Popular Kheti, Volume 1, Issue 1, January - March, 2013

Popular heti KAn E-Magazine of Agriculture & its Allied SubjectsJanuary-March, 2013 Volume -1, Issue-1Protected Cultivation – A Way to Year Round Vegetable Production CAZRI Tree Gum Tapping Technique – An Improved Technique for Enhanced Production Use of Bio-Agents with Chemical Pesticides: An Innovative Approach Earthworm: A Soil Engineer in Agro-ecosystem SRI, Boro and Beushening – Rice Cultivation Role of PGPR in Sustainable Agriculture Biochar - The Future of Agriculture eISSN:2321-0001

Disclaimer The publisher and editors do not assume any responsibility for the views offered by the authors in the articles of this publication. Mentor Dr. L. N. HarshEmail: [email protected] Editor in ChiefDr. J. C. TewariEmail: [email protected] Associate Editors Dr. Mohammadreza DavariDr. B. LalEmail: [email protected]: [email protected]. Raman Jeet SinghEmail: [email protected]. Shankar Lal Jat Email: [email protected] Dr. Pradeep KumarDr. Pardeep KumarEmail: [email protected]: [email protected]. D. S. Yadav Email:[email protected]. J. L. KataraEmail: [email protected] Dr. H. P. Meena Email: [email protected]. M. L. Dotaniya Email: [email protected] - Publisher Dr. Moola Ram Email:[email protected]_________________________________________________________________Published online at www.popularkheti.com, Copyright © 2013, Popular Kheti

Popular hetiK[eISSN:2321-0001] An E-Magazine of Agriculture & its Allied Subjects January-March, 2013 Volume-1, Issue-1Table of ContentsS. No. Title and Authors Page No. Editorial i1.Beushening: A Traditional Method of Rice Crop Establishment in Eastern India Priyanka Gautam, B. Lal, J. L. Katara and Ekta Joshi 1-42.Boro Rice: A Way to Crop Intensification in Eastern India B. Lal, Priyanka Gautam, B. B. Panda and R. Raja 5-93.Increasing Rice Production through System of Rice Intensification Aanandi Lal Jat, S. L. Sirvi, H. R. Choudhary, Ekta Joshi, Manoj Kumar, B. Lal and Roshan Choudhary 10-154.Tree Gum Tapping Technique of CAZRI Proved to be a Boon of Livelihood for Gum Arabic Tappers of Western Rajasthan in India Moola Ram, J. C. Tewari, L. N. Harsh, H. A. Khan, Prahlad Singh, Poona Ram, Yogendra Singh, Manmohan Singh and Naveen Singh 16-205.Protected Cultivation as an Emerging Agri-Entrepreneurship in Hilly Regions of India Mayanglambam Bilashini Devi and Nisha Thakur21-256.Off Season Cultivation of Cucurbits Under Low Tunnel: A Cost Effective Technology for Farmers of Peri-Urban Areas of Northern India Nisha Thakur and Mayanglambam Bilashini Devi 26-287.Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria: A Biological Approach towards the Production of Sustainable Agriculture Rajesh Kumar Meena 29-368.Functional Role of Plant Growth Promoting Endo- and Rhizobacteria in Major Cereal Crops Upendra Kumar and Tushar Kanti Dangar 37-409.Biochar - The Future of Agriculture Ekta Joshi, Manoj Kumar, Priyanka Gautam, B. Lal and Aanandi Lal Jat 41-4810.Earthworms in Agroecosystem: Soil Engineer for Favorable Rhizosphere R. K. Meena, Y. V. Singh, R. S. Bana and Vijay Pooniya 49-5511.Biofertilizers and Their Role in Agriculture Rachna Rana, Ramesh and Pooja Kapoor56-6112.Compatibility of Bio-agents with Chemical Pesticides: An Innovative Approach in Insect-Pest Management Shanker Lal Sirvi, A. L. Jat, H. R. Choudhary, Narendra Jat, V. K. Tiwari and Nahar Singh 62-6713.Jatropha as a Crop of Wastelands in Rajasthan Subhash Chandra, Kailash Chand Bairwa, Abimanyu Jhajhria and Dasharath Prasad 68-7014.Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser.- An Important Medicinal Plant of Sikkim Chandan Singh Purohit71-7515.Salinisation: Causes and Prevention Manoj Kumar, Ekta Joshi and Aanandi Lal Jat76-79

“Nothing without agriculture as everything is behind agriculture”. It is not a quotation but a reality of life which is never thought by most of us. What would be more important than the life for any person? And we know the life is sustained only when besides soul, all physical essentials are provided to the body. After air and water, food is the foremost necessity for life which is fulfilled only when an activity of man called ‘Agriculture’ is performed. No activity can be performed if there is no food in the stomach. Therefore, the activity of agriculture is the most important activity of man to fulfill all other activities. If agriculture is there, food is there; if food is there, life is there and if life is there, everything is there. But in today’s era of modernization, the job of agriculture is ignored by most of people especially, youths having the feeling of being inferior to other professionals who regard agriculture mere a work of ploughman. Therefore, it is a matter of thinking and changing our mind set towards agriculture and for that ‘Agricultural Development’ must be set as a prime most goal of every person eating food obtained from agriculture and we think that would be the most or probably a leading initiative to improve our agriculture. One of the steps to agricultural development is technology transfer and one of the ways to technology transfer is to share the best agricultural technologies to each other. In today’s internet era, a person living even in a small isolated village but connected to internet, feels like living in every part of the world where he or she feels no distance to each other. Benefiting from internet usages, a person linked to farming community can get and share information of agricultural technologies so that all others can benefit from knowing that. In view of this, an initiative to provide a platform for sharing agricultural technologies and publishing the same in the form of an e-magazine “Popular Kheti” was taken. The magazine is being released with the first issue (January-March) of first volume (2013), wherein authors have contributed through their articles on technologies like cultivation under low tunnel, protected cultivation, Beushening, Boro and SRI system of rice cultivation, role of biofertilizers, PGPR and earthworms in agriculture, etc. Besides these, the use of Biochar which may be an effective tool to manage increasing CO in atmosphere in current scenario of climate change is 2also described. The focus reading article of the issue is about an improved technique of tree gum tapping which has been a source of income and livelihood for many people of western Rajasthan in India. Wasteland could be converted into a source of income by growing plants like Jatropha is also described in an article. IPM is well known but research on use of compatible bio-agents with chemical pesticides is need of hour, some part of this is also explained by authors in this issue. We are highly thankful to all esteemed members and authors whose contribution made it possible to release the first ever issue of the magazine in time and whose efforts in future would make the mission of Popular Kheti a grand success. We look forward to receiving your invaluable submissions and feedbacks.-EditorsEditorial Popular Kheti Volume -1, Issue-1 (January-March), 2013 Available online at www.popularkheti.com© 2013 popularkheti.com eISSN: 2321-0001 i Published online at www.popularkheti.com by Dr. Moola Ram, Assistant Professor (Agronomy), College of Agriculture (SKRAU), Sumerpur – 306902, District - Pali (Rajasthan), India. Email: [email protected], Mobile: +919414295707

Beushening: A Traditional Method of Rice Crop Establishment in Eastern India Priyanka Gautam , B. Lal, J. L. Katara and Ekta Joshi** *Division of Crop Production, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha-753006, India **Division of Agronomy, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012, India *Corresponding author email: [email protected] Beushening Rainfed lowland rice occupies an important position in the agriculture of eastern India, which comprises the states of Assam, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, and the eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Eastern India accounts for 58% of the total rice area in the country but less than 48% of national rice production. In the rainfed lowland areas of eastern India with shallow and intermediate water, beushening is popular among farmers in about 50–80% of the area (Nayak and Lenka, 1988) because they obtain stable yields with limited labour, cash, and inputs under an uncertain water supply. Locally, this practice is known as beushen in Orissa and Bihar, biasi in eastern Madhya Pradesh, lev in eastern Uttar Pradesh, and baug or bidauni in Bihar (Singh et. al., 1994). It is practiced by resource poor farmers under risk-prone environments with highly variable climate. Beushening is a traditional rice cultivation system, common throughout the rainfed regions of eastern India. Beushening facilitates stable rice yields under low levels of inputs and uncertain climatic conditions through effective weed control, stimulated root growth and optimum plant stand with enhanced tillering. Rice cultivars mostly used in beushening are of local origin with maturity duration of 150- 170 days and medium tillering capacity. Improved varieties are rarely used for beushening.Beushening involves two broad series of field operations: 1. Direct seeding of mostly traditional tall rice cultivars using higher seed rates than those used for direct seeding without beushening; or 2. Wet ploughing and laddering of the field, generally 25-35 days after germination of the rice, when about 15 cm of rainwater isaccumulated in the crop field. In some cases, seedling redistribution is also done after this operation. Beushening, commonly practiced in submerged lowlands of eastern India, is a traditional cultural practice of cross-ploughing the dry-seeded (broadcast) standing crop of rice 25-35 days after seeding when 15-20 cm of rainwater gets impounded in rice fields, followed by laddering and seedling redistribution which facilitates stable rice yields under low levels of inputs and uncertain climatic conditions.Popular Kheti Volume -1, Issue-1 (January-March), 2013 Available online at www.popularkheti.com© 2013 popularkheti.com ISSN:2321-0001 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 1

The Beushening Process The fields to be beushened are ploughed immediately after the winter or summer rain and 2-3 times thereafter during summer to control weeds, insects and rodents. Ploughing is done by an animal drawn wooden plough, without inverting the soil. If weeds are observed after the first monsoon rain, additional ploughings are done to suppress them. Rice seeds are then broadcasted in the dry soil and mixed by harrowing in the last week of May. Farmers had experienced that sowing in May resulted in higher grain and straw yields because the crop matured before the occurrence of late season drought in early to mid-October. Wet ploughing is done 25-35 days after germination, but only after having 15-20 cm of standing water in the rice field. Farmers let their cattle graze rice seedlings one week before ploughing to de-top seedlings to improve tillering and maintain optimum plant population. They also use the crop foliage as fodder which otherwise would be lost during ploughing and laddering. Rice fields are ploughed, followed by one or two ladderings with 15-20 kg of load (usual plough load) on the ladder, to only break the “soil slice” and loosen it without damaging rice plants. Farmers observe weed conditions in fields for 2-3 days after laddering. If weeds were not well incorporated into the soil, farmers repeat ladderings. Two to three ladderings are generally sufficient to damage and incorporate the weeds, especially Echinochloa colona (jhimpa or jharua), which was difficult to distinguish from the rice plant. Seedling redistribution is done to fill up blank patches and thin out the dense patches caused by repeated laddering. Farmers’ Reasons for BeusheningLabour requirement: Labour saving in beushening is mainly in nursery growing, land preparation, transplanting and weeding operations. As the operations in beushening, especially land preparation, wet ploughing and hand weeding, are done over a longer period of time, the labour demand for these operations could be spread over time. A total of 130 mandays/ha are required in the various operations of beushening versus 209 mandays/ha in the transplanting system. The beusheningsystem also uses less animal power (42 days/ha) than the transplanting system (50 days/ha). Low fertilizer requirement: Farmers in beushening rice farming use traditional tall cultivars which require minimum fertilizer and do not respond economically to higher doses. According to farmers, high-yielding varieties (HYVs) require high purchased inputs and are not suited for beushening. Farmers also avoid Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 2 Gautam et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):1-4

HYVs for transplanting because of their inability to invest in more fertilizers. Beushening does not require a nursery: Owing to a shortage of water and the problem of stray animals during summer months, it is difficult to raise seedlings in a nursery. This also saves farmers substantial labour cost. Puddling is not required: Farmers have to wait for enough water to accumulate for puddling, which, even in normal years of rainfall, is possible only in mid- to late July. Therefore, by transplanting, crop establishment is not only delayed but also suffers from drought in mid-October, near flowering time. Beushened fields, on the other hand, which already contain a crop as a result of sowing in May, could hold water like a puddled field. Less pest problems: As the fields to be beushened are repeatedly ploughed during summer, these fields reduce rodent and weed problems, because summer ploughing destroys rodent burrows and uproots weeds, which are dried up in the summer heat. The remaining weeds are buried in the mud during wet ploughing and laddering, done 25-35 days after germination. Less cash inputs required: Besides not having nurseries and puddling operations, beusheningalso requires no additional expenses for fertilizers. Moreover, because labour requirements are spread over a longer period of time, most operations in beushening are done by family labour. In then transplanting system, hired labour is needed as most of the operations up to transplanting have to be done within about a month. Beushening is therefore a cost-saving strategy. Beushening is an appropriate alternative in drought and submergence prone areas: Transplanted or direct-seeded rice cultivation in drought- and submergence-prone areas is not economically feasible because of erratic rainfall and undulating topography. Depending on the rainfall, the crop is likely to suffer from drought or floods or both, sometimes even in the same season. The timeliness of transplanting is crucial because, with progressive delays in transplanting, the seedlings become older. This results in a lower number of tillers and the crop faces a greater risk of water shortage and low-temperature injury at the reproductive stage in mid-November and early December. Ease and timely establishment of non-rice crops: In clay soils, several years of puddling for transplanting reduced rice yields and created difficulty in establishing subsequent non-rice crop because of soil compaction. Transplanted rice was harvested 2-3 weeks later than beushened rice, subsequent non-rice crops in transplanted fields also suffered from soil moisture depletion even at early stages of growth. These problems are not encountered in beushened fields. Disadvantages of Beushening Low plant stand: In beushening, insufficient rain after sowing results in poor germination and low plant stand. Rain must be adequate to Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 3 Gautam et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):1-4

promote fast seed emergence, better plant stand, and high yield. Beushening also results in some damage to rice seedlings and their uneven distribution. Therefore, farmers use higher seed rates, ranging from 130 to 240 kg ha-1 to compensate. Further, flash floods just after beushening usually increase plant mortality. Poor weed control: Weeds are the second most important constraint to rice production after drought/submergence in eastern India. They depress yield considerably in direct dry-seeded lowlands. Infestation of balunga or karga (wild rice) is a serious problem in eastern Madhya Pradesh. The effectiveness of traditional cultural operations such as beushening, which helps to minimize weed infestation, depends on an active monsoon in the early stages of crop growth. When beushening is delayed because of rain, weeds grow well and use up most nutrients for the rice crop and also suppress tillering. Lack of high-yielding varieties: Semi dwarf short-duration cultivars are reportedly unsuitable for beushening as their grain yield decreases considerably because of stem breakage during wet plowing and laddering. Beushening is not good for all rice varieties in the lowland ecosystem irrespective of stature, quality, and duration. Chandra (1999) reported that, among three medium-duration rice cultivars differing in stature and quality, beushening was beneficial for semi tall (115 cm) variety Moti when compared to Padmini, (130 cm tall) and T-141. Lower crop yield: Lower yields of rice in the beushening system are due to reduced plant stand, poor weed control, less spread of high-yielding varieties, lodging, low fertilizer use and lower fertilizer-use efficiency, almost negligible use of plant protection measures, and drought and flood (Singh et al., 1994 and Chandra 1999). Conclusion Traditional system of rice cultivation likebeushening is more sustainable compared to transplanting system though yields are lower which needs to be improved with refinement of package and practices. References Chandra D. 1999. Beushening: a wonderful cultural operation of rainfed lowland rice in eastern India. Indian Farming49(4):10-12. Nayak BC and Lenka D. 1988. Studies on cultural practices for rainfed lowland drought-prone medium land rice. Indian Journal of Agronomy33(1):1-6. Singh RK, Singh VP and Singh CV. 1994. Agronomic assessment of ‘beushening’ in rainfed lowland rice cultivation in Bihar, India. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment51:271-280. Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 4 Gautam et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):1-4

Boro Rice: A Way to Crop Intensification in Eastern India B. Lal , Priyanka Gautam, B. B. Panda and R. Raja *Division of crop production, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha-753006, India *Corresponding author email: [email protected] is a winter season, photo-insensitive, transplanted rice cultivated under low laying residual soil moisture condition with supplemental irrigation. This gives the farmers a chance to grow a rabi season crop which normally they could not grow. This practice is emerging as a new cropping system by its spreading even to those non-traditional areas where irrigation is available. Boro Rice The boro rice is commonly known as winter rice. The term boro is Bengali originated from the Sanskrit word \"Boro\" which refers to a cultivation from Nov.-May under irrigated condition. It is photo-insensitive, transplanted rice cultivated in waterlogged, low-lying or medium lands with supplemental irrigation during November to May. This gives the farmers a chance to grow a rabi season crop which normally they could not grow. This type of rice has been cultivated traditionally in river basin deltas of Bangladesh and Eastern India including Eastern U.P., Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. Areas adjoining canals and roads, Chaur-lands/Tal-lands, are low-lying ditches with high moisture retention capacity where water is accumulated during monsoon months and cannot be drained out in winter months. Boro rice system takes advantage of residual moisture after the harvest of kharif rice. With the increase in irrigation facilities, boro crop is now being taken in areas outside its traditional boundaries and a new cropping system is emerging. Why Boro rice? 1. Shallow water level and water logging low land can be utilized by using boro rice cultivation, which remains fallow in winter due to excessive moisture and late maturing rice. 2. Immense potential for improving boro rice yield over winter crops in low land areas. 3. Boro rice matures before on-set of monsoon and gets sufficient time for harvesting as compared to chaitie rice (spring). Popular Kheti Volume -1, Issue-1 (January-March), 2013 Available online at www.popularkheti.com© 2013 popularkheti.com ISSN:2321-0001 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 5

4. Good market price of boro rice due to offseason production. 5. Reduces risk of natural calamities like flood for main season under flood prone areas using boro rice cultivation. Benefits of Boro Rice Cultivation Boro rice is known for high productivity (5-6 t/ha) in deepwater areas of Eastern India, where productivity has traditionally been very poor (<1 t/ha) during the kharif. This is mainly because boro is more manageable than kharif rice. For example, water management in boro is more systematic as it is an irrigated crop. Consequently, this cropresponds well to higher doses of fertilizers resulting in higher production. Being a winter season crop, it is spared from insect-pest infestation. Moreover lower winter temperature during the early crop growth period facilitates the accumulation of photo-synthates, thereby increasing carbon: nitrogen ratio. Temperature rise during the ripening period, further facilitating the process. Variations in these parameters cause variation in yields across the boro growing areas. Boro Rice Cultivation Practices The boro rice cultivars have additional desirable traits over those of irrigated rice varieties grown during kharif. The cultivar has to be of short duration having physiological and plant type parameters to shorten the vegetative growth phase and more efficient dry matter accumulation. These would mean cold tolerance, lower loss of water due to transpiration, shade efficiency, less tillering and more effective tillers. Quick establishment capability after transplanting is also a desirable trait. Popular Boro Rice Varieties Gautam, Prabhat, IR 64, Krishna Hensa, IR-36, Joyamati, Vishnu Prasad, Jyoti Prasad, Chinsura Hybrid-3, BRRI dhan-29, BRRI dhan-35, BRRI dhan-36, Khumal –11 and Jaya gives good yield in boro season. As boro rice seeds are sown in early winter, the seeds of the cultivar should be able to germinate at lower temperatures say, ranging between 12-14 C. The shape of ovacuoles and thickness of mesophyll layer in the internal structure of the leaves need to be bigger enough to make the cultivar more cold tolerant. The cultivar needs to have low amylase content (20%-50%) in the grain. The expected yield level has to be 6-7 t/ha with harvest index of 0.50 to 0.55. Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 6 Lal et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):5-9

Nursery management Nursery for boro crop is sown in the last week of October to mid- September before onset of the winter season. Prepare the seed bed in low-lying areas near the source of irrigation. Irrigate seed beds frequently. Dust the seedlings periodically with fuelwood ash, straw ash, cattle dung ash, etc. Cover the seedlings with a plastic sheet at night to avoid yellowing of seedlings. Transplanting Optimum time of sowing is 25 Oct. to 15 Nov. The transplanting is suitable when the minimum temperature of February becomes equal to 10 C. oKeep seedlings 18-20 cm high. Use of ash at interval of 15 days, cover of seedlings by plastic sheet in night and remove plastic sheet in day. Keep seedlings 5-6 cm in standing water. Place the seedlings 4-5 per hill at a spacing of 20x10-15 cm.Dense planting and/or higher number of seedlings are required to maintain the plant population.Depending upon the soil condition, apply 120-150 kg N, 60-75 kg P O 25and 50-80 kg K O along with 220kg/ha of ZnSO for optimum yield 4 of boro rice.Need-based irrigations are given from ground water sources /canals/low-lying catchments. Altogether 12-15 irrigations are necessary during the crop period.Constraints to Boro Rice Cultivation Boro crop is a 190-200 days crop and may require more resources and care for a longer period. Moreover, improved varieties and agro-techniques are not available for boro rice cultivation. Lack of credit facilities and the small size of holdings are major challenges. Some of the environmental constraints are as follows: 1.Weather fluctuation:Low temperature at seedling stage can cause poor germination, slow and stunted seedling growth, yellowing of leaves, leaf spots, slow and delayed tillering and non-synchronous and delayed flowering. Dense fog, coupled with greater Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 7 Lal et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):5-9

temperature fluctuation or high day temperature at flowering may cause sterility of flowers. 2.Pre-monsoon rain: If seed has no dormancy, early pre-monsoon rain may affect germination. In coastal areas, it may cause grain shattering. 3.Seedling mortality takes place during nursery stage due to long cold spells. Duration of panicle initiation and maturity period also increases. This increases expenditure on additional irrigation and care. Cold spell also restricts root growth delaying proper establishment of the seedlings. To compensate, the farmer has to do dense transplanting and use more number of seedlings/hill. 4. Plant hoppers, leaf hopper, leaf folder, grass hopper, Gandhi bug and yellow stem borer (YSB) are some of the major pests of boro rice. Bird damage is also common at the time of grain ripening. Major plant diseases are sheath blight and blasts, which appear during ripening or maturity stage. Problematic weeds also grow. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Technology for Boro Rice Insect pests in boro rice cause significant damage, especially during the reproductive stage of the crop, which coincides with the emergence of the first generation of stem borers after hibernation during winter. The IPM technology for boro rice includes: 1. Use of appropriate variety 2. Timely planting and Optimum plant population 3. Balanced fertilizer application 4. Split application of nitrogenous fertilizer 5. Regular pest monitoring using pheromone traps for YSB (to reduce pest population) 6. Use of Trichogramma egg parasitoids for YSB and leaf folders 7. Need-based application of pesticides 8. Use of indigenous technical knowledge such as use of bamboo perches, etc. Strategies for Increasing Boro Rice Production in Eastern India: 1. Identify Appropriate Varieties: This may be done through germplasmcollection, evaluation, selection and varietal/cultivars testing.Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 8 Lal et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):5-9

2. Characterize Boro Rice Agro-ecosystem: Undertake agro-ecosystem analysis through rapid rural appraisal (RRA)/ participatory rural appraisal (PRA), system diagnosis, remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) to prioritize the problems and issues faced by farmers and find out possible solutions.3. Develop Crop Management Practices: There is a need for a crop management package, which may include nursery management, optimum planting time, plant population, planting geometry, fertilizer, and irrigation requirements, weed management and integrated pest management (IPM). Evaluate cultivars/varieties in relation to these parameters.4. Develop Appropriate Water Management Techniques Such techniques for varying low-lying water bodies help in better land utilization. Management of groundwater is equally important in medium lands. Proper drainage and pumping water from central portion to establish the crop and irrigation reduce menace of aquatic weeds.5. Develop Rice-fish Culture Viable rice-fish culture enhances the income of poor farmers owning deepwater/low lying waterlogged areas. Boro rice-fish culture technology package helps farmers in increasing their incomes.6. Encourages Farmers’ Participatory Research: Technology transfer is an important component of agricultural development. Technologies should be well tested on the farmers’ field before those are passed on to other farmers for adoption. This is better done by farmers’ participatory approach including on-farm trials and demonstrations to test the technology’s adaptability, compatibility and feedback information for refinement of technology according to farmers’ needs.Conclusion Boro rice has made it possible to best utilization of the soil moisture in low lying areas with an additional crop to farmers. The crop has become very popular and emerging out as a new cropping system in the region. The need is to develop improved package and practices to make the system more popular. Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 9 Lal et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):5-9

Increasing Rice Production through System of Rice Intensification Aanandi Lal Jat *, S. L. Sirvi , H. R. Choudhary , Ekta Joshi , Manoj Kumar , B. Lal and 111223Roshan Choudhary 41Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (U.P.)- 221005, India 2Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012, India 3Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha-753006, India 4Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur- 313001, Rajasthan, India *Corresponding author email: [email protected] is the second most important cereal crop in the world covering 155 mha with the annual production of 596 mt. Rice is one of the most important cereals that hold the key for food security. Increasing water scarcity is becoming a real threat for rice cultivation. About 80 per cent of fresh water is being used for agriculture and out of this more than 50 per cent is consumed by the rice crop alone. The system of rice intensification originated in Madagascar and developed by the late father Henry de Laulanie in 1983. SRI is not a new variety or a hybrid. It is only a method of cultivation. SRI has proved to be a promising system under all kinds of rice varieties whether local or improved. SRI has showed great promise of saving water, seed, pesticides, fertilizers, etc producing yields more than or equal to that of traditional cultivation. Introduction Rice is the second most important cereal crop in the world covering 155 mha with the annual production of 596 mt. Rice is one of the most important cereals that hold the key for food security. It is a staple food for more than 70 per cent of the people living in Asia where more than 90 per cent of it is produced and consumed. In India, rice presently grown in an area of 42.5 m ha with the production of 91.8 mt (Economic Survey, 2009). At the current rate of population growth, the country has to produce about 130 mt of rice by 2025 to feed the ever growing population. Meeting the targeted demand of rice is a challenging task. Water scarcity is becoming a real threat for rice cultivation. About 80 per cent of fresh water is being used for agriculture and out of this more than 50 per cent is consumed by the rice crop alone. Rice is labour intensive crop but due to modernization labour availability for agriculture is decreasing and labour wage is increasing. Consequently cost of cultivation is also increasing day-by-day. Another challenge is deterioration of soil health due to imbalance use of fertilizers. Farmers use huge Popular Kheti Volume -1, Issue-1 (January-March), 2013 Available online at www.popularkheti.com© 2013 popularkheti.com ISSN:2321-0001 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 10

amount of nitrogen as compare to phosphorus and potassium. Input use efficiency for higher production is also a major concern. In direct seeding system, less germination and more weeds is limiting factor for higher yield. Although transplanted rice gives higher yield but it requires huge amount of water. The existing system of rice establishment are seems to be fail in achieving our challenges. To overcome problems associated to establishment some advancement has been made in transplanting as well as direct seeding rice cultivation. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI), is one of advanced rice establishment system for meeting through the challenges. System of Rice Intensification (SRI) The system of rice intensification originated in Madagascar and developed by the late father Henry de Laulanie in 1983. SRI is not a new variety or a hybrid. It is only a method of cultivation. SRI has proved to be a promising system under all kinds of rice varieties whether local or improved. SRI method is emerging as a potential alternative to traditional way of flooded rice cultivation. SRI has showed great promise of saving water, seed, pesticides, fertilizers, etc producing yields more than or equal to that of traditional cultivation. Rice Cultivation with SRI Suitable soils: Unlike in the conventional transplanting system, saline or alkaline soils are not suitable for SRI cultivation. As water needs to be drained frequently in SRI, the salts come to surface, damaging young seedlings. It is therefore advisable to go for soil test before opting for SRI cultivation. Raising nursery for SRI: Make a raised bed. A bed with a width of 1.25 m is ideal and length of the bed can be decided by the farmer depending on the ground situation. The ideal size of bed is 1.25 m × 8 m. The nursery bed is prepared with application of farmyard manure (FYM) and soil alternately in 4 layers. 1 stlayer: 2.50 cm thick well decomposed FYM, 2 layer: 3.70 cm soil. 3 layer: 2.50 cm with ndrdwell decomposed FYM, 4 layer: 6.3 cm soil. thThe FYM helps in easy prostration of roots. To drain excess water appropriate channels should be provided on all sides. The 5 kg seed is required to transplant in one ha of land. For 1 kg seed two beds are required having sizes 1.25 m × 8 m.Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 11 Jat et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):10-15

Sprouted seeds should be sparsely spread to avoid crowding of seedling. Care should be taken that no two seeds should touch each other. It is better to broadcast/spread seeds in the evening. Spread well decomposed FYM or paddy straw over the sown seed thinly. The seeds are not to be directly exposed to sun. This would ensure protection from birds and ants. Straw can be removed once seeds have germinated. Depending on the requirement, watering should be done twice a day (morning and evening). Watering can be done slowly with sprayer by controlling the flow with hand. Care should be taken that the seeds do not come out while watering. The seed bed should be preferably in the centre or corner of the plot and it should not be away from the main field for quick transplantation. If the area is large, separate nursery bed for each acre is recommended. Preparation of main field: Preparation of main field in SRI is the same as in conventional transplanting. Field should be evenly leveled and there should not be standing water in the field during transplanting. In SRI, method, seedlings are widely spaced (25 × 25 cm) and only one seedling per hill is transplanted. SRI method can accommodate only 16 hills m . Uniform -2spacing is also required for easy weeding by cono weeder. To maintain uniform spacing, different types of ‘Markers’ are being developed. These markers need to be run over the propagated field lengthwise and widthwise. Transplanting of the marked intersection gives the 25 × 25 cm spacing. Some of the newly developed markers draw 8 rows and column simultaneously. These markers need to be pulled at an even space for proper marking. To have the lines straight, it is advisable to tie a rope and pull the marker along side the rope. The care should be taken that no water stagnation is there in field during marking to obtain clear marks for smooth transplanting, field operations like bunding, leveling and marking with maker should be completed a day before the transplanting. Tillering habit of rice in SRI Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 12 Jat et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):10-15

Transplanting: In SRI, 8-12 days old seedlings are used for transplanting. Uproot the seedlings very carefully. The uprooted seedlings should have seed, soil and roots. Care should be taken to prevent any harm to seedlings while pulling them from nursery or at the time of transplanting. In SRI, young seedlings (8-12 days) are transplanted shallow. Single seedling with seed and soil are transplanted by using index finger and thumb and gently planting them at the intersection of markings. Light irrigation should be given on the next day of transplanting. Water management: The soil is kept moist but not flooded during the vegetative growth phase. A thin layer of water may be maintained during panicle initiation and grain filling stage. The irrigation is given to wet the soil, just enough to saturate the soil with moisture, subsequent irrigation is suggested when the soil develops fine cracks. Irrigation interval depends on soil type and weather conditions. This method helps in better growth and spread at roots. Regular wetting and drying of soil results in increased microbial activity in the soil and easy availability of nutrient to plants. Weed management: Absence of standing water provides a congenial environment for weed to proliferate in SRI. If these weeds are incorporated into the soil, they serve as green manure. The weeds in the vicinity of hills which could not be reached by the weeder have to be removed by hand. The 2-4 weeding should be done mechanically with the cono weeder. The cono weeder churns the soil thereby more root growth, reduced weed competition, increased soil biological activity, increased soil aeration, prevent cracking and better nutrient availability. The 1 weeding stshould be done at 10-12 DAT and subsequent weeding depending on the need, weeding can be done once every 10 days. Nutrient management: In SRI, instead of chemical fertilizer alone, FYM or compost also applied as source of nutrients. Apply compost 10 t/ha in addition to chemical fertilizers. Regarding chemical fertilizers, only basal dose of NPK (25: 50: 40 kg) is advised. If the quantity of organic matter increased, in future, the dose of NPK chemical fertilizers can still be reduced. Management of pest and diseases: The incidence of pests and disease is naturally low in SRI because of wider spacing and the usage of organic manures. Natural pest management methods and use of natural bio-pesticides are Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 13 Jat et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):10-15

recommended whenever necessary to keep pests under control. Advantages of SRI i) Water saving During the vegetative growth period, rice field maintained moist instead of flooding. Therefore, it reduce water requirement by 35-45 per cent. ii) Greater root growth This is key to SRI performance though it is unseen. Root pulling resistance was about 5 times greater per plant than for rice plant growth under conventional conditions (Singh,et. al., 2006). iii) Increased tillering Transplantation of young seedlings at shallow depth results in quick recovery and establishment and production of more tillers. iv) More grain filling With SRI practices, a positive correlation is found between the number of tillers per plant and the number of grain per panicle (Kumari and Kumar, 2006). The inverse relationship that has been observed between tillering and grain tilling occurs in conventionally grown rice plants because they have became practically closed system because of their root degeneration and this causes diminishing return to tillering. v) Less lodging The plants have less lodging in SRI compared to the rice plants grown in conventional way because it has stronger tillers and larger root system. vi) Seed saving Since a single seedling is transplanted per hill at wider spacing, seed requirement is drastically reduced. This is a benefit particularly for hybrid rice where seed cost can be barrier for adoption. vii) Increased factor productivity and profitability Increased factor productivity i.e. yield/hectare, labour (income/hour), water productivity (output/m ) 3and monetary returns (profitability) all increase at the same time in SRI practice as compared to normal transplanting. Constraints in Adoption of SRI i) Require good water control The practices are beneficial even without good water management, but the best results depend on maintaining aerobic soil during at least the phase of vegetative growth. Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 14 Jat et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):10-15

ii) Labour requirement Farmers using both SRI and conventional practices, labour inputs were 26 per cent higher with the SRI. However, some farmers who have mastered the techniques in Madagascar and Sri Lanka now report that their labour input per hectare is lower with SRI, so the SRI can become labour saving over time. iii) Motivation and skill SRI is a skill intensive practice; we think an ambiguous disadvantage of the methodology. Increasing farmer’s decision making and management capacities should be seed as an asset rather than as a liability.Conclusion The new advances in rice establishment like SRI have greater promises to meet challenges in agriculture by saving water, seed, pesticides, fertilizers, etc producing yields more than or equal to that of traditional system. However it needs to be studied more precisely before recommending for wider adoption and commercial cultivation. References Economic Survey. 2009. Agriculture Situation in India. Kumari A and Kumar A 2006. Evaluation of different crop establishment techniques for increasing yield of transplanted rice (Oryza sativa). In : Proceedings of National symposium on conservation agriculture and environment, Oct. 26-28, BHU, Varanasi. pp. 29. Singh G, Singh OR, Kumar T and Singh D. 2006. Yields and economics of different methods of establishment and tillage practice in rice-wheat cropping system under rainfed low lands. In: Proceedings of National symposium on conservation agriculture and environment, Oct. 26-28, BHU, Varanasi. pp. 65. Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 15 Jat et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):10-15

Tree Gum Tapping Technique of CAZRI Proved to be a Boon of Livelihood for Gum Arabic Tappers of Western Rajasthan in India Moola Ram*, J. C. Tewari, L. N. Harsh, H. A. Khan, Prahlad Singh, Poona Ram, Yogendra Singh, Manmohan Singh and Naveen Singh *College of Agriculture (SKRAU), Sumerpur-306902, Pali, Rajasthan, India Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur-342003, Rajasthan, India *Corresponding author email: [email protected] Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, India developed a successful technique for tree exudates gum tapping which has been very effective for gum Arabic production from Acacia senegal which is wide spread in western part of India particularly in Rajasthan. The technique proved to be very fruitful and got wide spread popularity in western Rajasthan where the gum tappers of the region produced about 23.59 t gum Arabic and earned about 235.9 thousand US$ gross income in 3 years (2009-2011) by sale of gum Arabic in local markets. Adoption of this technique by all gum tappers of gum producing belts of the world will result in enhanced production of gum Arabic in the world and provide better livelihood option for the community. Introduction Gum Arabic, the oldest and best known tree gum, is a dried exudate obtained from the stems and branches of certain Acacia trees, most often from Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal. A. senegal which has wide ecological amplitude and grows in countries like Maurtiana, Senegal, Zambia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Central African Republic, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Rawanda, Zaire, Mozambique, Oman, Pakistan and India, is predominant species for gum Arabic production Most of its stands occur in a wide belt of arid & semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa, North-Western India and Pakistan. However, the gum production potential of this species is still untapped in most of the areas because of unproductive and interest less effort in gum tapping. Traditional method of gum tapping, in which tree is wounded at various parts, is laborious, causes more injuries to the tree and in turn, the tree produces a very low quantity of gum due to which gum tappers have no interests in gum tapping. Recognising the need to enhance the capacities of the gum tappers and to increase the gum Arabic production worldwide, an improved technique of gum tapping was evolved by Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India, in which a standard gum Popular Kheti Volume -1, Issue-1 (January-March), 2013 Available online at www.popularkheti.com© 2013 popularkheti.com ISSN:2321-0001 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 16

inducer solution prepared by CAZRI, commonly known as CAZRI Gum Inducer is used. CAZRI Technique of Gum Tapping Materials required Hand drill or battery operator drill of 18 mm diameter bit, syringe of 5 ml volume, moistened clay and CAZRI Gum Inducer. Procedure ·A 45 slanted hole of 18 mm diameter oand about 3 cm deep is made on tree trunk at 1-2 feet above the collar of the tree with the help of hand drill or battery operated drill machine. ·After that, 4.0 ml dose of CAZRI Gum Inducer is injected in the hole with the help of syringe. ·Immediately after injecting the dose of CAZRI Gum Inducer, the hole is covered (patched up) by moistened clay. ·The tree starts exuding gum tears after 8-10 days of the treatment (step 4 of Fig.1) The above mentioned procedure is depicted in Fig. 1. Fig. 1. CAZRI gum tapping technique The optimum season for treatment with CAZRI Gum Inducer is from start of summer to onset of monsoon i.e. March to June in hot arid climatic conditions. The yield of gum through this technique is about 500g to 1.5 kg per tree which is almost 25 times higher than that of traditional method. One should have following some important points to be kept in mind while going for application of CAZRI gum tapping technique: ·One should avoid treating the tree if weather is humid, cloudy or rain is expected. ·The best season to treat the tree starts from after leaf fall to before rainy season. ·The best results are found in trees of more than 10 years old growing in sandy soils or sandy dune habitat. ·The optimum dose of CAZRI Gum Inducer is 4 ml per tree however, it may vary from 4-5 ml according to tree Ram et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):16-20 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 17

structural traits, big and wider girth tree needs slighter more dose quantity of the inducer. ·One should ensure that while covering the hole, the clay has not entered into the hole otherwise it would lead to outward absorption of the inducer. While patching up (covering), press the clay from side on outcircle of the hole (as shown in step 3 of fig. 1.), not on the mid of hole. Sustainability of the Technique A technique becomes more popular when it is more profitable as well as sustainable. CAZRI has also studied sustainability of its gum exudation technique and its impact on livelihood improvement of the people of arid western Rajasthan. The results of the study revealed that there was substantial decrease in gum and seed yields of Acacia senegal due to every year treatment of gum inducer for higher gum production. After ten years, the quantity of gum and seed yields was, respectively 43% and 36% less as compared to those obtained in the first year of treatment. It showed a successive reduction in gum as well as seed yields due to every year treatment of the trees with the gum inducer. It also showed that gum inducer treatment for higher gum production also had the negative effect on seed yield of tree in next season and the effect was seen more when trees were treated every year. Therefore it was recommended that one should not treat the tree every year with the gum inducer but in alternate year so that the tree can sustain its production level as well as its health. Adoption of the Technique Since CAZRI is situated in western Rajasthan, the benefits of its research first reach to nearby areas. Therefore, a number of districts of western Rajasthan have adopted the gum tapping technique of CAZRI in large scale. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) launched a Network Project on “Harvesting, Processing and Value Addition of Natural Resins and Gums” at CAZRI, Jodhpur in 2008, which provided financial support for R & D and extension activities of technologies for resins and gums. Under the network project, field demonstrations of the technique were done at different villages of Barmer, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali and Jalore districts of hot arid western Rajasthan, which resulted in large scale adoption of the technique by gum Arabic tappers. For examples, the majority of farmers of Chauhatan and Baytu tehsils of Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 18 Ram et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):16-20

Barmer district; Shergarh and Phalodi tehsils of Jodhpur; and some villages of Nagaur, Pali and Jalore districts of western Rajasthan have adopted the gum exudation technique of CAZRI in large scale. In 2009, total 12,104 trees of A. senegal were treated with standard dose of CAZRI Gum Inducer, which resulted in production of 5.45 tons of gum Arabic. In 2010 and 2011, numbers of A. senegal trees treated with standard dose of CAZRI Gum Inducer reached to 20,950 and 22,610, respectively, which resulted in production of 10.48 and 7.67 tones of gum Arabic, respectively (Fig. 2). The average sale rate of gum Arabic in local markets of India has been found to be 10 US$ (Rs. 500) per kg of gum. In this way, with average rate of 10US$ per kg of gum, gum harvesters of the hot arid region of western Rajasthan earned gross income of 54.5, 104.8 and 76.6 thousand US$ during 2009, 2010 and 2011, respectively by sale of gum Arabic in local markets. In three year (2009-2011), total 23.59 tons of gum Arabic was produced and 235.9 thousand US$ was earned as gross income by gum tappers of said areas through use of CAZRI Gum Inducer and gum exudation technology. Fig. 3 shows some photographs of gum Arabic collection by gum tappers of Baytu and Chauhatan tehsils of Barmer district of Rajasthan. The effort of CAZRI has changed the scenario of livelihood options in gum belt regions of western Rajasthan and the same may happen in other parts of gum belt region of the world in hot arid climate if the technique is adopted. Fig. 2. Total number of Acacia senegal trees (thousands) teated with standard dose of CAZRI Gum Inducer, total production of gum Arabic (tons) and total income (thousand US$) earned by gum tappers of western Rajasthan. Fig. 3. Gum Arabic production by gum tappers of western Rajasthan using CAZRI gum tapping technique. Photographs are from some rural households of Chauhatan and Baytu tehsils of Barmer district of Rajasthan. Photograph second from left in lower line is of a village shopkeeper, who has purchased the gum from the gum tappers. Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 19 Ram et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):16-20

Fig. 4. Gum tears from Acacia senegal produced through CAZRI gum tapping technique. The gum is seen in different size, shape and colour at different parts of tree of A. senegal. CAZRI Gum Inducer CAZRI gum inducer is a standard solution prepared by CAZRI, Jodhpur. For more detail about the gum inducer one should contact at Silva Section, Division of Integrated Land Use Management and Farming System, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur – 342003, Rajasthan, India, website: www.cazri.res.in www.npnrg-cazri.jimdo.com, . Conclusion The species, Acacia senegal can be source of income for millions of the people of arid and semi-arid tropics, if it is explored scientifically for gum tapping. In drought like situations, when crops are total failure and farmers have no other means to survive, Acacia senegal can provide a good source of income by way of gum production. CAZRI gum tapping technique has worldwide importance as it compliments very well for employment and income generation in drought prone hot arid & semi-arid climatic areas. The technology has potential to change the scenario of income and service provided by gum yielding trees in arid land farming systems. However, there is urgent need to employ the technology in sustanaible manner so that there is no harm to the tree for long term production.Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 20 Ram et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):16-20

Protected Cultivation as an Emerging Agri-Entrepreneurship in Hilly Regions of India Mayanglambam Bilashini Devi* and Nisha Thakur Department of Vegetable Science and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, CSK Himachal Pradesh KrishiVishvavidyalaya, Palampur-176062, India*Corresponding author email: [email protected] region states like Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand and Jammu & Kashmir are also called as natural greenhouses of the country. Scattered and small land holdings, difficult terrain, fluctuating and unpredictable weather, prevalence of low and variable seasonal and diurnal temperature during autumn, winter and spring seasons in North-western Himalayan region affect productivity and quality of the produce which consequently results in low profit margin of the hill farmers in open environment. Protected cultivation of high value crops has emerged as the single most important technology for ensuring nutritional security, high productivity, improved quality and lucrative returns in these regions of the country. Introduction India is the second largest producer of vegetable crops in the world. However, its vegetable production is much less than the requirement if balanced diet is provided to every individual. Himachal Pradesh produces approximately 1.5 million tonnes of vegetable from an area of about 80,400 ha. Among different ways to fulfil the requirement of vegetable in the country by use of improved agro-techniques and bringing additional area under vegetable crops using hybrid seeds, perfection and promotion of protected cultivation of vegetables also is a potential approach. In upper reaches of Himalayas, where the temperature is extremely low (-5 to -30 C) 0during winter season and most of the region remain cut off from rest of the country during November to March due to very heavy snowfall, it is very difficult to grow vegetables in such cold desert climatic conditions. To overcome these types of climatic variability, greenhouse cultivation is emerging as the most efficient tool. Greenhouse vegetable production makes the use of recent advances in technology to control the environment for maximizing crop productivity per unit area and increasing the quality of vegetables produce. India has entered into the era of greenhouse vegetables cultivation more recently and the total area under protected vegetable production is not more than 10,000 hectares. India being a vast country with diverse and extreme agro-climatic conditions, the protected cultivation technology can be utilized for year round off-season production of high value, low volume vegetables, production of virus free quality seedlings, production of quality hybrid seeds and as well as for disease resistance breeding programmes. GreenhouseGreen house is a framed structure covered with transparent or translucent material wherein the plant are grown under controlled or partially controlled environmental condition resulting in yields higher than that of under open conditions. Popular Kheti Volume -1, Issue-1 (January-March), 2013 Available online at www.popularkheti.com© 2013 popularkheti.com ISSN:2321-0001 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 21

Principle of GreenhouseGreenhouse is generally covered with transparent material such as polythene or glass. Major fraction of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by plants and earth objects. These objects in turn emit long wave thermal radiations for which cladding material has low transparency. Thus, long wave thermal radiations are trapped inside the polyhouse which raises the temperature inside. This is called greenhouse effect. Due to this rise in temperature inside polyhouses, growing offseason crops in cold climate becomes possible. During summer months, temperature is brought down to low by providing cooling device in polyhouses. Need for Protected Cultivation:•Increased production per unit area •Better quality produce •Early maturity •Round the year cultivation •Protection of valuable plant germplasm •Controlled temperature, humidity and light as per requirement creates micro-climate for better plant performance •Protection from biotic and abiotic stresses Structure of Greenhouse•Tunnel type (cold climate greenhouse) •Quonset (semicircular/subtropical greenhouse) •Gabble type (slopping roof) •Tropical region greenhouse •Ridges and furrows greenhouse •Ground to ground greenhouse Type of Greenhouse Based on Cost of InstallationLow Cost Polyhouse/Greenhouse Polythene sheet of 700 gauge thickness is supported on bamboo ropes and nails. Temperature inside greenhouse is 6-10 C 0higher than outside. Medium Cost GreenhouseIt costs higher than low tech greenhouse. In quonset shaped polyhouses frame, Galvanised Iron (GI) pipes are used. Thickness of single layered Ultra Violet (UV) stabilized polythene is 800 gauges. Exhaust fan are thermostatically controlled. Frames and glazing materials have life span of 20 years and 2 years, respectively. High Tech Greenhouse Frame is made up of iron or aluminum. Designs are dome shaped or cone shaped. These are highly durable, 5-6 times costlier, growing medium used in these type of greenhouses are Peat, Perlite, Solarite, Vermiculite, Rock wool. In India coco fibres and rice husks are used as growing media as these materials are cheaper. Fertigation and pesticide sprays are done by fogging machine. Miniature Forms of Greenhouses Plastic Low TunnelsPlastic low tunnels are miniature form of greenhouses to protect the plants from rains, winds, low temperature, frost and other vagaries of weather. The low tunnels are very simple structures requiring very limited skills to maintain and easy to constructs and offer multiple advantages. For construction of low tunnels, film of 100 micron would be sufficient. Net HousesNet houses are used for raising vegetable crops in high rainfall regions. Roof of the structure is covered with suitable cladding material. Sides are made of wire mesh of different gauges. Such structures are useful for north-eastern hilly region. Sweet pepper, Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 22 Devi and Thakur, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):21-25

an economically potential vegetable is generally grown at high altitude (> 1000 ft.) but more recently its cultivation is gaining popularity in Northern Indian plains where its fruit size and productivity is very poor because of fluctuations in temperature and attack of insects-pests (fruit borer, aphid, mite and white fly) under open field conditions. Therefore there is a great scope for protected Sweet pepper cultivation. Likewise, offseason capsicum production under protected cultivation is also becoming popular in Indian plains. Advantages of Green House Technology•Protection from adverse climatic conditions •Increased yield (4-5 times than traditional planting) •Harvesting time can be adjusted •Off-season crop production •Disease free plants •More profit due to continuous supply of produce throughout the year •Water saving as use of drip/sprinkle system •Barren and uncultivable land may be brought under use •Gain of more foreign exchange due to export •Useful technology for hybrid seed production •Employment generation Why Greenhouse for Vegetable Production1.Vegetable production forcing for domestic consumption and export:During winters in Northern India region, the temperature and solar radiations are sub-optimal for growing offseason vegetables namely tomato, capsicum, brinjal, cucumber, okra and chilli, etc. In tomato, low temperature and low radiation cause puffiness and blotchy ripening. Hence during extreme conditions of winter season (October-February), these vegetables will be cultivated under polyhouse. In a medium cost greenhouse, 98.6-110.5 tonnes/ha yield of tomato and 87.2 tonnes/ha yield of capsicum can be obtained. Under prolonged winter the protected cultivation would be well suited. The high priced vegetables like asparagus, broccoli, leek, tomato, cucumber and capsicum are most important crops for winter season and off-season production around metropolis. It may be useful to grow these crops in plastic tunnels as they would be protected from cold and frost and manifest faster and better growth resulting in earlier flowering & fruiting compared to crops grown in the open. 2. Raising off season nurseries:The cost of hybrid seeds is very high. So, it is necessary that every seed must be germinated. For 100% germination, it requires the controlled conditions. The cucurbits are warm season crops. They are sown in last week of March to April when night temperature is around 18-20 C. But in polyhouse their seedlings 0can be raised during December and January in polythene bags. By planting these seedlings during end of February and 1 stweek of March in the field, their yield could be taken in one and a half months in advance than the normal time of sowing. This technology fetches the bonus price due to marketing of produce in the off season. Similarly, the seedlings of tomato, chilli, capsicum, brinjal, cucumber, cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli can be grown under plastic cover protecting them against frost, severe cold and heavy rains. The environmental condition, particularly increase in temperature inside polyhouse hastens the germination and early growth of Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 23 Devi and Thakur, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):21-25

warm season vegetable seedlings for raising early crops in spring summer. Vegetable nursery raising under protected conditions is becoming popular throughout the country especially in hilly regions. Management of vegetable nursery in protected structure is easier and early nursery can be raised. This practice also eliminates danger of destruction of nurseries by abiotic stresses. 3. Vegetable seed production: Seed production in vegetables is the limiting factor for cultivation of vegetables in India. Vegetables require specific temperature and other climatic conditions for flowering and fruit setting. To combat unfavourable micro climatic condition, the seed production of highly remunerative crops namely tomato, capsicum and cucumber can be done under protected environments. The maintenance and purity of different varieties/lines can be achieved by growing them under greenhouse without giving isolation distance particularly in cross-pollinated vegetables namely onion, cauliflower and cabbage. Hence, vegetable production for domestic consumption and export in low and medium cost greenhouse is a technical reality in India. Such production system has not only extended the growing season of vegetables and their availability but also encouraged conservation of different underutilized vegetables. 4. Hybrid seed production: In 21 century, stprotected vegetable production is likely to be commercial practice not only because of its potential but out of sheer necessity. In vegetable production hybrids seeds, transgenic, stress resistant varieties, micro propagated transplants, synthetic seeds are likely to replace conventional varieties. Protected environments will be helpful in production of hybrid seeds of cucumber and summer squash by using gynoecious lines. Gibberellic acid is used to maintain such lines followed by selfing. The desired pollen can be used for production of hybrid seed of cucumber. Similarly in summer squash use of Ethephon in inducing female flower at every node would help in the hybrid seed production by using desired pollen parent. 5. Maintenance and multiplication of self incompatible line for hybrid seed production:In case of cauliflower, there is problem of maintaining and multiplication of potential self-incompatible lines for the production of F hybrid seed. Temporary 1elimination of the self-incompatibility with the use of CO gas has solved this problem. 2For this purpose, the self-incompatible line is planted in a greenhouse and bees are allowed to pollinate the crop when it is bloom. Then keeping the greenhouse closed tightly, within 2-6 hours of pollination, it is treated with 2-5% CO gas which allows successful 2fertilization by temporarily eliminating the self-incompatibility. 6. Polyhouse for plant propagation:Asparagus, sweet potato, pointed gourd and ivy gourd are sensitive to low temperature. The propagating materials of these vegetables can be well- maintained under polyhouse in winter season before planting their cuttings in early spring-summer season for higher profit. Suggestions to Make Greenhouse Technology More Popular•Reducing cost by using only local made materials. •Use of indigenous technology knowledge for control of temperature and humidity inside low tech polyhouse. •For poor and marginal farmers rate of subsidy may be increased. Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 24 Devi and Thakur, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):21-25

•Increasing amount of loan and decreasing rate of interest. •Creation of co-operatives by farmers to make best use of polyhouses jointly in arranging materials at cheaper rate. •Making the technology simple by providing technical knowhow to farmers by university or department. •Appropriate selection of site & location for polyhouse installation. Conclusion The protected cultivation of high value crops has become irreplaceable both from economic and environment points of view. It offers several advantages to grow high value crops with improved quality even under unfavourable and marginal environments. However, due to high training needs of the green house growers and some poor quality produce with pesticide residues has been a matter of great concern. These issues can easily be addressed by integrating various production and protection practices including location specific designing and construction of the polyhouses for efficient input use. Creating awareness among the greenhouse growers for judicious use of pesticides for safe production can be instrumental in providing quality products without polluting the environment. Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 25 Devi and Thakur, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):21-25

Off Season Cultivation of Cucurbits Under Low Tunnel: A Cost Effective Technology for Farmers of Peri-Urban Areas of Northern India Nisha Thakur* and Mayanglambam Bilashini Devi Department of Vegetable Science and Floriculture, College of Agriculture, CSK Himachal Pradesh KrishiVishvavidyalaya, Palampur-176062, India*Corresponding author email: [email protected] low tunnels are highly suitable and profitable for off-season cultivation of cucurbits like summer squash, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, muskmelon, watermelon, round melon and long melon in peri-urban areas of northern plains of India. The yield of some cucurbits like cucumber can be increased manifold compared to their open field cultivation. The economics of protected cultivation directly depends upon the initial cost of fabrication of the protected structure, its running cost and the available market for high quality produce. Therefore, plastic low tunnels which can generally be fabricated with low cost and the running cost of such structures is also very low are highly suitable. Introduction India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world next to China. Presently the total vegetable production of India is approximately 146.55 million tonnes from a total area of 8.5 million ha under vegetable crops, but the productivity and quality of most of the vegetable crops is very poor due to several biotic and abiotic stress conditions under open field cultivation. Production of vegetables under protected structures such as low tunnel provides the best way to increase the productivity and quality of vegetables, especially cucurbits. Row covers or low tunnels are flexible transparent covering that are installed over the rows or individual beds of transplanted vegetables to enhance plant growth by warming the air around the plants in the open field during winter season. Low tunnels are also advantageous in warming the soil, protecting the plants from bad weather, preventing the plant to get injured and advancing the crop by 30 to 40 days as compared to the normal sowing. Low tunnels technology is mainly suitable for off season cultivation of cucurbits like muskmelon, round melon, long melon, bitter grand, bottle gourd and summer squash etc. Northern parts of the country, where the night temperature during winter season goes below 8 C for a period of 30-o40 days, this technology could be quite suitable and cost effective for cucurbits growers. Advantages of Low Tunnel ·Used for raising healthy and early nursery. ·Maintains optimum temperature for plant growth. ·Enhances nutrients uptake by the plants. ·Increases photosynthetic activities of the plants. ·Used for cultivation during winter. ·Protection against wind, rain, frost & snow. Popular Kheti Volume -1, Issue-1 (January-March), 2013 Available online at www.popularkheti.com© 2013 popularkheti.com ISSN:2321-0001 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 26

Materials Required for Construction ·High Density Polyethylene (HDPC) / Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) pipes of one inch diameter and 2 meter in length. ·Transparent Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) films of 25-50 microns having 2 meter width. ·50 cm long with 6 mm diameter Galvanised Iron (GI) wires in which Peg to be made. ·2 number of poles having 5 cm diameter. ·Twin Poly Propylene (PP) ropes. Nursery Raising for Off-season Cultivation of Cucurbits Seedlings of the desired cucurbits are raised in the nursery greenhouse in plastic pro-trays having 1.5\" cell size in soil-less media in month of December or January. Seedlings of 28-32 days old at four leaf stage are transplanted under row covers or plastic low tunnels in the open field from mid January to mid February, when the night temperature is very low in northern parts of the country. Crops like summer squash can be transplanted even in the month of December for complete off-season production and this crop will be ready for harvesting in the first week of February and can fetch very high price in the market. Transplanting of Seedlings Seedlings are transplanted in a single row on each bed at a spacing of 1.5-1.6 × 0.50 m. Before transplanting of the seedlings on beds, flexible galvanized iron hoops are fixed manually on a distance of 1.5 m to 2.5 m. The width of two ends of hoop is kept 40-60 cm with a height of 40-60 cm above the levels of the beds for covering the plastic on the rows or beds for making low tunnels. Transparent, 30 micron, plastic is generally used for making low tunnels, which reflects infra-red radiation to keep the temperature of the low tunnels higher than outside field. The plastic is usually covered in the afternoon after transplanting the desired vegetable like muskmelon, summer squash, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, round melon, cucumber etc. The plastic can be vented or slitted during the growing season as the temperature increases within the tunnels during the peak day time. Generally, 3-4 cm size vents are made on eastern side of the tunnels just below the top on a distance of 2.5 to 3.0 m after transplanting, and later on the size of the vents can be increased by reducing the distance between two vents with the increase in the temperature and ultimately the plastic is completely removed from the plants in the month of February and March depending upon the date of transplanting, growth of the crop and prevailing night temperature in the area. Fig-1 : Low tunnels for off-season vegetable cultivationPollination under Plastic Low Tunnel Crops Most of the cucurbits being monoecious needs pollination. The main pollinating agent is honeybees (Apis melifera). When there is complete flowering bees can work in tunnels easily through the vents, made on the plastic. For effective pollination in crops like muskmelon, summer squash etc, one beehive per acre area is sufficient. The beehive box is kept on the northwest side Thakur and Devi, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):26-28 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 27

of the field for effective working of the bees. Fertigation and Plant Protection in Low Tunnel Cucurbits The water and fertilizers requirement of crops is usually depends upon the growing season, crop and variety and soil conditions. Fertilizers are applied through drip irrigation. In muskmelon water can be applied @ 4.0 m /1000m at an interval of 326-7 days during the first month i.e., January and February. Fertilizer solution of N: P: K (5:3:5) is applied @ 80-100 ppm per cubic meter of water. During second month 4.0 m of water can be 3applied on duration of 4 days with fertilizer solution @ 120-150 ppm/m of 3water till beginning of flowering in the crop. Thereafter the fertilizer quantity is reduced to 20-30 ppm till the fruits are of lemon size after that the quantity is again increased to 120-150 ppm per cubic meter of water. Before the ripening of the fruits, the quantity of fertilizer solution is again reduced to 50-60 ppm for enhancing the quality of fruits in muskmelon. But in other cucurbits the quantity of fertigation is always in increasing order, starting from 50 ppm to 300 ppm at the peak fruiting period. If required systemic insecticide can be applied through drip irrigation water for control of insects at early stage of the crop when the crop is under plastic tunnels and no foliar spray is possible.Harvesting and Crop Advancement Different cucurbits can be transplanted from first week of December to first week of February and can be advanced 30-60 days over their normal season of cultivation (Table 1). Off-season fruits produced under low tunnels can fetch very high price in the market. This technology is quite economical for growing off-season vegetables in peri-urban areas of the northern plains of the country. Table 1: Transplanting, crop advancement and expected cost benefit ratio in cucurbits. S.N. Crop Trans planting time Harvesting time Crop advancement (days) Expected cost benefit ratio1 Summer squash 1 week stof Dec 1 week of stFeb 60 1:3 to 1:4 2 Musk melon 3 week rdof Jan April to last to 1 week stof Feb 2 week of ndweek of April 30-40 1:2.5 to 1:3.5 3 Bottle gourd -do- -do- 30-40 1:2.5 to 1:3.5 4 Bitter gourd -do- -do- 30-40 1:3 to 1:4 5 Water melon -do- -do- 30-40 1:2 to 1:2.5 6 Cucum ber -do- 1 week of stFeb 30 1:3 to 1:4 Conclusion Low tunnels, with location specific modifications, are highly suitable for growing vegetables in the peri-urban areas of the northern plains, cold desert areas as well as other areas of the hilly states like Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and North Eastern states. Indigenous technological database need to be developed in hilly regions to make adoption of protected cultivation sustainable. Cost effective and location specific design of the greenhouse needs to be developed. The package of practices including fertigation, need to be worked out for different agro-climatic situations. Use of biodegradable plastics or polymers should be encouraged to combat environment pollution. The further refinement in existing technology will definitely go a long way to harness the full potential of low cost polytunnels in vegetable production in the hilly regions. Thakur and Devi, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):26-28 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 28

Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria: A Biological Approach towards the Production of Sustainable Agriculture Rajesh Kumar Meena Division of Agronomy, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi -110012Email: [email protected] The presence of enormous numbers of microbial populations and species in the soil, especially in the rhizosphere and their intensive and extensive interactions with flora and fauna and plant roots, leads to plant growth promotion by rhizosphere phenomenon. Introduction Indiscriminate and unbalanced use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture has created many environmental and health problems. Studies in Punjab, on the effects of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer on groundwater pollution in intensive agriculture areas shows that20% of all sampled wells have nitrate levels above the WHO safety limit of 50 mg of nitrate per litre for drinking water (The Time of India; June 15, 2010). This nitrate pollution is due to higher usage of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers (urea) in the adjoining field.Nitrate pollution in drinking water is causing serious health impact on humans, especially for babies and children. Studies showed that long-term consumption of drinking water and food with nitrate concentrations even below 50 mg/ litre NO has a potential role 3in development of cancers in digestive tract and is associated with other types of cancer (Forman et al. 1985). Ironically, intensive rice-wheat practice is also not living up to its promise of sustained increase in food production and now showing diminishing returns and declining factor productivity. Thus there is a need for sound and ecologically compatible strategies in agriculture. In this context, plant associated microorganisms fulfil important functions for plant productivity and the soil health as they participate actively in almost every chemical transformation taking place in soil. In particular, they play an active role in soil fertility, as a result of their involvement in the nutrient cycles of carbon and nitrogen, which are essential for plant growth. The presence of enormous numbers of microbial populations and species in the soil, especially in the rhizosphere and their intensive and extensive interactions with these flora and fauna and plant roots, leads to plant growth promotion by rhizosphere phenomenon. Even though, microorganisms fulfil important ecosystem functions for plants and Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 29 Popular Kheti Volume -1, Issue-1 (January-March), 2013 Available online at www.popularkheti.com© 2013 popularkheti.com ISSN:2321-0001

soil, the beneficial plant-microbe interactions have been ignored in the enhancing plant productivity.Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobactria Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are naturally occurring soil bacteria that aggressively colonize plant roots and benefit plants by providing better growth environment. These microbial floras cause a large number of biochemical changes in soil that largely determine the fertility of soil. PGPR enhances plant growth by a wide variety of mechanisms. PGPR are also termed as plant health promoting rhizobacteria (PHPR) or nodule promoting rhizobacteria. They also act as biofertiliser, bioprotectants and biostimulants. Such bacteria have been applied to a wide range of agricultural plant species for the purpose of growth enhancement, including increased seed emergence, plant weight, crop yields and disease control. They facilitate plant growth and development, both directly and indirectly. Direct facilitation may include supply of nitrogen to plants through nitrogen fixation, iron sequestered through bacterial siderophores, phosphate through solubilisation and phytohormones. Indirect stimulation of plant growth includes preventing phytopathogens (bio control) through production of antibiotics, siderophores and hydrogen cyanide and thus promotes plant growth and development (Glick et al. 2007). Such information reveals the need to evaluate the effect of inoculated microorganisms and plant responses, so as to build healthy interactions for enhanced crop yields. PGPR can be divided into two groups:1. Symbiotic nitrogen fixing : These live inside the plant cells, produce nodules. Example: Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Azorhizobium, Allorhizobium and Sinorhizobium sp.2. Non-symbiotic: These are free-living rhizobacteria and live outside the plant cells and do not produce nodules. Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Acetobacter, Diazotrophs, Bacillus and Klebsiella sp. belong to this group.Function of PGPR The means by which PGPR enhance the nutrient status of host plants can be categorized into following areas: (1) Biological N fixation; (2) Increasing the 2availability of nutrients in the rhizosphere; (3) Increase root volume which related to more nutrient absorption; (4) To stimulate plant growth, e.g., through the production of plant hormones; (5) To control or inhibit the Meena RK, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):29-36 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 30

activity of plant pathogens; (6) To improve soil structure; (7) Mineralization of organic pollutants, i.e. bioremediation of polluted soils. Mechanism Shown by PGPR 1. Biological nitrogen fixation Biological nitrogen fixation contributes 180 ×10 metric tons/year globally, out of which 6symbiotic associations contribute 80% and the rest comes from free-living or associative systems (Graham, 1988). The use of biofertilizer and bio-enhancer such as N 2fixing bacteria and beneficial micro-organism can reduce chemical fertilizer applications and consequently lower production cost. PGPR retain more soil organic N, and other nutrients in the plant-soil system, thus reducing the need for fertilizer N and P and enhance release of the nutrients. These include symbiotic N -fixing 2forms, viz. Rhizobium, the obligate symbionts in leguminous plants and Frankia in non-leguminous trees, and non-symbiotic (free-living, associative or endophytic) Azospirillum, Azotobacter Arthrobacter,, Acinetobacter, Bacillus, Burkholderia, Enterobacter, Erwinia, Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas Acetobacter diazotrophicus, Azoarcus etc., associated with the plant rhizosphere and fix atmospheric N into form 2which are taken up by the plants. Important N inoculants are:a. Rhizobium inoculants: Rhizobium inoculants help in establishing efficient symbiotic association with leguminous crops and thus can fix 50-100 kg N/ha. A 10-70% increase in yields of crop due to inoculation with Rhizobium inoculants over uninoculated has been reported. Rhizobium is specific to each legume crop and only recommended inoculant should be used for each leguminous crop such as peanuts, green gram, black gram, cow pea, pigeon pea, soybean, chick pea, peas, alfalfa, berseem, clover etc. b. Azotobacter inoculants: Azotobacter is a free-living aerobic nitrogen-fixer which is recommended for non-leguminous crop like wheat, paddy, maize, barley, sugarcane, potato, tomato, cotton, mustard etc. Azotobacter fixes atmospheric nitrogen in soil and helps in saving chemical fertilizers by 15-20 kg N /ha. The family Azotobacteriaceae includes species A. agilis, A. insignis, A. macrocytogenes A. chroococcum, A. vinelandii, A. beijerinckii, Azotobacter paspali. In my M.sc study, i was found a positive influence of PGPR application on rice yield, soil microbial and plant defence enzyme in rice crop as shown in Table 1. Meena RK, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):29-36 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 31

Combined inoculation of bacterial and cyanobacterial inoculants contributed about 40 kg N ha to rice crop and enhanced soil -1 organic carbon by 5.8 to 9.8% besides significantly enhancing soil microbial properties. Plant defence enzymes like Peroxidase and poly phenol oxidase (PPO) also increased significantly due to PGPR inoculation in rice. c. Azospirillum inoculants :Azospirillum fix nitrogen under microaerophilic conditions and are frequently associated with root and rhizosphere of a large number of agriculturally important non-leguminous crops like sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet and other small millet. Azospirillum fixes atmospheric N in soil and helps to save chemical fertilizers by 15-20 kg N/ha and includes species like lipoferum, brasilense, amazonense,halopraeferens,irakense,largimobile, doebereinerae, Oryzae, melini,and Canadensis. 2. Phosphate solubilization Phosphorus (P) is second most important plant nutrient but most of P remains fixed in soil which is not available to plants. Inoculation with an efficient P Solubilizing microorganism improve availability of P from insoluble form of P in soil and enhance use efficiency of phosphatic fertilizer such as super phosphate. There are number of inoculants which can even degrade Treatment Rice grain yield (t ha ) -1 Soil OC (%) Soil chlorophyll ( g g ) µ-1Dehydrogenase activity ( g TPF g soil m mm m-1day ) -1ARA activity (n moles ethylene g -1soil ha ) -1PPO activity(U min g -1fresh wt ) -1 N (control) 02.64 0.51(0) 0.324(0) 6.00(0) 0.755(0) 1.083(0) N 1204.79 0.54(5.8) 0.763(135) 11.81(96) 1.555(106) 1.700(5)7) 2/3 N+ BI 4.23 0.54(5.8) 0.607(87) 8.37(39) 1.308(73) 1.475(36) 2/3 N + BI + C 4.66 0.55(7.8) 0.699(115) 11.54(92) 1.517(101) 1.580(46) 2/3N + CI + C 4.35 0.55(7.8) 0.723(123) 10.83(80) 1.498(98) 1.603(48) 2/3N + CI + BI 4.58 0.55(7.8) 0.695(114) 10.10(68) 1.379(83) 1.507(39) 2/3N + BI + CI + C 5.02 0.56(9.8) 0.893(175) 14.78(146) 1.875(148) 1.753(62) LSD (P=0.05)0.28 0.03 0.100 2.109 0.190 0.242 Table 1. Influence of PGPR application on soil microbial and plant defence enzyme in rice crop*C= Compost @ 5.0 t ha BI= Bacterial inoculation -1 CI=Cyanobacterial inoculation Data in parentheses show percent increase over control Meena RK, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):29-36 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 32

rockphosphate and soil fixed P. A number of metabolites are released by these strains which strongly affect the environment and increase nutrient availability for the plants viz. B. subtilis, B. licheniformis, B. megaterium var. phosphaticum, and P. Lutea (Chen et al. 2006). 3. Plant growth producers Plant hormones are chemical messengers that affect a plants’ ability to respond to its environment. Hormones are organic compounds that are effective at very low concentration; they are usually synthesized in one part of the plant and are transported to another location. They interact with specific target tissues to cause physiological responses, such as growth or fruit ripening. Botanists recognize five major groups of hormones: auxins, gibberellins, ethylene, cytokinins and abscisic acid (Ashrafuzzaman et al. 2009). Plant phytohormones produced by crop specific PGPR are given in Table 2. 4. Siderophore production Siderophores (Greek: \"iron carrier\") are small, high-affinity iron chelating compounds secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. Iron is an essential growth element for all living organisms. The scarcity of bio-available iron in soil habitats is common. Under iron-limiting conditions PGPR produce low-molecular-weight compounds called siderophores to competitively acquire ferric ion. Microbes release siderophores to scavenge iron from these mineral phases by formation of soluble Fe complexes that can be taken up by 3+active transport mechanisms. Soil bacteria isolates like Azotobacter vinelandii, Bacillus megaterium and Bacillus cereus produces siderophores and they can be used as efficient PGPR to increase the yield of the crop. Table 2.Plant phytohormones produced by crop specific PGPR (Ashrafuzzaman et al.2009) Plant hormones PGPR Host IAA Aeromonas veronii Rice Enterobacter cloacae Rice Azospirillum brasilense Wheat Enterobacter sp. Sugarcane Cytokinin Paenibacillus polymyxa Wheat Pseudomonas fluorescens Soybean Gibberellin Bacillus sp. Alder ACC deaminase Bacillus pumilus Rape Pseudomonas cepacia Soybean 5. Bio-control properties PGPR are indigenous to soil and play a major role in the bio-control of plant pathogens. They can suppress a broad spectrum of bacterial, fungal, viral and nematode diseases. A major group of rhizobacteria with potential for biological control is the Pseudomonas sp. which is ubiquitous bacteria in agricultural soils. Among various bio-control agents, Meena RK, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):29-36 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 33

Fluorescent pseudomonads, equipped with multiple mechanisms for bio-control of phytopathogens produce a wide variety of antibiotics, chitinolytic enzymes, growth promoting hormones, siderophores, HCN catalase and can solubilize phosphorous.Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae and Rhizoctonia solani – the bacterial leaf blight (BB) and sheath blight (ShB) pathogens of rice are suppressed by indigenous Pseudomonas strains isolated from rhizosphere of rice cultivated in the coastal agro-ecosystem under both natural and saline soil conditions. 6. Soil biological properties Microbial biomass and soil enzymes are considered as potential indicator of soil quality. Application of PGPR increases the dehydrogenase activity, soil chlorophyll andacetylene reduction activity in rhizosphere Table 1 shows an example of PGPR effect on soil microbial properties in rhizosphere. 7. Effects on plant physiological attributes In addition to the PR-proteins, the plants produce other enzymes of the defence, including peroxidases, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), and polyphenoloxidase (PPO). Peroxidase and PPO are catalysts in the formation of lignin. PAL and other enzymes are involved in the formation of phytoalexins. These metabolic changes improve in the defence mechanism of plants so they are better performing under adverse condition. Table 1 evidenced an example of influence of PGPR on plant defence enzymes. 8. Effects of PGPR on plant growth and yield a) Plant and root growth: PGPR can affect plant growth by production and release of secondary metabolites (plant growth regulators/phytohormones/biologically active substances), lessening or preventing deleterious effects of photopathogenic organisms in rhizosphere and facilitating the availability and uptake of certain nutrients from root environment. PGPR like Azospirillum brasilence is helpful in proliferation of root hairs in maize, paddy, oat which could have dramatic effects on increasing root surface area. Most commonly, IAA-producting PGPR are believed to increase root growth and root length, resulting in greater root surface area which enables the plant to access more nutrients from soil. b. Yield attributes and Yield: A range of PGPR participate in interaction with C and 3C plants (e.g., rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane 4and cotton), and significantly increase their vegetative growth and grain yield. Rice yield increased by 20-30% (Table 1) when inoculated with Rhizobium leguminosarumMeena RK, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):29-36 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 34

bv. trifoliidue to increase in number of panicles per plot and filled grains panicle -1and also the total number of spikelet’s plant -1were increased as compared to uninoculated plants. Rhizobial inoculation increased sink size by either increase in panicle number or spikelet number. c . Nutrient uptake: There are ample evidences that the mode of action of many PGPR is by increasing the availability of nutrients for the plant in the rhizosphere. The solubilization of P in the rhizosphere is the most common mode of action implemented in PGPR that increases nutrient availability to host plants. eg Azotobacter chrooroccum, Bacillus circulansand Cladosporium herbarum increase P availability in wheat. Inoculation of rice seedlings with Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii E11, Rhizobiumsp. IRBG 74 and Bradirhizobium sp. increased N, P and K uptake by 10-28% as compared to uninoculated rice plant. Methods of Application of PGPR Inoculants A.Seed treatment: One packet of carrier based microbial inoculants (200 g) viz, Rhizobium, Azotobacter Azospirillum, and PSB culture is enough for treating seeds sown in one acre. Dissolve 100-150 gm jaggery in water, boil the solution till a thick solution is obtained then allow the solution to cool to room temperature and add 100 g gum into the cooled solution and mix well then add one packet of microbial culture and mix thoroughly. Mix the required seed for one acre with the prepared culture thoroughly so that each seed is coated with a thin film of culture. Spread the treated seed on a non absorbent and clean surface under the shade for drying at room temperature and then seed should be sown on the same day. B.Seedling treatment: This method is recommended for crops like paddy, tobacco, tomato, chilly, onion, cabbage, cauliflower etc. Prepare the suspension by mixing 1.0 kg of PGPR culture in 10-12 litres of water. Get seedlings required for one acre and make small bundles of seedlings. Dip the seedlings in the suspension for 15-20 minutes. Transplant treated seedling immediately. ConclusionPGPR is better option to enhance the crop productivity as well as quality. PGPR improves the chemical and microbial property of soil and enhances the amount of plant enzymes for better defence mechanism in plant. The use of PGPR is environmental friendly and thus plays role in sustainability of agriculture with high productivity. Meena RK, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):29-36 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 35

References Ashrafuzzaman M, Hossen FA, Ismail MR, Hoque MA, Islam MZ, Shahidullah SM and Meon S. 2009. Efficiency of plant growthpromoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) for the enhancement of rice growth. African Journal of Biotechnology (7): 1247- 1252. 8Chen YP, Rekha PD, Arun AB, Shen FT, Lai WA and Young CC. 2006. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria from subtropical soil and their tricalcium phosphate solubilizing abilities. Applied Soil Ecology34 (1): 33-41. Forman D, Al-Dabbagh S and Doll R. 1985, Nitrates, nitrites and gastric cancer in Great Britain, Nature, 313: 620-625. Glick BR, Cheng Z, Czarny J and Duan J. 2007. Promotion of plant growth by ACC deaminase-producing soil bacteria. European Journal of Plant Pathology 119: 329-39. Graham PH. 1988. Principles and Application of Soil Microbiology40: 322-345.The Time of India accessed online at http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/6048431.cms?prtpage=1Meena RK, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):29-36 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 36

Functional Role of Plant Growth Promoting Endo- and Rhizobacteria in Major Cereal Crops Upendra Kumar* and Tushar Kanti DangarMicrobiology Laboratory, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006 (Odisha), India *Corresponding author email: [email protected] In recent decades, the endo- and rhizobacteria have been exploited as potential biofertilizers and biocontrol agents for sustainable production and productivity of non-leguminous crops. The present article highlights the functional role of PGPR (phytoharmone production, nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, antibiotic production, siderophore production etc) in major crops viz., rice, wheat, maize and sugarcane. Introduction Rhizobacterial strains are found to increase plant growth after inoculation of seeds and therefore called “Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)”. The mechanisms of growth promotion by these PGPRs are complex and appear to comprise both changes in the microbial balance in the rhizosphere and alterations in host plant physiology. PGPR has a significant impact on plant growth and development in both direct and indirect ways. The direct promotion of plant growth by PGPR generally entails providing the plant with compound that is synthesized by the bacterium or facilitating the uptake of nutrients from the environment. On the other hand, indirect promotion of plant growth occurs when bacteria prevent some of the deleterious effects of a phytopathogenic organism by one or more mechanisms. Different functional traits of a typical PGPR are as follows:PGPR Plant growth promoting traits Rhiozobium leguminosarum IAA, HCN, ammonia and siderophore Mesorhizobium sp. IAA, HCN, ammonia and siderophore Rhizobium sp. IAA, HCN, ammonia and siderophore Azospirillum amazonence IAA and nitrogenase activity Mesorhizobium sp. IAA, HCN, ammonia and siderophore Proteus vulgeris Siderophore Mesorhizobium ciceri IAA and siderophore Pseudomonas, Bacillus IAA, phosphate solubilization and siderophore Klebsiella oxytoca IAA, phosphate solubilization and nitrogenase activity Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp. IAA and ammonia production Azotobacter spp., Bradyrhizobium spp. IAA ,Siderophore and ammonia production Rhizobium sp. IAA, HCN, ammonia and siderophore Pseudomonas fluorescens Induced systemic resistance and antifungal activity Bacillus subtilis Antifungal activity Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus Zinc solubilization Bravibacillus spp. Zinc resistance and IAA Pseudomonas putida ACC deaminase, Pb and Cd resistance and siderophore Pseudomonas fluorescens., Azospirillum bracilense IAA, siderophore and antifungal activity Azospirillum amazonence IAA, phosphate solubilization, nitrogenase activity ,antifungal activity Pseudomonas fluorescens IAA, phosphate solubilization Kluyvera ascorbata ACC deaminase, IAA, siderophore, metal resistance Paenibacillus polymyxa strain HKA15Antifungal activity Popular Kheti Volume -1, Issue-1 (January-March), 2013 Available online at www.popularkheti.com© 2013 popularkheti.com ISSN:2321-0001 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 37

Plant growth benefits due to the addition of PGPR, include increase in germination rates, root growth, yield including grain, leaf area, chlorophyll content, magnesium, nitrogen and protein content, hydraulic activity, tolerance to drought and salt stress, shoot and root weights and delayed leaf senescence. Functional Role of PGPR Indole-3-Acetic Acid (IAA) Production: IAA is a phytohormone which is known to be involved in root initiation, cell division and cell enlargement. This hormone is very commonly produced by PGPR. However, the effect of IAA on plants depends on the plant sensitivity to IAA and the amount of IAA produced from plant associated bacteria and induction of other phytohormones. The bacterial IAA from P. putida played a major role in the development of host plant root system. Phosphate Solubilization: Use of co-inoculants of Pseudomonas, Azotobactor andBacillus with Mussoorie Rock Phosphate (MRP) could make phosphorus availability to equivalent 50 kg of P O /ha applied in the 25 form of Single Super Phosphate (SSP) The . efficient phosphate solubilizers are Pseudomonas species viz., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas cepacia, Pseudomonas fluorescence and Pseudomonas putida. Siderophore production: Siderophores are low molecular weight, extracellular compounds with a high affinity for ferric iron, that are secreted by microorganisms to take up iron from the environment and their mode of action in suppression of disease are thought to be solely based on competition for iron with the pathogen. Rhizobacteria produce various types of siderophores (pseudobactin and ferrooxamine B) that chelate the scarcely available iron and thereby prevent pathogens from acquiring iron. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) production: The cyanide ion is exhaled as HCN and metabolized to a lesser degree in to other compounds. HCN first inhibits the electron transport and the energy supply to the cell is disrupted leading to the death of the organisms. It inhibits proper functioning of enzymes and natural receptors and it is also known to inhibit the action of cytochrome oxidase. HCN is produced by many rhizobacteria and is postulated to lay a role in biological control of pathogens. Suppression of take-all of wheat by P. fluorescens strain CHAO was attributed to the production of HCN. Kumar and Dangar, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):37-40 Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 38

Potential of Biocontrol Agents in Rice Disease ManagementThe success of potential biocontrol agents in disease suppression depends on a suitable form for application to the plant system. Biocontrol agents can be applied either by direct inoculation (dipping seeds in culture, aerial spraying or spreading it in sowing furrows by a drip system) or by the use of various solid-phase inoculants. The effects of some of the biocontrol agents on the pathogens and/or plant are summarized in the following: a. Bacterium P. fluorescens applied (prior to pathogen inoculation) against several rice pathogens to the seed and rice plants can reduce disease severity by 20-42% in a greenhouse and the field. Such bacterization of rice plants can enhance plant height, number of tillers and grain yield by 3 to 160%. b. Seed treatment by antagonistic bacteria can reduce bakanae disease (Fusarium fujikuroi) by 72-96%. c. Different species of Bacillus applied to rice plants as a seed treatment before sowing, root dip prior to transplanting and two foliar sprays prior to inoculation can suppress bacterial blight pathogen by up to 59%, resulting in a two-fold increase in plant height and grain yield. d. Recent laboratory study demonstrated that P. fluorescens have insecticidal effect on the rice tungro virus disease vector Nephotettix virescens. Bacterial strains of Pf7-14 and PpV14i can cause about 90% mortality if they feed on treated rice leaves for 7 days. Diazotrophs Bacteria and PGPR in Association with Major Cereal CropsRecently, it is observed that non-leguminous plants like rice, sugarcane, wheat and maize form an extended niche for various species of Nitrogen Fixing (NF) bacteria. These bacteria thrive within the plant, successfully colonizing roots, stems and leaves. During the association, the invading bacteria benefit the acquired host with a marked increase in plant growth, vigor and yield. With increasing population, the demand of non-leguminous plant products is growing. In this regard, the richness of NF flora within non-leguminous plants and extent of their interaction with the host definitely shows a ray of hope in developing an ecofriendly alternative to the nitrogenous fertilizers (Upendra kumar et al., 2012). During extensive greenhouse and field experiments using non-sterilized soils, Riggs et al. (2001) observed that when maize seeds were inoculated with H. seropedicae under Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 39 Kumar and Dangar, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):37-40

greenhouse conditions, the yield increased by 49–82% with applied fertilizer N, whereas without fertilization, the increase was only 16%. This indicated the participation of factors other than biological nitrogen fixation, which improved the maize plant’s proficiency to use the available fertilizer N. Similarly, Sevilla et al. (2001) also suggested the participation of other growth-promoting factors in addition to N fixation as both wild and nifH mutants of A. diazotrophicus promoted growth of sugarcane in the presence of nitrogen. Most endophytes with plant growth-enhancing properties are producers of phytohormones: indolacetic acid, gibberellins and cytokinins iron-sequestering ,,phosphate-solubilising enzymes and 1-aminocyclopropane- 1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase Release of auxins and ACC .deaminase in vitro by the rhizobacteria are linearly correlated with the host plant growth promotion Subsequently, indole-3-acetic acid .and ACC deaminase production is being deployed as tool for identification and screening of endophytes Conclusion In overall, the inoculation of PGPRs in major cereal crops may increase plant biomass, root elongation, uptake of NPK and ultimately increase the yield of major cereal crops without deteriorating soil health. Subsequently, they act as potential biofertilizers and antagonistic agents to save synthetic chemical fertilizers and pesticides, respectively and become an ecofriendly alternative in upcoming days. References Riggs PJ, Chelius MK, Iniguez AL, Kaeppler SM and Triplett EW. 2001. Enhanced maize productivity by inoculation with diazotrophic bacteria. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology. 28:829–836. Sevilla M, Gunapala N, Burris RH and Kennedy C. 2001. Comparison of benefit to sugarcane plant growth and 15N2 incorporation following inoculation of sterile plants with Acetobacter diazotrophicus wild-type and nif− mutant strains. Molecular Plant–Microbe Interaction. 14:358–366. Kumar Upendra, Vithal Kumar L, Ramadoss D, Bose Parnita and Annapurna K. 2012. Microbial consortium for increased nutrient uptake from basmati rice rhizosphere. ICAR NEWS. 18(1):14. Popular Kheti ISSN:2321-0001 40 Kumar and Dangar, 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):37-40

Biochar - The Future of Agriculture 1Ekta Joshi*, Manoj Kumar, Priyanka Gautam, B. Lal and Aanandi Lal Jat 12231Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012, India 2Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha-753006, India 3Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India *Corresponding author email: [email protected] amount of carbon in the soil is a direct indication of good quality of soil. Higher carbon stocks have a direct correlation with increased agricultural yields through improved soil health. In the current scenario of climate change and global warming, much of carbon in atmosphere has to be sequestrated into soil carbon pool so that increasing CO in the 2atmosphere and resulting warming could be reduced. Biochar is a solid material obtained from thermal decomposition of organic materials, in the process much of the carbon becomes “fixed” into a more stable form, and when the resulting biochar is applied to soils, the atmospheric carbon is effectively sequestered and soil carbon pool is increased, making soil of a good quality. Thus, the use of biochar can be a simple yet powerful tool to combat climate change by sequestering much of atmospheric carbon into soil as well as providing an opportunity for the processing of agricultural and other waste into useful clean energy. Introduction In present context our efforts are directed towards addressing climate change by avoiding or sequestering CO and to ₂increase the uptake of carbon in soil, water or vegetation. So, the concept and application of biochar lies somewhere in between. It is a relatively new term, yet it is not a new substance. Soils throughout the world contain biochar deposited through natural events, such as forest and grassland fires etc. It involves an engineering process i.e. pyrolysis and application of the product to the natural environment (soil) to both sequester carbon and, under ideal conditions, improve soil condition. In turn, this would produce more biomass and sustainable soils. Unfortunately, as for any new development that looks like it could be the silver bullet to solve our climate change worries, there are a lot of myths around biochar. What is Biochar? Biochar is a solid material obtained from the carbonisation of biomass. Biochar is produced through a process known as pyrolysis, means thermal decomposition of organic material (i.e. wood chips etc, crop waste and manure) under limited supply of oxygen (O ), and at relatively 2Popular Kheti Volume -1, Issue-1 (January-March), 2013 Available online at www.popularkheti.com© 2013 popularkheti.com ISSN: 2321-0001 Popular Kheti ISSN: 2321-0001 41

low temperatures (<700°C). This process often mirrors the production of charcoal, which is perhaps the most ancient industrial technology developed by humankind. However, it distinguishes itself from charcoal and similar materials by the fact that biochar is produced with the intent to be applied to soil as a means to improve soil health, to filter and retain nutrients from percolating soil water, and to provide carbon storage. Due to the molecular structure of biochar, it is in a more stable form than the original carbon (i.e. plant biomass, manure, etc.) both chemically and biologically. As a result, it is more difficult to breakdown biochar in the soil, resulting in a product that can remain stable in the soil for hundreds to thousands of years. By-product of Biochar One of the great things about producing biochar through the process of pyrolysis is the fact that the main by-product is a gas, known as syngas which is a form of bio energy waiting to be used. It is easily captured and can be used to produce heat and power, to generate electricity as well as power the pyrolysis machine in the process, making the machine largely self sufficient. Uses and Benefits of Biochar Application in Agriculture The potential benefits that biochar offers for farming includes: 1. Improved soil fertility and crop yields 2. Increased fertilizer use efficiency 3. Improved water retention, aeration and soil tilth 4. Higher cation exchange capacity and less nutrient runoff 5. Clean and efficient biomass energy production from crop residues and forest debris 6. Combined heat, power, and refrigeration opportunities from pyrolysis 7. Leads to net sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere to the soil thereby increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) 8. Greater on-farm profitability 9. Can be financed through carbon markets and carbon offsets 10. Decreased nitrous oxide and methane emissions from soils 11. Provides powerful tool for reversing desertification 12. Provides alternative for slash-and-burn agriculture 13. Can work as component of reforestation and aforestation efforts 14. Can produce electricity, bio-oils, and/or hydrogen fuels 15. Can use wide variety of feedstock including crop residues such as wheat and corn straw, poultry litter, cow manure, forest debris, and other farm-based biomass resources 16. Acts as a liming agent to reduce acidity of soils 17. Carbon sequestration by the natural process of photosynthesis 18. Net production of energy in form of bio energy Popular Kheti ISSN: 2321-0001 42 Joshi et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):41-48

Environmental Impact of Biochar Biochar can be a simple yet powerful tool to combat climate change. Biochar sequestration is considered carbon negative as it results in a net decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide over centuries or millennia time scales. It can make a big difference in the fossil fuel emissions worldwide and act as a major player in the global carbon market with its robust, clean and simple production technology. As organic materials decay, greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane (which is 21 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than CO ), are 2released into the atmosphere. Instead of allowing the organic matter to decompose and emit CO , pyrolysis can 2be used to sequester the carbon and remove circulating CO from the 2atmosphere and store it in virtually permanent soil carbon pools, making it a carbon-negative process. By charring the organic material, much of the carbon becomes “fixed” into a more stable form, and when the resulting biochar is applied to soils, the carbon is effectively sequestered (Liang et al., 2008). It is estimated that use of this method to “tie up” carbon has the potential to reduce current global carbon emissions by as much as 10 percent (Woolf et al., 2010). Biochar : Is it carbon negative? (Source:http://novotera.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Biochar-carbon-neutral-process.jpg)Popular Kheti ISSN: 2321-0001 43 Joshi et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):41-48

The use of pyrolysis also provides an opportunity for the processing of agricultural residues, wood wastes and municipal solid waste into useful clean energy. Although some organic matter is necessary for agricultural soil to maintain its productivity, much of the agricultural waste can be turned directly into biochar, bio-oil, and syngas. Biochar can also provide an extremely powerful means of reversing desertification. In most semi-arid and desert climates the soil is nearly void of soil organic carbon (SOC), and thus has the potential to absorb massive quantities of carbon. Generally, the amount of carbon in the soil is a direct indication of soil quality: the greater the amount of SOC, the higher quality the soil. Higher carbon stocks have a direct correlation with increased agricultural yields, higher plant moisture absorption, improved soil tilth, and higher levels of soil biological activity. Persistence of Biochar in Soil Research on the Amazon Basin’s Terra Preta soils and naturally occurring biochar from forest and grassland fires implies that biochar can persist for millennia with very little decay. Laboratory studies using the latest technology estimate that biochar has a mean residence time in soils on the order of 1300–4000 years (Cheng et al., 2008; Liang et al., 2008). Best Management Practices for Biochar Soil Application The particle size distribution of biochar materials will vary widely depending on the feedstock and the pyrolysis technique used to produce the biochar. With small particles, it is important to apply biochar in ways that minimize loss due to wind or water erosion. Some best management practices are enlisted below to avoid these losses: a) Apply biochar under the right weather conditions when winds are mild. It varies according to general weather conditions and time of day. It may also be helpful to apply biochar during mild rain conditions where light rain will dampen biochar dust and hold it on the soil surface until it can be tilled in. b) Apply moisture to biochar. Water can be applied directly to the biochar, or it can be mixed with moist manure. c) Produce a biochar formulation by pelleting, prilling, and mixing biochar with other types of amendments such as manures or composts. Different biochar formulations will be best suited to different application methods, and very fine biochar may be desirable in certain cases, for example when applying as slurry, by itself or mixed with manure. Popular Kheti ISSN: 2321-0001 44 Joshi et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):41-48

Size of Biochar Particles Ideal particle sizes to improve soil moisture retention have not yet been determined. Handling and applying the biochar will also impact the decision of what particle size is best. Biochar can be finely divided and can be applied to soil as it is, provided care is taken to minimize wind losses. If particle size must be reduced (for example from biochar made from old pallets or larger pieces of wood), it can be hand crushed inside bags using a large pestle. Small amounts can also be crushed by driving over the material with a roller pulled by a tractor. For crushing larger amounts of biochar materials, hammer mills can be used, as well as compost shredders. Best management practices include moistening the material before crushing it to reduce dust created during the process, and/or crushing the biochar inside closed bags. Application Rate of Biochar Recommended application rates for any soil amendment must be based on extensive field testing, soil types and crops. Also, biochar materials can differ widely in their characteristics, thus the nature of a specific biochar material (e.g. pH, ash content) also influences application rate. Application rates of 5-50 tonnes of biochar per hectare (0.5 - 5 kg/m ), 2with appropriate nutrient management results in better yield of crops. Most biochar materials are not substitutes for fertilizer, so adding biochar without necessary amounts of nitrogen (N) and other nutrients cannot be expected to provide improvements to crop yield. Frequency of Application Due to its recalcitrance to decomposition in soil, single applications of biochar can provide beneficial effects over several growing seasons in the field. Therefore, biochar does not need to be applied with each crop, as is usually the case for manures, compost, and synthetic fertilizers. Depending on the target application rate, the availability of the biochar supply, and the soil management system, biochar amendments can be applied in increments. However, it is believed that beneficial effects of applying biochar to soil improve with time, and this may need to be taken into consideration when splitting applications over time. Methods of Biochar Application under Conventional Field Crop Systems a)Broadcast and incorporate:Broadcasting can be done by hand on small scales or on larger scales by using lime/solid manure spreaders or Popular Kheti ISSN: 2321-0001 45 Joshi et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):41-48

broadcast seeders. Moistened biochar materials may be better suited to application with manure spreaders than lime spreaders. Incorporation can be achieved using any ploughing method at any scale, including hand hoes, animal draft ploughs, disc harrows, chisels, rotary hoes, etc. Mould board ploughing is not recommended as it is unlikely to mix the biochar into the soil and may result in deep biochar layers. b)Traditional banding: Banding of seeds and fertilizers is a routine operation in mechanized agriculture, and involves applying an amendment in a narrow band, usually using equipment that cuts the soil open, without disturbing the entire soil surface. Banding allows biochar to be placed inside the soil while minimizing soil disturbance, making it possible to apply biochar after crop establishment. However, the amounts of biochar that can be applied in this way are lower than those which can be achieved by broadcast applications. When working by hand, biochar can be applied in furrows opened using a hoe and closed after applying biochar. c)Mixing biochar with other solid amendments: Mixing biochar with other soil amendments such as manure, compost or lime before soil application can improve efficiency by reducing the number of field operations required. Since biochar has been shown to sorb nutrients and protect them against leaching, mixing with biochar may improve the efficiency of manure or other amendment application. d)Mixing biochar with liquid manures: Biochar can also be mixed with liquid manures and applied as slurry. Fine biochars will likely be best suited to this type of application using existing application equipment, and dust problems associated with these would be addressed. Biochar could also be mixed with manure in holding ponds and could potentially reduce gaseous nitrogen losses as it does when applied to soil. Formulated Biochar Products Since biochar itself cannot be considered a source of nutrients (unless it has a high ash content), there is interest in blending it with other materials such as synthetic fertilizers, compost and manures to enhance its value as a soil amendment. Adding biochar to sewage sludge or poultry manure during composting has been shown to reduce N losses and the mobility of some heavy metals was also reduced in sewage sludge compost with Popular Kheti ISSN: 2321-0001 46 Joshi et al., 2013, Pop. Kheti, 1(1):41-48