perhaps a psychologist, needs to help her break this vicious circle. The psycholo- gist should refuse to accept ‘‘I can’t’’ for an answer unless and until the client has made a serious attempt to learn the subject and master it. In addition to the informal assessment of self-efficacy, there is now a large number of inventories assessing self-efficacy with respect to ca- reer behaviors (see Betz & Hackett, 2006). Measures of career-decision self-efficacy (Betz, Klein, & Taylor, 1995), math self-efficacy (Lopez, Lent, Brown, & Gore, 1997), career-search self-efficacy (Solberg et al., 1994), self-efficacy for the Holland themes (Betz, Harmon, & Borgen,

Women’s Career Development 741 1996), and self-efficacy with respect to 28 basic domains of vocational activity such as Leadership, Writing, Science, Public Speaking, and Using Technology (the Career Confidence Inventory; Borgen & Betz, 2007) are available. Self-efficacy measures may also be used jointly with parallel voca- tional interest measures (Betz & Rottinghaus, 2006; Betz & Wolfe, 2005). For example, the General Occupational Themes of the Strong In- terest Inventory, measuring the resemblance of the client to each of Holland’s six personality types, now has parallel self-efficacy measures for the six types in the Skills Confidence Inventory (Betz et al., 1996; Betz & Rottinghaus, 2006). Using these two measures jointly, we look for themes on which the client has both high interests and high self-efficacy—these themes rep- resent good possibilities for career exploration. However, areas of high interest but lower efficacy can still be options if efficacy can be increased through interventions based on Bandura’s (1997) theory (see Brown & Lent, 1996, for some other suggestions). Self-efficacy interven- tions are based on Bandura’s four sources of efficacy information and should therefore ideally include performance accomplishments, vicari- ous learning or modeling, managing anxiety, and providing support and encouragement. In planning for successful performance accomplishments, opportuni- ties should be sought where success is at first virtually ensured, and only after some successful experiences (allowing a moderate degree of self-efficacy to be established) should more difficult challenges be faced. Community or technical colleges offering entry-level or remedial courses, adult education programs, and programmed-learning materi- als may be good sources for such experiences. In using modeling, the counselor would need to locate people who have succeeded in the field in which the client lacks self-efficacy. It is helpful, though not essential, if these models are the same race and gender as the individual, and this may be especially true if the domain of behavior is nontraditional for that person’s gender. For example, a woman teaching automobile maintenance and repair or carpentry to other women will provide helpful modeling influences because these are traditionally male domains. Similarly, a man teaching parenting to young men would provide the additional benefit of modeling a nontra- ditional competency. Models can be in person, on film, on television, in books, or via other media. For example, a book on the life of a female astronaut or scientist could provide useful modeling for a young girl considering these fields. The third component of an efficacy-enhancing intervention is anxiety management. Learning new things may be associated with anxiety, par- ticularly if these are gender-nontraditional domains. If a domain such as math has been associated with males, and if a woman has internalized

742 Psychology of Women the message ‘‘Girls can’t do math,’’ anxiety will likely accompany new learning efforts. Thus teaching anxiety management techniques may also be appropriate. Relaxation training and learning to consciously focus self-talk on the task at hand rather than on the self can be helpful. Finally, the psychologist or educator can serve as the woman’s ‘‘cheer- leader’’ as she tries new things. This role includes generally encouraging her that she can do it, and more specifically reinforcing her efforts as she tries new things. Helping her set goals, reinforcing her when she achieves them, and helping her to try again when she has temporarily faltered are all important. Finally, the psychologist can counter beliefs (such as ‘‘Girls can’t do math’’) that are getting in her way. In addition to assessing self-efficacy expectations, outcome expecta- tions should also be assessed. This is especially true for women of color, who may expect more barriers to their success than white women have. Similarly, women wishing to pursue traditionally male-dominated occu- pations may have concerns about the extent to which their efforts will lead to desired rewards and outcomes. Although these concerns may be realistic, helping the woman to consider coping strategies and learn about typical organizational/institutional grievance procedures may be helpful. Assertiveness training, learning to seek social support, and exter- nalizing rather than internalizing the causes of discrimination and ha- rassment may be useful. Using the Matching (Trait-Factor) Model Trait-factor theories suggest that we should help young women to fully develop their abilities, talents, and interests. Structured methods of ability and interest assessment have always been a useful part of the assessment of these individuals, but there are a few additional consid- erations, as well. First, where possible, use within-gender norms to highlight direc- tions in which a female client has developed in spite of gender-role socialization. Many aptitude and interest measures now provide same- sex norms (usually within-gender percentiles). For example, the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery and the Differential Aptitude Test, two of the most widely used multiple-aptitude batteries in career counseling with high school students, both provide within-gender per- centiles, as well as combined group standard scores (see Walsh & Betz, 2001) Most vocational interest inventories—for example, the Strong In- terest Inventory—also now provide within-gender norms. As with self-efficacy expectations, we should see the woman as a ‘‘work in progress,’’ not a finished product. New learning experiences and opportunities can ‘‘open the doors’’ in terms of capabilities and interests, and counselors should always ask questions enabling them to assess the relative richness versus poverty of a woman’s previous

Women’s Career Development 743 educational and experiential background. If she has not had a chance to learn it, then assume she can learn to do it, help her find new learn- ing opportunities, and help convince her that she can do it. Career Education and Expanding Options Farmer (1997) noted the crucial importance of career education in the schools. Lack of guidance about how to prepare for higher educa- tion and occupations, and how to choose a career in the first place, characterize many of our schools. Farmer made suggestions for career education that can increase sex equity. For example, girls might be introduced to a wider range of careers and urged to gain information on those in science and engineering. The National Science Foundation funds Project WISE (Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York), which supports programs that involve high school women in science activities. The project produces a booklet called ‘‘The Future Is Yours—Get Ready,’’ which describes 250 different occupations in the sciences and engineering (cf. Farmer, 1997). The Girl Scouts of America sponsors a program called Bridging the Gap, designed to help girls become involved in science and engineering (cf. Farmer, 1997). Many colleges and universities also now have programs to assist women en- rolled in colleges of engineering (Fassinger & Asay, 2006). Kerr’s (1997; Kerr et al., 2005) developed programs to encourage and support mathe- matically and scientifically talented women at Arizona State University and have made extensive and widely applicable resources available. Psychologists should be aware of these resources and encourage tal- ented girls and women to study them. Counseling for Career Achievement and Satisfaction For employed women, concerns usually fall in the areas of success/ performance and satisfaction. As was indicated previously, discrimina- tion, sexual harassment, tokenism, and lack of support represent a few barriers to women’s career success and satisfaction. Additionally, the overload that may be experienced from two full-time jobs, rather than one, for women taking full responsibility for family and housework can be a major cause of decrements in both performance and satisfac- tion. A few general guidelines may be useful. 1. Help women at work develop support systems. 2. Help change the system, or help young women and men change the sys- tem, as it pertains to flexible work schedules and family leave policies (which ideally allow leave for adoption as well as childbearing and for elder care, and which assume that men are as willing to be responsible for those they love as are women).

744 Psychology of Women 3. Help token women (especially women of color) find support, often by broadening the net that is cast to find support. For example, the lone woman faculty member in chemistry (see Fassinger, in press) may find support in a group consisting of all the faculty women in the College of Sciences. 4. Teach women to expect full participation in homemaking and childrear- ing from their husbands or partners. Teach men that it is their responsi- bility, and also to their benefit, to participate fully in home and family life and work. 5. Help women develop effective cognitive and behavioral coping strat- egies, as discussed earlier in the section on supports for career achieve- ment and satisfaction. For an adult woman considering career change or advancement, we should help her to explore areas of behavior where she feels her skills are holding her back or preventing her from pursuing desired options. In many fields, technical expertise is necessary to, but not sufficient for, the pursuit of managerial or supervisory roles—we know that women lack seriously in technical training and that this lack limits their advancement possibilities (American Association of University Women, 2002; U.S. Department of Education, 2000). If she wishes to make such a move, a woman’s self-efficacy beliefs regarding her managerial/leadership skills may be highly relevant to her perceived options. Another assessment question might be, ‘‘What new skills would increase your options or sat- isfaction, and what is stopping you from developing these new skills?’’ In many cases, the counselor will hear perceived self-efficacy—self- doubts about competence and ability to move in a new direction—and should be prepared to help a woman with such self-doubts to appraise accurately the competencies and abilities she feels she is lacking. There also may be cases where a woman is in an occupation with poor fit for her abilities or interests. In such cases, ‘‘going back to the beginning’’—doing a comprehensive assessment of her abilities, inter- ests, values, and self-perceptions may be the best place to start. Organizational and Structural Change We in psychology and counseling also have a responsibility to work for organizational, legal, and societal changes that will reduce sexism, stereotyping, discrimination, and harassment and create more flexible and ‘‘family-friendly’’ workplaces (Meara, 1997). In focusing on wom- en’s career development and what is needed in order to facilitate it, Harmon (1997) also noted that we may have shortchanged the other side of the issue—that is, how to facilitate men’s development in home- making and childrearing roles. For example, as we counselors provide

Women’s Career Development 745 support for women’s working and help them gain self-efficacy for non- traditional careers, we should also support men’s pursuits of nurturing roles and help them gain self-efficacy with respect to nurturing and multiple-role management. Gilbert (1994) and Harmon (1997) both sug- gest that it is time to develop theories that conceptualize career devel- opment and family life in a more interactive way. Such theory development would hopefully increase the satisfaction and well-being of both women and men in multiple life roles. CONCLUSION In summary, although women have made significant progress in their attempts to fulfill their talents and interests and to achieve equity and satisfaction in their work, there remain many barriers and inequi- ties that continue to demand our attention. These barriers and inequi- ties can be addressed at many levels—with the individual, in institutions such as school and colleges, in business and military organ- izations, and through legal, political, and societal change. As well, con- tinuing research and study designed to examine the dynamics of choice, success and satisfaction, and the mechanisms of positive change are needed. REFERENCES Ali, S. R., Lewis, S. Z., & Sandal, R. (2006). Career counseling for Asian women. In W. B. Walsh & M. J. Heppner (Eds.), Handbook of career counseling with women (2nd ed.; pp. 241–270). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. American Association of University Women (1992). The AAUW Report: How schools shortchange girls. Washington, DC: American Association of Univer- sity Women. American Association of University Women (1999). Gender gaps: Where schools still fail our children. New York: Marlowe. American Association of University Women (2002). Title IX at 30: Report card on gender equity. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women. Arbona, C., & Novy, D. M. (1991). Career aspirations and the expectations of black, Mexican American, and white students. Career Development Quar- terly, 39, 231–239. Arnold, K. D. (1995). Lives of promise: What becomes of high school valedictorians. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman. Barnett, R. C., & Hyde, J. S. (2001). Women, men, work, and family: An expan- sionist theory. American Psychologist, 56, 781–796.

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Index Abby, A., 518 AIDS and older women, 274–75 Abel, Theodora, 33 Ainsworth, Mary, 43 Ableness/disability, 64–65 Albee, George, 27 Abortion, 369–71, 467–69 Albert, R., xix ‘‘Abortion damage,’’ 463 Alliances, 181 ‘‘Academic bills of rights,’’ 179 Alpha bias, 143, 304 Access to health insurance, 360–62 Ambient sexual harassment, 661 Acculturation, 46 Ambivalence toward Men Inventory, Achievement goals, 631 213 Achievement motivation, 304, 630–32, Ambivalent sexism, 213 635; and women, 632–35 Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, 213 Activities of daily living, 275 American Association of University Adler, Alfred, 14–15 Women, 641, 668 Adipose tissue, 376 American Culture, 45–51 Adolescence and depression, 456 American Men of Science,19 Adolescent egocentrism, 259 American Psychiatric Association, 423 Adolescent identity development, 259 American Psychological Association, Adoption, 469 11, 19, 21, 23–33, 35, 41, 70, 75, 87, Advertisements for menstrual 98, 119, 196, 306, 316, 441, 454, 501, products, 413–14 628 Africa, domestic violence, 609 American Psychological Association Age and perceived attraction, 272 Council of Representatives, 27, 34 Age discrimination for older women American Psychological Association employees, 290 Foundation’s Gold Medal Awards, Ageism, 63–64 26 Agency, 733 American Psychological Association Agentic beliefs, 207 Multicultural Guidelines, 356 Aggression, 107–8, 311 American Psychological Association Aggressive men, 518 Task Force on the Changing Agoraphobia, 452 Gender Composition of AIDS, 526 Psychology, 628–29

754 Index American Psychological Association Attitudes toward menstruation, Task Force on Violence and the 414–16 Family, 598 Attitudes toward Women Scale, 213 American Psychological Foundation, Attrition in intimate partner violence, 28, 31, 32 574–75 American Psychological Society, 28 Autoimmune diseases, 380 American Psychologist, 306 Automaticity, 222–23 American Psychology, 41, 42 Avoidance coping, 527 Anal stage, 12 Avon Products, 711 Anastasi, Anne, 26 Anderson, K., 567 Babock J., 571 Androcentrism, 192 ‘‘Baby blues,’’ 466 Androgynous, 488 Bachelor’s degrees earned by women, Androgyny, 312–13 627 Anima, 15 Baer H., 25 Animus, 15 Bailyn, L., 665 Annual Review of Psychology,25 Baker, Nancy, xiv, xv Anorexia, 446, 457, 458 Bandaraike, Sirimava, 627 Antiwar Movement, 354 Bandura, Albert, 636, 724 Anxiety and mood disorders in Bardwick, Judith, 25 women, 450–58 Barnett, Rosalind, 680 Anxiety associated with rape, 523 Barr Pharmaceuticals, 368 Anxiety disorders, 451–52, 453 Barriers in educational system, Anxiety management, 741 729 Approach coping, 527 Barriers to women’s perceived career A priori method, 99 options and choices, 722 Archer, J., 559 Baruch, Grace, 680 Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battered women, 565 Battery Access to Health Care, Beck Depression Scale, 451 360–62 Behavioral confirmation, 224–25 Asch, Adrienne, 64 Beijing Declaration, 358, 367 Asia; domestic violence, 606–9 Bem Sex Role Inventory, 688 Asian Journal of Women’s Studies, 82, 84 Benedek, Therese, 21 Assimiliation, 46 Benevolent sexism, 52, 658 Assisted reproductive technology, Benjamin, Ludy, 25–26 365–67 Bernal, Martha, 24 Association for Women and Science, Bernard, Jessie, 78 74 Beta bias, 143 Association for Women and Science Betz, Nancy, 724 Magazine,74 Bhanot, R., 242 Association for Women in Bias in diagnosis and treatment of Psychology, 26, 70, 71 mental health disorders, 449 Association for Women in Psychology Biernat, M., 216 Newsletter,72 Bigender, 488 Asthma, 374–75 Binge–purge cycle, 457 Athena, 86, 87 Biological factors, 307 Atkinson, John, 630 Biologically based personality Atlantis: A Women’s Studies Journal, theories, 315–19 75–76, 84 ‘‘Biology is destiny,’’ 13, 14

Index 755 Biosocial variables in personality Canter, Mathilda, 33 theory, 307 Cantor, Dorothy, 31 Bipolar disorder, 448 Carcinogenesis, 383 Bisexual, 487, 488 Cardiovascular disease, 371 Bisexual attractions, 487 Career education programs, 721 Bisexual identification, 487 Caregiver role transitions, 287–88 Bisexual identity, 487 Carter, P., 215 Bissell, Mary, 10 Castration fears, 12 Bjorhorde, Gerd, 81 ‘‘Catalyst of change,’’ xx Black Diaspora, 56 Categorical model, 146 Bleecker, E., 515 Cattell, James McKeen, 19 Body dissatisfaction, 469 Causal attributions affecting gender Body image concerns and menarche, and achievement, 638–39 418 Ceballo, R., 601 Body image disturbance, 248–49 Cell proliferation, 385 Body weight, 371–73 Center for Epidemioloical Studies Boneparth, E., 176 Depression Scale, 610 Borow, H., 717 Centers for Disease Control, 467 Botox injections, 54 Centers for Disease Control and Boxer, M., 186 Prevention, 366 Bratz dolls, 58 Cervical mucus, 402 Breast cancer, 382–88 Chamberlain, Mariam, 78 Breast cancer risks, 385–86 Chang, Pilwha, 82 Breast enlargement, 54 Change in psychology of women Brehm, Sharon, 32 course, 184 Bride burnings, 611 Changing women’s status in the British Prison, 520 workplace, 673–75 Brizedine, L., 318 Child abuse, 324 Brown, A., 187 Child care and women’s work, 685–86 Brown, L., 499 Child physical abuse and mental Buchler, J., 99 health disorders, 450 Bulimia, 456, 457, 458 Child sexual abuse and mental health Bureau of Justice Statistics’s National disorders, 450 Crime Victimization Survey, 512 Childbearing and mental health, 467 Burt, Martha, 516 Childhood egocentrism, 259 Bush, George W., 626 ‘‘Chilly classroom climate,’’ 103, 659, Byrne, Ethel, 353 730–31 Bystander stress, 661 Chodorow, Nancy, 51–52, 317, 318 City University of New York, 115–16 Cahill, A., 534 Civil remedies for programs for rape Calkins, Mary, 4, 9, 11, 19, 174, survivors, 530 175 Classon, Christine, 80 ‘‘Calm, loving, respite,’’ 599 Chronic diseases in women, 275–76 Campbell, Donald, 99, 121 Civil Rights Movement, 354 Campbell, Kim, 627 Clark, Helen, 627 Campbell, P., 132 Clark, Kenneth, 22, 646 Cancer, 273, 371, 375, 382–88 Clark, Mamie Phipps, 22 Cancer biology, 383–85 Clarke, Edward, 405 Cancer promotion, 385 Class, 60–62

756 Index Class oppression, 60 Compulsory heterosexuality, 491 Clinton, Hillary, 710, 711 Comstock Law, 367 Clitordiction, 53–54 Concentration of women in low Clitoridectomies, 54 paying occupations, 668 Cobras, 611 Conflict Tactics Scale, 559, 562 Code of Practice on the Prevention Confluence model and sexual and Eradication of Sexual aggression, 518–19 Harassment in the Workplace, Conformity, 311 594 Connection, 738 Code of silence around domestic Constancy beliefs, 239 abuse, 614 Constructed knowledge, 182 Cognitive behavioral therapy for Content of gender stereotypes, 207–9 intimate partner violence, 573 Contextual approach in scientific Cognitive development of girls, methods, 33, 34 255–59 Contextual leadership, 705–7 Cognitive variables affecting gender Continuous model, 146 and achievement, 635–44 Continuity in psychological processes, Cohesion, 181 191 Coitus, 489 Contribution history, 4 Collaborative leadership, 707 Control groups, 117 Collaborative style, 707 Cook, T., 121 Collaborative teaching approaches, Cooper, M., 462 181, 190 Coping efficacy, 737 Comas–Diaz, Lilian, 4, 41, 669 Coping with rape, 526–27 Coming out, 491, 492 Corea, Gena, 354 Committee on Asian Women, 28 Corpus luteum, 401 Committee on Black Women’s Correspondence bias, 217 Concerns, 27 Cortina, Lila, 659 Committee on Hispanic Women, 28 Cosgrove, L., 425 Committee on Women in Psychology, Counseling for career achievement 70, 72 and satisfaction, 743–44 Common couple violence, 600 Counseling for career choice, 739 Communal beliefs, 207 Crawford, Mary, 5, 137, 181, 188 Community based mental health Cresson, Edith, 627 programs for rape survivors, 536 Crimean War, 353 Community responses to rape ‘‘Crisis in social psychology,’’ 109 survivors, 540–41 Critical periods, 239–40 Comorbidity, 453–53 Critical scripts surrounding women’s Companionship, 335 friendships, 338 Comparisons between international Critical thinking, 183, 185, 186 sexual harassment and domestic Critical theory–building, 116 violence, 615–17 Crosby, Faye, 669, 671 Compensatory history, 4 Cross–cultural research on domestic Competencies of Leadership Skills violence, 614 approach, 703 Cullen, Mary, 81 Competition in women’s friendships, Culture bound syndrome, 457–58 337 Culture in psychology curriculum, xix Completely Different Model Culture of romance, 719, 729 Personality Theory, 308–9 Cultural images of menarche, 417–18

Index 757 Cultural prescriptions for Differential Aptitude Tests, 727 menstruating women, 404 Differential treatment of girls in Cultural supports for rape, 516 classrooms, 641 Culturally responsive teaching, 189 Disabilities and divorce, 280 Cycle of violence, 576, 599 Discrimination, 470–71, 657–58, 734–37 Dalton, Katharina, 414, 423 Disordered eating, 248 Daly, Mary, 354 Disorders, 454 Darwin, Charles, 7–10, 23 Disparities in heart care, 381–82 Data analysis and interpretation, Dissociative disorders, 324 127–130 Distortions of women in psychology Dating violence, 559 curriculum, 174, 176, 185 Davis, Margaret Fine, 81 Diversity, 43 Dean, K., 519 Diversity mindfulness, 645 Deaux, Kay, 106 Division 35 of the American Debilitation hypothesis, 405, 408 Psychological Association, xiv, Declaration on the elimination of 26–28, 31, 32 violence against Women, 598 Divorce, 280 Decontextualized view of sexuality, Divorced mothers, 280–81 496 Doctorates awarded to women, 627 Deductive reasoning, 304 Domestic violence, 324, 556, 590 DeFour, Darlene, 187 Dominant culture, 45 Demand characteristics, 120 Double jeopardy in women’s career Denmark, Florence L., 24, 25, 27, development, 733–34 28–29, 33, 71, 78, 106, 136, 175 Double standard of sexual behavior, Denmark & Gunwald Award for 494 Research on Women and Gender, 30 Downey, June Etta, 21 Department of Health and Human Downing, N., 180 Services, 377 Dowry deaths, 611 Department of Labor, 135 Doyle, James, 644 Dependent measures, 126–27 Dreifus, Claudia, 354 Depression, 314, 597, 611 DSM–IV, 451, 454, 456 Depression and rape, 523–24 DSM–IV–TR, 496 Depressive disorders, 454–55 Dual earner family, 718 Depressive symptoms, 454 Duluth Domestic Abuse Intervention Description of researchers, 113–14 Program, 573 Determining menstrual cycle phase, Dysmenorrhea, 418–20 408 Dysphoric–borderline men, 611 Deutsch, Helene, 6, 13–14, 17 Development, definition, 238 Eagly, Alice, 106, 113, 125, 159, 161, Developmental approach, 238 162, 164, 320, 705, 706 Developmental issues in Early twentieth–century views of psychopathology, 464 rape, 510 Diabetes, 371, 375 Early discharge from hospitals, 54 Diagnosis and gender differences in Early maturing girls, 254 mental health disorders, 448–49 Eating disorders, 456–57 Dickson, Audrey, 81 Eating disorders and self–esteem, 458 Dietary restraint, 458 Eccles, Jacqueline, 637, 732 Difference, 43, 128 Economic heterosexuals, 499

758 Index Eisenstadt v. Baird, 367 Evolutionary theory and rape, 520 Efficacy, 359 Excess weight, 373–74 Efficacy–enhancing intervention, Exogenous estrogens, 387 740–42 Expectancy x value model of Effiency, 359 achievement behavior, 635 Egypt Demographic and Health Experimental stimuli and tasks, Survey (1995), 604 125–26 Ehrenreich, Barbara, 354 Exploitives, 598 Elders, Jocelyn, 710, 711 Explosion stage, 599 Elkind, David, 259 Exposure to environmental toxins, Embeddedness/emanation, 180 365–67 Emergency contraception, 367–69 Expressive beliefs, 207 Employment satisfaction, 669–70 Expressive qualities in women’s Employment rewards, 667–68 friendships, 338 ‘‘Empty nest,’’ 286–87 Ezekiel, Judith, 83 Endometrial tissue, 402 English, Christine, 414 Face–to–face relationships, 341 English, Deidre, 354 Family–friendly policies, 675 Epidemiological issues in women’s Family interference with work, 678 mental health, 450 Family only batterers, 611 Equal Employment Opportunity Family planning, 362 Commission, 593 Family socialization of gender role Equality in friendships, 337 stereotypes, 225 Equality model of personality theory, Family violence, 556 307–8 Farm Workers Movement, 354 Equity, 359–60 Farmer, Helen, 728, 743 Equity and healthcare, 359–60 Fassinger, Ruth, 737 Erikson, Erik, 107 FBI Uniform Crime Statistics, 512 Erotic, 491 Fear associated with rape, 523 Estrogen, 40, 386–88 Fear of failure, 635 Estrogen replacement, 388–89 Fear of success, 633 Estrogen supplements, 388 Featherston, E., 46 Estrus periods, 401 Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, Ethical issues in science, 103–6 735 Ethics–based leadership, 705 Federation of Organizations of Ethnic x gender differences and Professional Women, 78 similarities, 638 Female Brain, 318 Ethnic minority families, 676–77 Female genital mutilation, 53, 358 Ethnicity, 56–58 Female headed households, 677–78 Ethnicity and earnings, 668–69 Female sex–role socialization and Ethnocentrism, 192 coping styles, 462 Ethnoracial/ethnocultural identity, Female stereotype, 23 41–42 Feminine behaviors, 712 Europe, domestic violence, 605–6 Feminine biology, 14 European Journal of Women’s Studies,83 Feminine roles, 712 Evaluating attitudes, 213 Feminism, 181 Evaluating stereotype accuracy, Feminism & Psychology: An 214–16 International Journal, 86 Evaluating stereotypes, 212–13 Feminist activism, 509

Index 759 Feminist agenda, xiii Fertility rates, 285 Feminist and Women’s Studies File drawer problem, 407 Association, 86 Fine, Michelle, 64, 705 Feminist anthropologists, 404 Fitzgerald, Louise, 591, 593, 728 Feminist classes, 194 Flake, D., 600, 601 Feminist classroom, 180, 181 First European Congress of Feminist critique of the language of Psychology, 101 experimentation, 104 First International Interdisciplinary Feminist critiques of psychological Congress on Women, 77 research, 94–95 Fischbach, R., 612 Feminist critiques of scientific Flight from Womanhood,15 psychology, 106 Folkman, S., 464 Feminist education, 176, 186 Follicular phase, 402, 408 Feminist frameworks, xx, 568 Ford, A., 568 Feminist identification, 190, 191 Frank, E., 306 Feminist identity development, Frank, Robert, 422 180–87 Franklin, Christine Ladd, 4, 19–20 Feminist Knowledge Network, 84 Freeman, Jo, 731 Feminist leadership, 705, 706, 714 French, K., 169 Feminist Majority Foundation, 85 Frenkel–Brunswick, Else, 21 Feminist Majority Foundation Freud, Sigmund, 7, 11, 12, 13, 17, 19, Newsletter,85 23, 107, 316–17, 324–25 Feminist methodologists, 118, 124, 128 Friendships as a form of resistance, Feminist models of domestic violence, 343–44 592 Friendships, cultural variations, Feminist movement, 142, 354 339–40 Feminist–oriented theories of Friendships on line, 341–42 personality, 326 Frieze, Irene Hanson, 106, 560 Feminist pedagogy, 178, 179, 184, 189, ‘‘Fringe’’ sexual practices, 498 194 Frye, M., 50 Feminist perspective, xiii Feminist positivist empiricist Gamete intrafallopian transfer, 366 approach, 33 Gandhi, Indira, 627 Feminist Press, 73 Gannon, Linda, 130 Feminist principles of women’s Gay, G., 189 health, 355 Gay–affirmative discourse, 491 Feminist psychology, xii, xiv, 94, 101, Gender, 51–52 111, 131, 645 Gender and intimate partner violence, Feminist research, 6–7, 103–6 566 Feminist researchers, 103–6, 112, 130, Gender and mental health, 443–44, 137, 322, 554 444–47 Feminist restructuring of the Gender and personality, 306–9 academic disciplines, 185 Gender and Society, 323 Feminist scholars, 176, 422, 514 Gender as independent vs. dependent Feminist scholarship, 509 variable, 115 Feminist Studies,74 Gender, math and science, 641–44 Feminist theory, xiv, 51 Gender–based violence, 566 Feminist theory applied to rape, 514 Gender comparisons in depression, Feminization of poverty, 61 454–55

760 Index Gender constancy, 239 Girl Scouts of America, 743 Gender differences, 103 Glass ceiling, 226, 709, 735 Gender differences in cognitive Globalization, 441, 42 abilities, 256 Golub, Sharon, 411 Gender differences in math Gonadal steroids, 465 performance, 640–41 Gonadotrophin, 254 Gender differences in mental health Goodenough, Florence, 21 disorders, 447 Goodman, D., 189 Gender differences in occupations, Goodwin, Beverly, 187, 188 208 Gonzalex–Saurez, Mirta, 81 Gender equitable environments, 714 Gordon, Pamela, 627 Gender fair research, 106–18, 137–38 Gottman, J., 611 Gender harassment, 593 Gove, W., 682 Gender Issues,76 Grady, Kathleen, 103, 106, 114, 115 Gender of confederates, 126 Graham, Frances, 32 Gender of experimenter, 126 Graham, K., 564 Gender of respondent manipulations, Grandparental role transitions, 288–90 132 Greater Expectations National Panel Gender queer, 488 Report, 178 Gender–related Development Index, Griswold v. Connecticut, 367 357–58 Guidelines for Avoiding Sexism in Gender role expectations and culture, Psychological Research, 27, 136 243–44 Guidelines on Multicultural Gender role inequality and abuse, Education, Training, and Practice, 52–55 and Organizational Change for Gender role prescriptions, 240 Psychologists, 441 Gender role prescription and Guidelines for the Non–Sexist Use of children, 240 Language, 27 Gender role socialization, 326; and Guidelines for Psychotherapy with relationships, 332 Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Clients, Gender schema theorists, 239 441 Gender segregation, 663–66 Guidelines for Psychotherapy with Gender stereotypes, 58, 205–6, 206–9, Women and Girls, 441, 501 319, 449, 722, 726, 727 Gunter, N., 688 Gender stereotyping, 654–57 Guttentag, Marcia, 24 Gender symmetry in physical violence, 560 Hackett, Gail, 724 Gender–typed experiences for racial Hall, C., 187 groups, 250 Hall, G. Stanley, 24, 406 Gendercentrism, 192 Hall, Ijima, 43 Genetic factors and mental disorders, Hall, J., 165, 166, 167, 215 459 Halonen, Tarja Kaarina, 627 Gershenfeld, Matti Kubrick, 80 Halpern, Diane, 32, 712 Gessell, Judge Gerhard, 205 Hamilton, J., 684 Gifted girls, 719, 730 Hammen, C., 450 Gilbert, Lucia, 718 Hanisch, Carol, xiv Gilligan, Carol, 125, 191 Hard core harassers, 597 Girls Inc., 192 Harding, S., 113 Girls International, 192 Hare–Mustin, Rachel, 5, 143

Index 761 Harlow, S., 409 Ideology of sisterhood, 335 Health at every size, 377 Illiterate individuals, 53 Health changes and aging, 273–76 Impact of sexism, 470 Health promotion, 359 Impact of sexual assault on health, Healthy weight, 377 521–26 Heart disease, 374, 379–81 Impersonal sex path, 517 Heider, Kathryn, 26 Implicit Association Test, 214 Helmholtz, Herman, 8 Implicit theory of ability, 631 Helping behaviors, 4, 311, 312 Incivility and sexual harassment, 661, Helping rape survivors, 527–33 662 Henley, Mary, 646 Indian Supreme Court, 595 Herbert, B., 612 Inductive reasoning, 304 Heterogeneity of male batterers, 572 Inequality, 52 Heteropatriarchal constructions of Inequities in women’s labor force women’s sexuality, 488–93 participation, 721–22 Heterosexism, 63, 192 Infantile sexuality, 325 Heterosexual–identified women, 487, Infibulation, 53–54 488 Inflammatory conditions, 380 Heterosexual women’s friendships, Influences of race, culture, and social 338 class, 250–51 ‘‘Hidden curriculum,’’ 245 Insensitive individuals, 597 Hippocrates, 353 Institutional Review Boards, 119 History as affecting dependent Institutional privilege, 50 measures, 121 Instrumental assistance, 335 HIV, 274–75, 497, 526 Insulin insensitivity, 374, 375 Hobfall, Steven, 465 Integrated model of sexual Holland, J., 728 harassment, 591–92 Hollingworth, Leta, 6, 9–10, 310 Integration model, 195 Holtzworth–Munroe, A., 611 Intellectual functioning, gender Homemakers, 719 differences, 310–11 Homogeneity analysis, 145 Instrumental activities of daily living, Homonegative prejudices, 487, 492 275–76 Honor killings, 611 Instrumental beliefs, 207 Hormone replacement therapy, 428 Instrumentation as affecting Horner, Matina, 633–34 dependent measures, 121 Horney, Karen, 8, 15–17, 18, 317 Integration of psychology of women Hostile environment sexual into psychology curriculum, 194 harassment, 593, 615, 660, 736 Interactionist research perspective, Hostile masculinity path, 517–18 459 Hostile sexism, 52, 213, 658 Interactive model of personality Howard (Beckham), Ruth, 22 theory, 308–9 Howes, Ethel Puffer, 19 Interest in sexual activity, 278 Hueselid, B., 462 Internalized racism, 48 Human Development Report, 357 International Labor Rights Fund, 595 Hunter College, 80, 81 Internet for interpersonal Hyde Amendment, 370 communication, 341–43 Hyde, Janet, 632, 644 Internalized racism, 48 Hypatia, 353 International Council of Psychologists, Hypothalamus, 254 29, 30, 70, 72

762 Index International Interdisciplinary Kasinga, Fauziya, 54 Congress on Women, 30 Katz, Phyllis, 75 International Labor Rights Fund, 595 Kellogg, John Harvey, 406 International laws on domestic Kerr, B., 719, 726 violence, 599 Kessler, R., 126, 448, 450, 456, 464 International Organizing Committee, Kim, Eun Shil, 82 78 Kimmel, Ellen, 5, 137, 180 International Women’s Year, 82 Kirkland, K., 189 International workplace sexual Klein, Viola, 23–24 harassment, 593 Knaak, S., 238 Interpersonal violence, 577–79 Koenig, M., 609 Intimacy, gender differences, 339 Koeske, R., 106 Intimacy of women’s friendships, 335, Koff, E., 417 339, 340 Kohlberg, Lawrence, 107, 125, 239 Intimate partner violence, 566, 557 Koop, Everett, 711 Intimate partner violence and Korenman, Joan, 84, 85 women’s work roles, 682 Koss, Mary, 512 Intimate violence and unwanted Kyomuhendo, Grace Rantebya, 81 pregnancy, 680 Intimate terrorism, 600 La violencia privada, 601 Invitro fertilization procedures, 366 Labor force participation for middle Ischemia, 380, 381 and older women, 290 Israeli Association for Feminist and Lack of women in politics, 627 Gender Studies, 30 Laissez–faire leadership style, 704 Israeli Women’s Network, 30 Landrine, Hope, 469 Italian American women, 115–16 Language ability, 255–54 Izraeli, Dafna, 78 Laser vaginal rejuvenation, 497 Late luteal phase dysphoric disorder, Jacklin, Carol Nagy, 111, 127, 128, 423 142, 143, 144, 310 Late maturing girls, 254 Jacobi, Mary Putnam, 9, 10–11 Latin America, domestic violence, Jacobson, N., 598, 611 600–2 Jackson, G., 110 Lawal, Amina, 53 Jackson–Lowman, H., 187 Lawrence v. Texas, 493 Jahoda, Marie, 21 Laws against sexual harassment, Job gender context of sexual 594–96 harassment, 592, 596 Lazarus, R. 464 Johnson, Norine, 31–32 Leadership characteristics, 703 Johnson–Sirleaf, Ellen, 627 Lees, Susan, 81 Journal of Women’s Health and Legal system and rape survivors, Gender–Based Medicine, 137 529–31 Jovanovic, J., 242 Leiberman, J., 465 Jung, Andrea, 711 Lengnick–Hall, M., 597 Jung, Carl, 14–15 Lerner, Gerda, 3, 4 Lesbian ‘‘bed death,’’ 490 Kaiser Family Foundation, 368 Lesbian identified women, 487, 498 Kanter, Rosabeth Moss, 735 Lesbian women’s friendships, 336, Kas, Erna, 83 338 Kaschak, Ellen, 62 Lesbians, 487, 488

Index 763 Levin, Tobe, 83 Masochism, 17 Life events and life crises, 460–61 Masters’ degrees awarded to women, Life expectancies, 274 627 Life satisfaction and older women, Mastery and perceived control, 276 463–64 Link, B., 471 Mastery goals, 631 Linn, Marcia, 156 Masturbation, 498, 499 Linton, S., 64 ‘‘Matching model,’’ 727–28, 742 Liposuction, 54 Maternal employment, 732–33 ‘‘Live theatre of the absurd,’’ 46 Math anxiety, 641 Livingston, N., 568 Mathematical reasoning and girls’ Loneliness in widowhood, 283 development, 256 Lorde, Audrey, 176, 177, 192 Mathematics avoidance, 641 Luteal phase, 402, 408 Mathematics as a critical filter, 723–24 Luteinizing hormone, 401 Maturation affecting dependent measures, 121 Maccoby, Eleanor Emmons, 32, 127, McAuslan, P., 518 144 McClelland, David, 630, 632 Macrophages, 385 McDonald, S., 685 Madden, M., 705 McHugh, Maureen, 34, 104, 106, 129, Madonna/whore bifurcation, 493–94 188, 568 Magarey, Susan, 81 McIntosh, P., 47 Mahler, Margaret, 21 McKenna, W., 126 Major, Brenda, 671 McLeod, J., 464 Makosky, Vivian, 196 Measurement issues in anxiety and Malamuth, Neil, 519 mood disorders, 450–51 ‘‘Male bashing,’’ 193 Measurement of gender stereotypes Male dominance of occupations, 671 and gender role attitudes, 211 Male friendships, 333 Media as socializer of gender role Male–oriented equality model, 308 stereotypes, 221–22 Maltreatment of Women Scale, 562 Media influences on gender role ‘‘Man hating,’’ 193 development, 246–50 Man in a World at Work, 717 Medical system responses to rape Mannucci, E., 105 survivors, 531–32 Maone, Geraldine, 81 Medicalization of women’s sexuality, Marcussen, K., 686 497 Marecek, Jeanne, 143 Mednick, Martha, 5, 25, 27, 28, 30, 77, Marginalization and marginality, 78, 243 65–66 Meehan, Sylvia, 81 Marieskind, Jean, 354 Meiosis, 384 Marital equality and ethnic minority Meir, Golda, 627 women, 686–88 Men in psychology of women Marital power and women’s work courses, 194 roles, 683–85 Menarche, 254, 416–18 Marital quality and women’s Menopause, 272, 426–29, 497; and employment, 682–83 cultural aspects, 272–73; Martin, E., 403 symptoms, 426–27 Martin, C., 245 Menotoxins, 404 Martin, Jennifer, 184, 190 Menses, 401

764 Index Menstrual cycle as a biopsychosical Mindell, Fania, 353 phenomenon, 400 Mitosis, 384 Menstrual cycle effects, 407, 410 Mittleschmertz, 402 Menstrual cycle length, 401 Modeling, 741 Menstrual cycle and moods, 411–12 Modern sexism, 213, 657 Menstrual cycle regulation, 401 Modern Sexism Scale, 657 Menstrual disability, 405 Montague, Helen, 9 Menstrual fluid, 402 Moon Goddess, 404 Menstrual stereotypes, 413–16 Moral discourse of leadership, 705 Menstrual taboos, 404–5, 412 Morrison, Toni, 46–47 Menstruation, 254 Mortality, 273–74, 363–65 Menstruation and work performance, Mortality as affecting dependent 409 measures, 122 Mental health and culture, 276 Moseley–Braun, Carol, 626 Mental health and older women, 276 Mothers’ sexual orientation and Mental health conditions associated children’s gender role socialization, with rape, 521–22 244 Mental health system and rape Motivational interviewing in intimate survivors, 532–33 partner violence, 575 Mentors, 733 Motive to avoid success, 634 Meta analysis, 111–13, 143, 144–46; Multicultural education, 189, 195 and aggression, 158–59; and Multicultural feminist pedagogy, 188 helping behaviors, 159–60; and Multicultural perspective in leadership behavior, 161–65; and psychology, 41, 42 mathematics attitudes and affect, Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, 157–58; and motor activity level, 162 168–69; and motor performance, Multigenerational inclusivity, 190 168–69; and nonverbal Multiple identities, 50–51 communication, 165; and Multiple roles for women, 719–21, psychological well being, 728, 729, 736–37 166–68; and quantitative abilities, Multiple time–series design, 122 156–57; and science abilities, 156– Murnen, E., 515 57; and small group behavior, 160– Music videos and gender role 61; and special abilities, 156–57; behavior, 248 and verbal abilities, 156 Musil, Carolyn McTighe, 185 Metabolic syndrome, 371–73, 376 Mutual violent control, 600 Methodological approach, 459 Methodological biases, 111 Narrative reviews, 144 Methodological issues in international National Academy of Sciences, 20, 28 domestic violence research, 612–13 National Alliance of Women’s Methodological issues in sexual Organizations, 85 harassment research, 598 National Assessment of Educational Middle age, 271 Progress, 147 Middle East, domestic violence, 602–5 National Center of Health Statistics, Midlife pregnancy, 285–86 377 Midlife role transitions, 278–79 National Center on Minority Health Midlife women and paid work, 279 and Health Disparities, 360 Midlife women homemakers, 279 National College Health Risk Miller, Jean Baker, 320, 321 Behavior Survey, 512

Index 765 National Commission on the Nordic Institute for Women’s Studies Advancement for the Status of and Gender Research, 86 Women, 30 Normative sexual scripts, 498 National Comorbidity Survey, 452, Norton, Eleanor Holmes, xix, xx 453 Null educational development, 731 National Council of Women Psychologists, 23 Obama, Barack, 56 National Crime Survey Data, Obesity, 373–74 Department of Justice, 570 Obesity epidemic, 376 National Health and Nutrition Objectification of women and rape, Examination Survey, 372 516 National Health Information Survey, ‘‘Objectivist’’ stance in research, 114 360 Objectivity in science, 97 National Hospital Discharge Survey, Obstacles to integration of psychology 380 of women course into psychology National Institute of Mental Health, curriculum, 195–96 472 Obstacles to psychology of women National Institutes of Health, 360, 428 course, 179–80 National longitudinal survey of O’Connell, Agnes, 3 youth, 147 Occupational stereotypes, 722 National Merit Scholarship, 42 Oedipal stage, 316 National Science Board, 663 Oedipus complex, 12, 13, 15–16, 18 National Science Council, 663 Office of Research on Women’s National Science Foundation, 643 Health, 137 National Survey of Adolescents, 512 Office on Violence Against Women, National Violence Against Women 511 Survey, 512 ‘‘Old age,’’ definition, 271 National Women’s Studies Omission of women in psychology Association, 73, 76 curriculum, 174, 176, 185 National Women’s Studies Association Opportunists, 597 Journal, 76 Organizational climate for sexual Nature versus nurture, 238–39 harassment, 591, 596 Nettles, S., 641 Orr, D., 193 Neugarten, Bernice, 32 Orth–Gomer, K., 686 Neurosis, 12 Our Bodies, Ourselves, 354 New York Psychoanalytic Institute, 17 Outcome expectations, 722 New York Psychological Association, Outcomes for victims, 597 28 Ovaries, 401 Nonconscious ideology, 486 Overdiagnosis, 449 Nonequivalent control group design, Overpathologizing, 449 122 Overt discrimination, 732 Nonheterosexual orientations, 491 Over-the-counter emergency Nonmarital partnership, 721 contraception, 368 Nonmonogamy, 500 Ovulation, 402, 410 Non–normative sexuality, 491, 492 Nonsexual mistreatment in the Pakistan Journal of Women’s Studies, 84 workplace, 659 Paludi, Michele, 131, 132, 133, 185, Nora: Nordic Journal of Women’s 186, 187, 191, 196, 644 Studies,86 Pangender, 488

766 Index Panic disorder, 452 Persistence, 737 Paradoxical effects of gender Persistent harassers, 598 stereotyping, 449 Person–centered approach, 459 Parental ability beliefs and child’s Personal is political, xiv, 510 self–perceptions, 637 Personality, 305 Parental role transitions, 285–87 Personality and social psychology Parents’ gender stereotyped theories of rape, 517–20 perceptions, 241–42 Personality theories, 305 Parents role in children’s gender Petersen, A., 156 roles, 241–46, 320 Phallic stage, 12, 18 Participatory learning, 181, 182 Phallocentric conceptualization of Parsons, Frank, 717, 727 sexuality, 488, 489, 490 Participatory spaces, 190 Pharr, S., 45 Partner gap, 277 Phelan, B., 471 Passion, 738 Physical abuse, 617 Passive acceptance, 180 Physical appearance changes in Passive observational methods, midlife, 271–73 123–24 Physical–cognitive functions, 258 Patriarchal beliefs, domestic violence, Physical development of girls, 252–55 603 Physical health impacts following Patriarchal cultures, 592 rape, 525–26 Patriarchal power, 356 Piaget, Jean, 107, 125, 239 Pattern of battering, 558 Pitbulls, 611 Patterns of intimate partner violence, Pituitary gland, 254 565 Planned Parenthood, 367 Pay expectations, 670–72 Planned Parenthood of Southeastern PA Pay inequity, 344, 629, 672, 721, 722, v. Casey, 370 733, 734 Plasticity, 239–40 Peer group as a socializer of gender Play activities and gender–typed role stereotypes, 220–21 behaviors, 241 Peers and gender role socialization, Political lesbians, 499 245–46 Politics of menstrual cycle, 400 Peirce, Charles, 99 Population Council, 371 Pelosi, Nancy, 626, 711, 712 Positive marginality, 344 Penis envy, 16, 317 Positivist approach to methodology in Pension benefites and gender intimate partner violence, 568 differences, 667 Postadoption experiences, 469 Perceived competence, 210 Postmenopausal zest, 278 Perceived control, 463 Postmodern framework for intimate Perceived warmth, 210 partner violence, 568 Perceptions of competence, 631 Postovulatory phase, 402 Performance accomplishments, 741 Postpartum illness, 466 Performance approach goals, 631 Postponement of motherhood, 286 Performance avoidance goals, 631 Posttraumatic growth, 526 Perimenopause, 426 Posttraumatic stress and rape, 522–23 Perpetrators of domestic violence, Posttraumatic stress disorder, 446, 611–12 447, 450, 452–453, 597, 610, 617 Perpetrators of sexual harassment, Poverty, 61, 686 597–98 Power hypothesis, 165

Index 767 Preferred role, 279 Qualitative vs. quantitative methods, Pregnancy and birth, 465–66 102–3 Prejudice, 470–71 Qualitative vs. quantitative research, Premenstrual cramps, 419 100–101 Premenstrual dysphoric disorder, Quasi–experiments, 121–23 423–24 Question formulation, 107 Premenstrual syndrome, 409, 420–26 Quid pro quo sexual harassment, 593, Preovulatory phase, 402 617, 660, 736 President’s Commission on Mental Quintana, S., 259 Health, 459 Prevention, 359 Race in America, 55–56 Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 205–6 Racial identity development, 251 ‘‘Prime of life,’’ 278 Racial Thinkers Before Coming, 47 Privilege, 47–50 Rape, definition, 511; causes, 513–21; Problematizing women’s sexuality prevalence, 511–13; racial and and sexual functioning, 495 ethnic comparisons, 513 Progesterone, 401 Rape avoidance programs, 534 Project Kidma, 30 Rape avoidance training, 536 Project WISE, 743 Rape crisis centers, 533 Proliferation, 384 Rape myths, 515–16, 536–37, 538–39 Proliferative phase, 402 Rape prevention, 534–36, 538–40 Protection, 359 Rape resistance, 536–38 Providing support and Ratio Measure of Sex Stereotyping, encouragement, 741, 742 212 Psychoeducation for male abusers, Reference groups, 672–73 573 Reflective psychology, 135 Psychological abuse, 558 Regression analyses, 124, 133 Psychological factors in women’s Regression to the mean affecting work and mental health, 681–82 dependent measures, 122 Psychological interventions in Regulation of women’s sexualities, intimate partner abuse, 569–80 493–99 Psychology of women, definition, 4–5 Reid, Pamela, 187, 669 Psychology of women course, 176, ‘‘Relationship,’’ 332 177, 178, 182, 183, 185 Relationships between women, 333 Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 27, Relative deprivation, 669–70 75, 108, 323 Remarriage, 282 Psychopathology, 313–14 Reproductive technology, 362, Psychosexual development, 12 365–67 Psychosocial outcomes of victim, 567 Research designs, 100, 118 Puberty, 254–55 Resistance, 180, 181, 182, 193 Punishment and rehabilitation Restorative justice programs for rape treatment for batters, 573–74 survivors, 530–31 Pure research, 108 Restricted range of vocational Pvostitot, 58 interests, 723, 727–28 Retirement, 290–93; adjustment and, Qualitative studies of menstruation, 292; decision to retire, 291; early 424 retirement, 291 Qualitative vs. quantitative knowing, Revelation, 180, 182 99–103 Revised Conflict Tactics Scale, 602

768 Index Rhoades, K., 181 Selection as affecting dependent Rice, Condoleeza, 626 measures, 122 Riddle, B., 425 Selective incivility, 659 Rierdan, J., 417 Self–blame and rape, 523 Risk factors for stressful life events, Self–defense as part of rape 461 prevention programs, 536–38 Robinson, Mary, 627 Self–disclosure in friendships, 339 Rock music videos and gender role Self–efficacy, 463, 636–38, 682, 722, development, 248 724–25, 740, 741, 742, 744, 745; Roe v. Wade, 370, 468 gender differences and, 636–37 Role congruity theory, 225–26 Self–efficacy expectations, 724–25 Role quality, 680–81 Self–esteem, 314, 730 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 710 Self–handicapping, 639 Ross, C., 682 Self–in–relation theory, 320–22 Roth, L., 665 Sells, L., 723 Rothenberg, P., 62 Sensitivity to nonverbal cues, 311 Rotundo, M., 660 Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 25, 75, Rousch, R., 180 108 Roybal–Allard, Lucille, 626 Sex segregation of professions, 71 Rozee, Patricia, 512 Sexological model of sexuality, 485, Ruble, Diane, 245 486, 488 Russo, Nancy Felipe, 3, 449, 684 Sexual aggression, 515, 517, 519 Ruzek, Sheryle, 354 Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner Programs, 532 Safir, Marilyn, 28, 29–30, 77 Sexual Assault Response Teams, 532 Salience, 239 Sexual behavior, 487 Sample selection, 114–18 Sexual coercion, 594 Sample size, 117 Sexual functioning following rape, Sampling bias in meta–analysis, 147 524–25 Sandelowski, Peggy, 354 Sexual harassment, 593–94, 659, 661, Sanger, Margaret, 353, 357, 362, 367 662, 666, 732, 735–36; as an Schroeder, Patricia, 54 international problem, 590 Scripts related to women’s sexuality, Sexual identity, 487 494, 495 Sexual noncomformity, 491 Scully, Diana, 354 Sexual orientation, 62, 487, 492 Sears, Pauline, 26 Sexual victimization, 495 Sears, Robert, 26 Sexual violence, 514 Schieffelin, Allison, 206 Sexuality and older women, 276–78 Scientific method, 96, 99–100 Sexualized objectification, 469–71 Scientific study of sexuality, 486 Sex vs. gender, 445 School influences on gender role Shaffer, D., 258 socialization, 220–21, 244–46 Shalala, Donna, 80 School performance and gender role Shared leadership, 707 beliefs, 242 Sharing of breadwinning, 720 Second Wave of Feminism, 6, 53, 191, Sherif, Carolyn, 25, 95, 646 510 Shelters for victims of intimate Secretory phase, 402 partner abuse, 570 Seduction hypothesis, 324 Sherman, Julia, 25 Segregation of occupations, 628 Shujin, 608

Index 769 Sigal, J., 598 Spousal role transitions, 279–85 Signs: A Journal of Women in Culture ‘‘Squeeze’’ generation, 287 and Society, 25, 75 Stake, Jayne, 181 Sinacore, A., 194 Stanley, Morgan, 206 Singlehood, 284–85, 720, 721 STEM disciplines, 643, 663, 664 Single–sex research designs, 117, 126 Stereotype acquisition, 216–19 Situation–centered approach, 459 Stereotype content model, 657 Smith, Sandie, 414 Stereotype subtypes, 209–11 Social adjustment and rape, 524 ‘‘Stereotype’’ threat, 225, 311, 639–41, Social behavior, gender differences, 656 311–12 Stereotypes about older women’s Social class and gender role sexuality, 277–78 development, 252 Stereotypes about rape survivors, 530 Social–cognitive theory, 740 Stereotypes of African American Social constructivist perspectives, 486, women, 59 487 Stereotypes of Asian women, 59 Social Darwinism, 7–9 Stier, D., 165 Social disadvantage, 48 Stigma, 470–71 Social influences on cognitive Stigma associated with development, 258–59 homosexuality, 446 Socialization personality theories, Stigma of aging for women, 272 319–22 Stimpson, Catherine, 174 Socialization variables, 307 Stimpson, Portia, 627 Socialized barriers to career choices, 722 Stress and coping perspective, 459–60, Social networking websites, 342 465–66, 468–69 Social prohibitions against sexual Stress–related illnesses, 736 activity, 494 Strickland, Bonnie, 27, 29 Social structure factors, 307 Striving for thinness, 377–79 Social structure model of personality, Strong Interest Inventory, 727, 741, 742 322–25 Student check in system, 181 Social support and shame, 471 Style approach to leadership, 704 Social support of friendships, 335 Subcultures, 45 Society for Experimental Social ‘‘Subjects’’ vs. research participants, Psychology, 28 104 Society for Menstrual Cycle Research, Superego, 12, 13, 18 422, 428 Superstitions about menstruating Society of Experimental Psychologists, women, 404 20 Support providers for rape survivors, Societal expectations of gender roles, 528–29 240 Supportive features of psychology of Sociopolitical realities concerning women, 177–78 sexuality, 487 Supports to women’s career choices, Sociocultural theory, 248 732–33 Sociologists for Women in Society, 78 Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Somatization following rape, 525 Results, 385 Spence, Janet, 27, 29–30, 33 Survival skills of battered women, 570 Spencer, Herbert, 8 Symbolic ethnicity, 57 Spermatogenesis, 403 Synthesis, 180 Spousal abuse, 556 Swerdlow, M., 662

770 Index Tampax Report, 412 Transtheoretical model of behavior Tangri, Sandra Schwartz, 20 change, 574 Tariff Act, 367 Treating females who use Taylor, M., 166, 167 interpersonal violence, 576 Taylor, S., 464 Treating male batterers, 571–75 Teaching challenges for psychology of Treating victims of intimate partner women, 183, 184 abuse, 569 Teaching feminist research methods, Treatment–client matching, 580 131–35 Treatment of mental health disorders Television characters and sex–typed and gender, 448–49 choices, 247 Trivialization of women in Tension building stage, 599 psychology curriculum, 174, 175, Terman Studies of Gifted Children, 176, 185 719 ‘‘True experiments,’’ 118–21 Testing as affecting dependent Tyler, Leona, 26 measures, 121 Typology of situation couple violence, Textbook bias toward psychology, 175 565 Textbooks, 196 Thatcher, Margaret, 406, 627 U.N., 599 Thematic Apperception Test, 631, 635 U.N. Convention on Elimination of Thinness equated with beauty, 378–79 All Forms of Discrimination Third National Health and Nutrition Against Women, 357, 595 Examination Survey, 376 U.N. Decade of Women, 83 Third Wave Feminism, 191 U.N. Development Fund for Women, Thoits, P., 679 357 Thomas, J., 169 U.N. Division for the Advancement of Thompson, Clara, 17–19 Women, 82 Thompson, Helen, 9, 11 U.N. Human Rights Division on the Thorndike, Edward, 9 Status of Women, 82 ‘‘Thousand points of slight,’’ 495 U.N. Fourth World Conference on Titchener, Edward, 20, 21 Women, 358 Tobach, Ethel, 33 U.N. Universal Declaration of Human ‘‘token’’ status, 735 Rights, 357 Tort law, sexual harassment, 594 U.N. Women’s Congress, 367 Toy selection and gender role Underdiagnosis, 449 socialization, 241 Underreppresentation of women in Training about Women’s Sexuality, occupations, 721 500, 501 Unger, Rhoda, 25, 33, 106, 120, 125, Trait–factor theories, 742 127, 645 Transactional leadership styled, 704 Uninsured women, 360–62 Transductive reasoning, 304 Unwanted pregnancy, 467–69 Transformational leadership styled, Unwanted pregnancy and depression, 704 467–68 Transformation of institutions, xiii Unwanted sexual attention, 594 Transforming leadership, 712–14 U.S. Department of Education, 643 Transgender, 488 U.S. Department of Justice, 510 Transgressive, 492 U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Transitional women’s history, 4, 5 Commission, 593 Transsexual, 482 U.S. National Science Foundation, 78

Index 771 U.S. Navy, 512 Women and politics, 626–27 U.S. v. One Package, 367 Women in psychological research, Utilization of women’s abilities, 5–7 718–719 Women of Color in psychology of Uwilingiyimana, Agathe, 627 women courses, 187, 199 Women’s economic status, 675–76 Validity of meta-analysis research, 147 Women’s Health and Aging Study, Values in person theory construction, 276 306 Women’s Health Initiative, 387, 428 Values in science, 97–99 Women’s health movement, 354 Variability hypothesis, 9–10 Women’s International Studies Europe, Velazquez, Nydia, 626 83 Victim based girl, 191, 192 Women’s Movement, 4, 70, 305, 334, Victimization research, 323 423, 702, 709; activism in, 356–57 Violence, impact, 324 Women’s movement and women’s Violent antisocial abusers, 611 friendships, 334–35 Violent resistance, 600 Women’s multiple roles and mental Visual–spatial skills, 256–57 health, 678–82 Vulnerability factors and mental Women’s Program Office, 72 health disorders, 461 Women’s sexualty, 485 ‘‘Women’s sphere,’’ 21 Walker, Lenore, 569, 599 Women’s status in the family, Wallston, Barbara, 106, 114, 115, 119, 675–76 120 Women’s Studies International Forum, 76 Wal–Mart, 206 Women’s Studies International Walsh, Mary Roth, xx, 176 Quarterly,76 Washburn, Margaret Floy, 4, 19, Women’s Studies Newsletter,73 20–22 Women’s Studies Quarterly, 73, 74 Weight changes in midlife, 270–272 Women’s use of violence, 559–61 Weiner, Bernard, 638 Wood, W., 160 Weissman, Hilda, 25 Wooley, Helen Thompson, 19, 142 Weisstein, Naomi, 24 Woolf, Virginia, 174, 192 Whiffen, V., 466 Worell, Judith, 192 White before coming, 47 Work–family convergence, 718 White on arrival, 47 Working class women’s friendships, Widowhood, 282–84; gender 336 comparisons of, 283; sexual World conference on women, 357 orientation and, 284 World Health Organization, 53, 440 Wife battering, 557 World–wide Organization of Wilkinson, Sue, 86 Women’s Studies, 83 Williams, Patricia, 55–56 Work and family conflict, 678 Williams, S., 560 Work and family role expectations, Wilson, Robert, 427 446 Within gender difference, 128 Work interference with family, 678 Woman battering, 556 Womb envy, 317 Xu, X., 606, 607 Women and Depression: A Handbook for Xygote intrafallopian transfer, 366 the Social, Behavioral, and Biomedical Sciences, 454 Zurbriggen, E., 518



About the Editors and Contributors EDITORS Florence L. Denmark, Ph.D., is the Robert Scott Pace Distinguished Research Professor at Pace University in New York, where she served as chair of the psychology department for 13 years. A social psycholo- gist who has published extensively in the psychology of women and gender, she has long been an energetic force in advancing psychology internationally, particularly as it concerns the psychology of women and human rights. Dr. Denmark served as the 88th president of the American Psycho- logical Association in 1980 and has been an active member of many of its boards and committees, including the Council of Representatives and Board of Directors. She is a Fellow of 13 APA divisions and served as a president of APA Divisions 1, 35, and 52. In addition, she was president of the International Council of Psychologists, Eastern Psychological Association, New York State Psychological Association, and Psi Chi and a vice president of the New York Academy of Sciences. Denmark has four honorary doctorates and is the recipient of many regional, national, and international awards, including the American Psychological Foundation’s Gold Medal for Lifetime Achievement in the Public Interest and the Ernest Hilgard Award honoring Career Contribution of General Psychology. Dr. Denmark is currently an APA and an ICP NGO representative to the UN, and she continues to teach graduate courses at Pace University. Michele A. Paludi, Ph.D., is the author or editor of 26 college textbooks and more than 140 scholarly articles and conference presentations on psychology of women, the psychology of gender, and sexual harassment

774 About the Editors and Contributors and victimization. Her book Ivory Power: Sexual Harassment on Campus (1990) received the 1992 Myers Center Award for Outstanding Book on Human Rights in the United States. Dr. Paludi served as chair of the U.S. Department of Education’s Subpanel on the Prevention of Violence, Sexual Harassment, and Alco- hol and Other Drug Problems in Higher Education. She was one of six scholars in the United States to be selected for this subpanel. She also was a consultant to and a member of former New York governor Mario Cuomo’s Task Force on Sexual Harassment. Dr. Paludi serves as an expert witness for court proceedings and administrative hearings on sexual harassment. She has had extensive experience in conducting training programs and investigations of sexual harassment and other EEO issues for businesses and educational institu- tions. In addition, Dr. Paludi has held faculty positions at Franklin & Marshall College, Kent State University, Hunter College, Union College, and Union Graduate College. CONTRIBUTORS Courtney E. Ahrens is an assistant professor in the psychology department at California State University, Long Beach. She completed her doctoral training in community psychology at the University of Illi- nois at Chicago. Dr. Ahrens’s research focuses on violence against women, with a particular focus on the disclosure of sexual assault and community resources for survivors. She also works closely with local rape crisis centers and domestic violence agencies to help them evalu- ate their services and conduct prevention programs on campus. In addition to her community-based research, Dr. Ahrens also regularly teaches psychology of women, community psychology, and a special- ized class on domestic violence. Vidal Annan Jr. received his doctoral degree in experimental psychol- ogy from Rutgers University in 2000. After working for three years as a postdoctoral fellow conducting research in cognitive science, he became interested in the theory and treatment of mental disorders. To further his knowledge in this area, he enrolled in the clinical psychol- ogy respecialization program at Fairleigh Dickinson University. He is currently completing his third year in this program and is looking for- ward to beginning his clinical internship. Julie R. Arseneau, M.A., is a doctoral candidate in counseling psychol- ogy at the University of Maryland, College Park. She completed Master of Arts and Master of Education degrees in psychological counseling at Teachers College–Columbia University. Her research interests include the social construction of gender and sexuality, popular beliefs about

About the Editors and Contributors 775 sexual orientation and gender identity, and the career development and experiences of women in nontraditional fields. Kira Hudson Banks is an assistant professor of psychology at Illinois Wesleyan University. She received her B.A. from Mount Holyoke Col- lege and her M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Michigan, where she was a Rackham Merit and Ford Foundation Fellow. A clinical psy- chologist by training, Dr. Banks teaches courses such as abnormal psy- chology, psychology of racism, and seminars on racial identity and intergroup dialogue. Her research and publications involve under- standing the experience of discrimination and examining the develop- ment of social justice and civic engagement attitudes among students. Erika Baron received her B.A. in psychology from the University of Michigan. She is pursuing her Psy.D. in school-clinical child psychol- ogy at Pace University in New York City. Her research interests include the effects of body image on female adolescent personality de- velopment, as well as gender issues in a cross-cultural perspective. Nancy E. Betz received a Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Minnesota. She is professor of psychology at the Ohio State University. Dr. Betz has authored or coauthored more than 150 articles and chap- ters on the topics of the career development of women, applications of Bandura’s self-efficacy theory to career exploration and decision mak- ing, and issues in the use of psychological tests with women. She is the coauthor of The Career Psychology of Women (with Louise Fitzgerald) and Tests and Assessment (with Bruce Walsh). She served for six years as the editor of the Journal of Vocational Behavior and currently serves on the editorial boards of several scholarly journals. Alyson L. Burns-Glover is a professor of psychology at Pacific Univer- sity, Forest Grove, Oregon. She earned her B.A. at California State Uni- versity, Long Beach, in research psychology and her M.A. and Ph.D. in social/personality psychology at the University of California, Davis. Her research focuses on social identity theory, minority student aca- demic achievement, and specifically the health and well-being of Native and local Hawaiians. Linda Cambareri-Fernandez is a graduate of Pace University’s School- Community, now School-Clinical, Child Psychology doctoral program. She is in private practice in New York City. Donna Casta~ neda is an associate professor in the psychology depart- ment at San Diego State University–Imperial Valley Campus. She com- pleted her B.A. in psychology at the University of Washington and her

776 About the Editors and Contributors M.A. and Ph.D. in social psychology at the University of California, Davis. Her research focuses on gender, ethnicity, and their relationship to physical and mental health. She has investigated the impact of close relationship factors in HIV sexual risk behavior, particularly among Latinas/os; the HIV/AIDS prevention needs of women factory workers in Mexico; the close relationship context and how it affects intimate partner violence; and the relationship between marital satisfaction and mental health among wives and husbands. Another area of interest is the role of structural factors, or aspects of service delivery systems, in the provision of health and mental health services to Latina/o com- munities. Jean Lau Chin, Ed.D., ABPP, is professor and dean of the Derner Insti- tute for Advanced Psychological Studies at Adelphi University in New York. Prior to her current position, she was systemwide dean of the California School of Professional Psychology at Alliant International University. Dr. Chin is a licensed psychologist with more than 35 years of clinical, educational, and management experience in health and mental health services. She has held the positions of president, CEO Services; regional director, Massachusetts Behavioral Health Partner- ship; executive director, South Cove Community Health Center; and codirector, Thom Child Guidance Clinic. She was also an associate pro- fessor at Boston University School of Medicine and assistant professor at Tufts University School of Medicine. Dr. Chin has published extensively, with nine books and more than 200 presentations in the areas of culturally competent service delivery and ethnic minority, Asian American, and women’s issues in health and mental health. Her most recent books are Women and Leadership: Transforming Visions and Diverse Voices and Learning from My Mother’s Voice: Family Legend and the Chinese American Experience. She serves on many national and local boards, including the Council for National Register for Health Service Providers in Psychology, and the Council of Representatives and the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest of the American Psychological Association. June Chisholm is a professor of psychology at Pace University. She is a clinical psychologist who worked for many years as a senior psy- chologist in the Outpatient Psychiatric Department at Harlem Hospital Center, providing psychological services to an ethnically diverse, primarily poor, urban population. She has a small, part-time private practice in Manhattan. Her clinical and research interests include issues in the psychological treatment of women of color, psychological assess- ment of children and adults, parenting, community psychology, violence, and prejudice in the theory and practice of psychology.

About the Editors and Contributors 777 Joan C. Chrisler is a professor of psychology at Connecticut College. She has published extensively on issues related to women’s health and embodiment, especially on attitudes toward menstruation, premenstrual syndrome, body image, and weight. Her most recent books are From Menarche to Menopause: The Female Body in Feminist Therapy (2004, Haworth), Women over 50: Psychological Perspectives (2007, Springer), and Lectures on the Psychology of Women (4th ed., 2008, McGraw-Hill). She has served as president of the Society for Menstrual Cycle Research and the Society for the Psychology of Women (APA Division 35). Shauna M. Cooper, currently a postdoctoral fellow at the University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill, received her Ph.D. in developmental psy- chology from the University of Michigan in 2005. She received her B.A. in psychology and communication studies from the University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill. Her research focuses on socialization prac- tices in African American families and its role in the development of African American children and adolescents. Also, her work explores specific factors that contribute to the development of adolescent girls, particularly African American girls. She will be an assistant professor at the University of South Carolina starting in the Fall term, 2007. Karol Dean is an associate professor of psychology at Mount Saint Mary’s College in Los Angeles. She completed her doctoral training in personality psychology at the University of California, Los Angeles. Her primary research interest is in sexual aggression. Dr. Dean has conducted research on the identification of predictors of sexual aggres- sion among college men. She teaches courses on violence against women, psychology of gender, and research methods. Kay Deaux is Distinguished Professor of Psychology and Women’s Studies at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. Her involvement in the study of gender issues has been extensive, including basic research inside and outside the laboratory, expert wit- ness testimony in cases of gender discrimination, and teaching courses on gender, psychology, and law. She has served as president of the So- ciety for the Psychological Study of Social Issues and the American Psychological Society, and has been a recipient of the Carolyn Wood Sherif Award and the Heritage Research Award from Division 35 of the American Psychological Association. Darlene DeFour, Ph.D., is a social psychologist/community psycholo- gist. She is a graduate of Fisk University and received her doctorate from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She is currently an associate professor of psychology at Hunter College of the City

778 About the Editors and Contributors University of New York. There she teaches such classes as social psy- chology, personal adjustment, psychology of women, theories of ethnic identity development, and issues in black psychology. Dr. DeFour is currently a member of the board of directors of the new york association of black psychologists and has served on the board of directors of the national association. She is also active in sev- eral divisions of the American Psychological Association. The theme of her current research is the exploration of the various ways that vio- lence in the form of racism and sexism as well as physical violence affects the everyday lives of adolescent and adult black females. Linda Dillon is in human resources for the New York State Education Department. She is currently completing a certificate in human resource management at Union Graduate College. Claire Etaugh received her Ph.D. in developmental psychology from the University of Minnesota. She is a professor of psychology at Brad- ley University, where she has taught psychology of women courses since 1979. A Fellow of the Society for the Psychology of Women and Developmental Psychology divisions of the American Psychological Association, she has published more than 100 articles in such journals as Psychology of Women, Sex Roles, Child Development, and Developmental Psychology. Dr. Etaugh is coauthor of The World of Children, Psychology of Women: A Lifespan Perspective, and Women’s Lives: A Topical Approach. She has been a consulting editor for Psychology of Women Quarterly and Sex Roles. Ruth E. Fassinger, Ph.D., is interim chair of the Department of Coun- seling and Personnel Services, professor of counseling psychology, and a Distinguished Scholar-Teacher at the University of Maryland, College Park. She specializes in the psychology of women and gender, sexual- ity and sexual orientation, the psychology of work, and advocacy and social justice issues. She is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association in several divisions, currently serves on the editorial board of the Journal of Lesbian Studies, and has received numerous awards for her scholarship, teaching, and professional contributions. Irene H. Frieze is a professor of psychology and women’s studies at the University of Pittsburgh. She is the author of Hurting the One You Love: Violence in Relationships (2005, Thompson/Wadsworth). Her research on battered women began in the 1970s and has continued ever since. She has expanded this focus on battered women to look at dat- ing violence and stalking, as well as coercive sex. Dr. Frieze has pub- lished nearly 200 articles, books, book chapters, and reviews over her career and continues to work on violence in relationships today.

About the Editors and Contributors 779 Shelly Grabe, a recipient of the Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award for her research on women’s body objectification, received her Ph.D. in clinical psychology from the University of Missouri–Columbia and completed her residency at the University of Washington School of Medicine. She currently holds fellowship positions in psychology and women’s studies at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Her research interests involve how cultural objec- tification of women’s bodies serves to keep women in a position of marginalized status via threats to their psychological well-being. Dr. Grabe is frequently involved in public action that focuses on women’s psychological health and international human rights. She identifies as a scholar-activist and is committed to exploring how the scholarly study of gendered social structures can foster social change. Her work has been highlighted by the Association of Women in Psychology, USA Today, and CBS News. Beverly Greene, Ph.D., ABPP, is a professor of psychology at St. John’s University and a clinical psychologist in independent practice in Brook- lyn, New York. She is a Fellow of seven divisions of APA (9, 12, 29, 35, 42, 44, and 45) and of the Academy of Clinical Psychology. An active participant in APA governance, she is an elected member of the APA Council of Representatives (Div. 42—Independent Practice). The recipi- ent of numerous national awards for significant contributions to the scholarly literature, she is the 2006 recipient of the Florence Halpern Award for Distinguished Professional Contributions to Clinical Psychology (Div. 12). Forthcoming publications include A Minyan of Women: Family Dynamics, Jewish Identity and Psychotherapy Practice (Haworth Press) and Phenomenal Women: Psychological Vulnerability and Resilience in Black Women. Elizabeth L. Haines is an assistant professor at William Paterson Uni- versity in Wayne, New Jersey. Her research interests are in the area of stereotyping and prejudice with special emphasis on implicit measure- ment, stereotypes of parents in the workplace, women’s self-concept change, and the physiological correlates of racism. Kareen Hill began her military service in 1999, when she was drafted into the Israel Air Force, where she was responsible for logistics of equipment and supplies. In 2003, she enrolled in a B.A. program in behavioral scien- ces at the Max Stern Academic College of Emek Yezreel, where she ma- jored in psychology and criminology. She graduated in 2006. During her studies, she was a research assistant to Dr. Khawla Abu Baker, whose research focused on Arab women in Israel. Hill was responsible for seek- ing and reviewing published literature in a variety of subjects related to women, analyzing data, editing articles prior to publication, gathering