Media Reform in Cyberspace: The Case of Ohmynews Ohmynews started with 4 full-time reporters and 700 ‘citizen reporters’. At the moment, there are 35 fulltime reporters and 20,000 citizen reporters, the so-called ‘news-guerilla’(discussed below) working with Ohmynews. The main objective of Ohmynews is media reform by citizens. Its slogan is ‘Every citizen is a reporter’. Ohmynews wants to become an alternative media through the solidarity of news-guerillas, which show the people’s media power. About 500,000 to 800,000 visitors access Ohmynews every day. Ohmynews has become highly influential in Korea. In a survey carried out by the Korean news magazine, Sisa Journal in November 2001, Ohmynews was identified as the only Internet media among the top 10 media organisations. Table 1: Most Influential Media 1 KBS (TV) 2 Chosun-ilbo (Daily Newspaper) 3 MBC (TV) 4 Donga-ilbo (Daily Newspaper) 5 Joongang-ilbo (Daily Newspaper) 6 SBS (TV) 7 Hankyoreh (Daily Newspaper) 8 Ohmynews (On-line Newspaper) 9 Kankuk-ilbo (Daily Newspaper) 10 Maeil-Kyungeh (Daily Newspaper) Source: Weekly News Magazine Sisa-Journal, November 2001 135
Media Reform in Cyberspace: The Case of Ohmynews 11.4 ‘News Guerillas’ A ‘news guerilla’ is a citizen reporter who dreams of being a Che Guevara – the popular Latin American communist revolutionary who fought alongside Fidel Castro - in cyberspace. S/he wants to be a ‘news producer’ not just a ‘news consumer’. The Internet has changed the concept of ‘news producers’ and ‘news consumers’ and, news production and news consumption. In the past, citizens always remained ‘news consumers’ but in the information age, they have the opportunity to be news producers. The ‘news guerillas’ report news from their daily life. Anyone - housewives, students, senior citizens, teenagers, professors, and workers - could become a reporter for Ohmynews. In a survey carried out by Ohmynews in August 2002, 74.8% were male ‘news guerillas’ while 25.2% were female. In terms of age, ‘news guerillas’ in their twenties made up 43.6%, thirties 33% and forties 10.9%. The rest belong to other age groups. According to occupation, university students made up 22.4%, office workers 14.6%, and journalists 8.3%. There were smaller proportions in other categories (see table 2 below). Many of the journalists who contributed to Ohmynews as news querillas also worked as reporters in the ‘off-line media’. The reason why there are so many journalist ‘news guerillas’ working with Ohmynews is the fact that there are many restrictions to reporting in the print and on-line media, imposed both by the media companies and the government. There are two kinds of ‘news guerillas’: ‘full-time reporters’ and ‘citizen reporters’. Full-time reporters write half of the news in Ohmynews while the citizen reporters write the other half. The emergence of citizen reporters has broken the monopoly of information control and ownership by political/ economic elites and has significantly contributed to the democratisation of the media. 136
Media Reform in Cyberspace: The Case of Ohmynews Table 2: Distribution of Occupations Among ‘News Guerillas’ Occupation % Middle School Student 2.9 High School Student 4.3 University Student 22.4 Graduate Student 3.8 Office Worker 14.6 Medical Personnel 0.8 Lawyer 0.2 Journalist 8.3 IT-related Worker 3.5 Freelancer 4.8 Housewife 1.3 11.5 Professional Training Programme for the Citizen Reporters (‘News Guerillas’) Although every citizen can become a reporter, it is very important to know and to have the competencies to convert one’s daily encounters into news. Ohmynews offers a six-week training programme to improve the competencies of citizens as professional reporters. The training programme was launched in December 1998. Some four hundred citizen reporters have so far completed the training course. These training sessions have also become a meeting place for citizens who want to reform the media. Lectures are focused on practical sessions on writing the news and not just passive instruction. 137
Media Reform in Cyberspace: The Case of Ohmynews 11.6 Credibility of News Sources Ohmynews has the opportunity and responsibility of delivering news stories that have been ignored by the mainstream media because it is an independent alternative on-line media. For it to survive and grow, ensuring the credibility of the news stories is very important. This is particularly true for an internet newspaper because of the many rumors and false news that circulate on the internet. The ease with news stories can be circulated on the internet also presents a challenge for ensuring credibility. Ohmynews has developed a system which consists of fulltime professional reporters and citizen reporters. News stories written by citizen reporters would be put first on hold in the ‘Waiting Section’. At this stage, they are treated as ‘unofficial reports’. The news stories are then examined by fulltime professional reporters, passed by them and only then put online for the public. The fulltime professionally-trained reporters therefore play the role of gatekeepers, maintaining professionalism. Since the survey by the Sisa Journal (mentioned above) has shown that Ohmynews is a major media in Korea, it means people have accepted that Ohmynews carries credible news stories. 11.7 Ohmynews as a Digital Media Form Digital media has the advantage of enabling two-way communication. Analogue media does not provide this opportunity; it is not a two-way communication between the reader/the audience and the reporter. In Ohmynews, the traditional division between the reader and the reporter has disappeared. It has created paradigm shift since citizens play both the roles of news-consumer and news-producer at the same time. To encourage interactivity, every news article in Ohmynews has a ‘comment’ function. Occasionally an article attracts hundreds, or even thousands, of comments from readers. Through the readers’ comment feature, Ohmynews provides citizens another opportunity to participate in news-making. So, if someone doesn’t agree with a news story either in terms of facts or perspective, s/he can write a response, providing his/her own array of facts and present them from an alternative perspective. In doing so s/he becomes a citizen reporter. 138
Media Reform in Cyberspace: The Case of Ohmynews 11.8 Ohmynews as an Alternative Media Ohmynews offers a novel public space in cyberspace for critical debates and discussions. Through citizen reporters and the comment system, people produce news, debate issues and discuss perspectives. Issues that cannot be covered in the mainstream print media can be taken up for discussion here. Certainly, Ohmynews is moving media power from the ruling class to the people, the citizens. People want to be news-producers not news-consumers in cyberspace; they want to be subjects not objects of news production and news consumption. On-line and Off-line Versions of Ohmynews Ohmynews has been publishing a weekly print version entitled ‘Ohmynews 2002’ since April 2002. An issue-oriented newspaper, Ohmynews 2002 focuses on contemporary and topical issues. Although Ohmynews’ major version is the on-line one, it has a plan to develop more print editions such as a weekly newspaper and a fax-newspaper. Of course, these versions will be combined with the internet version. They will be published irregularly, depending on circumstances. In a way it will work as a guerilla medium, publishing on this or that topic, from here and there, and from time to time. 11.9 Conclusion What will counter mainstream media such as CNN Asia, TIME Asia, or national dailies that are controlled by the powerful? What can play the role of an independent alternative media for Asia? Based on the experience of Ohmynews, the internet can be used to establish an alternative news network and to build solidarity among the Asian people. It can give a voice to the voiceless people in Asia and counter the cultural imperialism of media MNCs. In this regard, I would like to make the following proposal: Establish an Asian people-initiated alternative on-line newspaper. Such a newspaper will reflect the solidarity among the Asian peoples and contribute to networking or strengthening existing ones. It will be an independent media, independent from both ‘Capital’ (commercial interests) 139
Media Reform in Cyberspace: The Case of Ohmynews and the ‘State’ (party political interests). It could touch on all kinds of issues experienced by the Asian people and they can be presented from Asian perspectives, not from western ones. This on-line newspaper will also advance the cause of democracy in Asia. Thus, if someone cannot post a controversial news story in his/her country, s/ he can do it on the proposed alternative on-line newspaper. For example, in June 2002, two middle school girls, Shim Mi-seon and Shin Hyo-sun who were going to their friends’ birthday party were crushed to death in Hyochonli, Yangju county, Gyeonggi province by a US Army armored bridge carrier. When the vehicle hit the girls, they were walking on the side of the road. The Ministry of Justice asked the US to waive their jurisdiction over this incident. They wanted the local authorities to take charge of the legal proceedings against the culprits. However, the US Forces rejected the request. The Americans wanted to deal with the incident using their law, the Statue of Forces Agreement in Korea (SOFA). SOFA legally allows the US Forces the exclusive initial jurisdiction over any US soldiers involved in any criminal incidents in South Korea, thus over-riding local laws. These kinds of news are never reported by the mainstream media in Asia. There are many such kind of news stories that are ignored by the mainstream media that the Asian peoples should know about. Urgent news or appeals for help can flash across the Asia in minutes through the on-line newspaper. Such an effort will make Asian people the subject and producers of the news, with an Asian perspective. It can also contribute news stories/resources to the local print media. For the purpose of achieving an Asian-wide spread, the Asian on-line newspaper can be in English, but a local version of the paper can be in the local language(s). It would gather and distribute news primarily related to social issues in Asia: human rights, information issues, women’s rights, migrant workers, inter-religious initiatives, peace, economic justice, land mine abolition, children’s rights and the environment. An Asian on-line newspaper not only provides an opportunity for Asia to articulate a distinct voice in cyberspace, it also contributes to Asianising the content of the news through the use of up-to-date technology and helps the push for democracy. ❖ 140
C h a p t e r 1 2 (Taiwan) Reaching the Popular Heart/Mind: The Kuangchi Experience Jerry Martinson 12.1 Preliminary Remarks The following paper is a personal account of certain experiences drawn from 28 years of service at the Kuangchi Program Service (KPS), a Jesuit-run TV production centre located in Taipei, Taiwan. KPS is Taiwan’s first TV production centre. Beginning in 1958, it has continually produced educational, cultural, social, and religious programming for Mandarin and Amoy TV speaking audiences in Taiwan and China. It has always aimed principally at communicating positive human values to mass audiences through popular programming, rather than producing purely religious programmes for a much more limited audience. It has also succeeded, with effort, to be self-supporting. Reaching the popular heart has always been KPS’ goal. Its programmes are noted for being entertaining, but not sensational; evocative of values, but not preachy; educational, but not heavy and overbearing. The following experiences are examples of how KPS has sometimes successfully used the commercial mass media of television to positively influence the social and cultural landscape. 12.2 Television, used as a force to promote interreligious dialogue, understanding and cooperation, can lead to greater social harmony, compassion, and justice The following four experiences demonstrate how a Church-based media organisation can play an effective and prophetic role in breaking down the barriers and prejudices that hinder people of good will from cooperating with each other for the good of society. 141
Reaching the Popular Heart/Mind: The Kuangchi Experience a) Multimedia Campaign for Environmental Protection Master Sheng Yen is Taiwan’s foremost Zen Buddhist leader. He is brilliant and highly educated, holding a doctorate from a Japanese university. He is a prolific writer and runs a temple filled with devoted disciples. Many government and business leaders regularly attend his Buddhist Zen retreats. Master Sheng Yen was originally highly critical of the Catholic Church and Christianity in his writings. Now he has become a close friend and collaborator. He says we are of one heart and one mind, the only major difference being our beliefs in the kind of afterlife awaiting us. Beginning with a one-hour live television talk show with only two guests, one Catholic priest from KPS and one Buddhist monk, Master Sheng Yen in his first TV appearance began to see the Catholic Church as a friend and ally. He paid subsequent visits to KPS to study its operation and goals. He appeared on KPS-related programmes. He used KPS’ studios to produce his own TV series and invited the participation of Catholic personnel. He organised a 10-day multimedia campaign, based on his book ‘Environmental Protection from the Heart,’ featuring front-page newspaper advertisements, daily articles by Buddhists and Catholics, and culminating in a 2-hour live radio broadcast with an interreligious panel. KPS was a principle participant and supporter of this successful interreligious, multimedia campaign. b) TV Channel Providing Disaster Relief Master Dzeng Yen, a Buddhist nun often called ‘Taiwan’s Mother Teresa,’ was influenced by Catholic religious sisters to become involved in charity, health, and relief work. She founded the ‘Tzu Chi Foundation,’ which now claims over four million members, and is by far Taiwan’s most active, effective and inspiring charitable organisation. She says that she watched and was influenced by KPS TV programmes before she became a nun. When she launched her own satellite TV channel, she named it ‘Great Love,’ and invited KPS to participate in the first broadcast. She explicitly stated that, like KPS, her television productions are for the good of all people and the health of society and exclude no religion. 142
Reaching the Popular Heart/Mind: The Kuangchi Experience She re-broadcast KPS’ entire TV series on the Catholic Church, absolutely free, at a prime time on Sunday mornings. She invited a priest from KPS to host 3-minute TV spots, broadcast repeatedly each day for one month, showing reconstruction efforts after Taiwan’s devastating earthquake in 1999. This series, entitled ‘Project Hope,’ aimed at raising and maintaining public concern for victims of the earthquake in poor and rural areas of Taiwan. She invited leaders and members of all religions to participate in an internationally televised prayer service for victims of the September 11th World Trade Center attack. c) Multimedia Museum of World Religions Master Hsin Tao, a young Buddhist monk, formerly an air force pilot in Burma, visited KPS one day to learn how the Church used media in its ministry. Quiet and unassuming, he listened and observed, and spoke very little, impressing everyone with his humility and politeness. This visit inspired KPS to invite Master Hsin Tao and the members of his temple to be the subject of one episode of its long-running Catholic TV series. The episode was broadcast and the Catholic community, although surprised, responded well and became interested in this sincere, young, open-minded monk with so many young followers. ‘Master Hsin Tao felt that his mission was to promote harmony among all religions. To do this, he began planning a multimedia museum that would introduce the public to all major religions and beliefs. When the project was launched, KPS again produced an episode about his work for its Catholic TV series. During the years of preparation, KPS helped with promotion, donated audio- visual materials, and worked hand-in-hand with Master Hsin Tao and his team. When the museum was finally finished and inaugurated, KPS participated in all the opening activities. In addition to concrete assistance in the project, the witness KPS gave regarding respect for and collaboration with other religions has been inspiring, enlightening and liberating to followers of several religions. 143
Reaching the Popular Heart/Mind: The Kuangchi Experience d) Media Centre to Unite Different Religions Master Hsing Yun is Taiwan’s first ‘TV Buddhist Monk.’ His charismatic gift for preaching made his temple in southern Taiwan famous and won him a vast number of followers. He is an active promoter of cultural and educational activities. KPS has joined with him on TV to settle disputes between the Buddhist and Christian communities. His TV channel has broadcast KPS TV programmes promoting interreligious harmony. One of his TV series was produced at KPS during the same period in which another KPS studio was hosting a Protestant cable TV series. The two groups shared the same make-up and dressing rooms. The use of Buddhist symbols and articles offended the conservative Christian group, and KPS became intermediary and peacemaker for the two groups. Hopefully this experience served to open the minds and hearts of these Christian media professionals to their Buddhist colleagues, paving the way for better collaboration in their service to society. 12.3 TV soap operas can be used to raise social awareness and to promote social justice. TV situation comedies can be vehicles for education on values The following four examples demonstrate how KPS used popular TV formats to give a voice to the voiceless, to arouse understanding and compassion for the marginalised, and to raise awareness of important social and family issues. a) Dramas about the Mentally Challenged KPS produced a long-running (120-episode) daily drama serial (soap opera) based on a traditional Taiwanese folk hero who was mentally challenged. Using a comedy format, the protagonist was under constant threat of exploitation because of his mental handicap. His naturally good and forgiving character, however, won him friends and supporters who would inevitably come to his aid. 144
Reaching the Popular Heart/Mind: The Kuangchi Experience The series constantly pointed out, through comic drama, that there are values more important than financial gain, intellectual prowess, and social status in Taiwan’s competitive and materialistic society. In a light-hearted, entertaining way, it demonstrated that ‘blessed are the poor.’ b) TV Dramas about the Physically Challenged KPS produced a 30-episode daily TV drama serial in the local Amoy dialect describing the challenges and difficulties of a young girl who suddenly became deaf and mute. Deaf mutes were advisors to the series and the actors had to learn to use sign language. This added to the time and expense of the production; however, the series received top audience ratings and awards. The fine acting, directing, true-to-life script, and extra effort showed that a popular commercial medium, when used in an non-commercial way, can educate society about the problems of handicapped persons and arouse interest and compassion. c) TV Dramas about Workers in High-Risk Occupations KPS produced a 30-episode daily TV drama serial in the local Amoy dialect based on news reports noting the disappearance of Taiwanese fishermen during storms at sea. These unfortunate incidents were generally due to inadequate safety equipment and education, together with the widespread practice of bribing officials to overlook these inadequacies. The series created such a strong audience reaction in the first week that the fishing industry complained that fishermen were unwilling to go out on boats until they had proof of their safety. KPS was put under government pressure to either stop or alter the theme of the series. Only after tense negotiation was an agreement reached and the series allowed to continue. It received high praise from both the audience and the critics and helped educate the people on the need for stricter enforcement of safety measures for those in high-risk occupations. Soap operas can raise the level of social awareness and contribute to a healthier, more just society. 145
Reaching the Popular Heart/Mind: The Kuangchi Experience d) TV Dramas for Family Education KPS produced a long-running daily educational TV series for families called ‘Mother and Mother-in-Law,’ a phrase that in Mandarin means ‘bickering’ - something that commonly occurs in traditional Taiwanese families where the mother-in-law is a dominant figure. In order to soften the series’ critical message, the mother-in-law was portrayed by a humorous, overbearing, but lovable puppet. The comic format of the dramatic segments was sprinkled with educational tips on how to live a harmonious and happy family life. The highly popular series was enjoyed and appreciated equally by children, adults, and the elderly. TV situation comedies can be effective vehicles for values education. 12.4 TV and video documentaries can concretely benefit marginal groups, such as refugees and migrant workers, and can positively influence the relationship between opposed entities, such as the Vatican and China The following three examples demonstrate how KPS used the medium of the documentary to bring relief to war-afflicted Cambodian civilians, to improve the plight of Asian migrant workers, and to ease tensions between China and the Catholic Church. a) ‘Beyond the Killing Fields - Cambodian Refugees on the Border of Life’ This award-winning documentary raised hundreds of thousands of dollars for the Cambodian refugees on the Thai border in the 1980’s. It was the first time Taiwanese people had contributed so much to another country. It demonstrated that the media can be a positive influence not only on attitudes but on behaviour as well. b) ‘Living Temples - The Irrepressible Catholics of China’ Pope John Paul II viewed this documentary, shot immediately after the tragic events of Tiananmen, in preparation for his ad limina meeting with the Chinese bishops. 146
Reaching the Popular Heart/Mind: The Kuangchi Experience It radically changed his understanding of the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association. Since that time, his stance toward the Chinese Church became noticeably milder and more conciliatory. Responsible media productions can help opinion leaders to move toward reconciliation through a better understanding of the facts. c) ‘Asian Exile - the Gamble of Asia’s Migrant Laborers’ This documentary followed the cases of three Thai migrant workers in Taiwan, showing the reasons why they left their country to work abroad, the sacrifices they endured, the risks they accepted, the misfortunes that befell them, their return to Thailand and their view of the future. Through its broadcast on Taiwan’s public television, it came to the attention of labour leaders and government officials and became a force to promote the direct hiring of foreign laborers. Direct hiring enables foreign labourers to avoid the exorbitant and unjust placement fees paid to middlemen that have turned migrant labour into a kind of modern day slavery. Responsible media can provide society’s leaders with a valuable tool for social reform. 12.5 TV series that are both commercially sponsored and values-based, when broadcast by satellite and/or cable, can reach enormous and otherwise inaccessible audiences embracing entire continents and evoking a consciousness of human and social values. Posting programme clips and supplementary material on the internet can maximise this effect. KPS’ long-running, daily educational TV series, distributed by TV, satellite, cable and Internet, teaches English conversation to Chinese audiences throughout Asia, while carrying a values sub-text promoting forgiveness and reconciliation, peace and harmony, compassion and concern for others. Fourteen years ago, KPS was invited to produce a series of English conversation TV programmes for a local sponsor. KPS agreed to do so on condition that the series carry a sub-text of positive human values. 147
Reaching the Popular Heart/Mind: The Kuangchi Experience Throughout the years, the programme helped the sponsor’s business grow in both size and reputation. Close collaboration also enhanced the sponsor’s own social consciousness and increased his sense of mission to serve the Chinese people through this programme series. Ten years ago, a satellite TV channel with a footprint covering most of Asia and aimed especially at mainland China began to broadcast and re-run the series on a daily basis. Despite its tight production budget, KPS was able to continually improve programme quality so as to keep the series on the air daily, year after year. Now the series includes a bi-lingual story at the end of each programme, based on Gospel values. It provides food for reflection on the important values in life, especially peace, harmony, reconciliation, justice, compassion, dialogue, and sacrifice for others. This programme strategy was inspired to some extent by Paolo Friere’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed, in which he demonstrates how literacy education can be used to raise people’s awareness of their social environment and motivate them to take action to identify and solve problems and improve their situation. The KPS series aims to be a kind of subtle media pedagogy for viewers who suffer various kinds of internal and external oppression, as well as to awaken those viewers who may themselves be, consciously or unconsciously, oppressors of others. All of the recently produced programmes are available for free, repeated viewing at any time over the internet on an interactive website advertised at the end of each TV broadcast. The website is being developed to include a web board, a chat room, links to websites that inform and inspire, and a paid tutorial section. As broadband access to the internet increases, so will users of this website. It offers the producers of mass media, which used to be one- way only, the opportunity of two-way dialogue with a vast public. Business-sponsored mass media programmes with popular appeal, transmitted through the digital technologies of satellite TV, cable, and internet can be used to promote human and spiritual values to an enormous and diverse audience composed of both the poor and the powerful. 148
Reaching the Popular Heart/Mind: The Kuangchi Experience 12.6 Conclusion While mass media productions are generally used for profit and power, and are accused of catering to the lowest common denominator of viewership, eroding cultural and moral values and militating against education, reflection, and mature judgment, the above experiences of Kuangchi Program Service illustrate that this does not always have to be the case. The channels and techniques of mass media can be used in a disinterested way to serve the audience or specific audiences. Profit and power may become casualties in this challenging approach. However, interaction with certain sponsors and producers can awaken their ideals and motivate them to use their resources and expertise to serve society. When this does happen, their sense of satisfaction and accomplishment may even result in a kind of conversion. Instant audience feedback on productions through internet websites can provide valuable leverage in pushing producers to reform their programmes. While mass media producers are still extremely powerful, profit-driven, and generally unyielding, new digital technologies have revealed a few ‘cracks in their armour’ that are worth examining and exploiting. Hopefully, this paper has pointed out a few possible pathways to a slightly more democratic media and will encourage others to explore those pathways. ❖ 149
Chapter 13 (India) Challenges to and Responses of Media Education in Kerala Santhosh George 13.1 Introduction Kerala, a tiny region (area 38,863 sq km, population 30 million) at the southern tip of the Indian sub-continent is distinct in many respects, especially in its exposure to various media. Various international agencies including the UNDP have hailed it as a unique ‘development model’, for having achieved high levels of social development without radical developments in the productive sectors. Low infant mortality rates, widespread literacy, etc, matching the most developed regions in the world are some its achievements. What we wish to argue here is that, education and media are the key institutions in the formation of ‘modern’ Malayalee subjectivity. We believe these institutions almost-always ‘overdetermine’ the structure of Kerala society. Kerala was the first state to achieve 100% literacy in the Union of India. Literacy naturally facilitated the ‘hegemony of the printed word’ in Kerala. For instance, the Malayalam daily Malayala Manorama has attained the status of being one among the three newspapers in India having a readership of over 10 million (10,032,000 readers). In Kerala, it is followed by Mathrubhumi (7,548,000 readers). This points to the enormity of media exposure of Keralites though Kerala has only 3 percent of the total population of the Indian Union. By 1996, Malayalam newspaper penetration was more than 85 dailies to thousand people, which is twice the all-India ratio, even though Kerala’s per capita income stayed well below the national average.1 151
Challenges to and Responses of Media Education in Kerala This inverse relationship between per capita income and per capita consumption is another curious aspect of Kerala. Kerala’s urban markets are supposed to be the best testing grounds for new products of the Indian corporate giants. The role of the audio-visual media, especially television is very relevant here. At present, Kerala has six television channels beaming programmes round the clock. A couple of channels more are in the pipeline. Media is without doubt THE crucial player in the shaping/reshaping of both the public and private spheres of Kerala society. Gender, caste, class, and religion are deeply influenced by and negotiated in this domain. It is in this context that we are talking about ‘media education’. We confess that we have always felt that this is a double-edged sword and this is one of the most sensitive issues in contemporary Kerala. Two case studies can be cited in order to reflect the socio-political and gender aspects of Kerala life, and to highlight the role of media in a highly the media- saturated society like Kerala. 13.2 The Espionage Case This was a major event which dominated media debates in Kerala for almost four years since 1994. Two Maldivian women, two senior scientists belonging to the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), a representative of the Russian Space Research Organisation (Glavcosmos), a Bangalore-based labour contractor, and the then Inspector General (IG) of Police, Trivandrum were implicated in the case for allegedly passing secret documents relating to cryogenic technologies to Pakistan. The process of investigation by the Central Bureau of Intelligence (CBI) and the legal proceedings up to the Supreme Court took four years. At the end, the court dismissed the case as false and baseless. The media was actively involved in the Espionage case. The role of Kerala Kaumudi, a vernacular newspaper in turning the IG into the kingpin of the spy ring was significant. It resulted in a public outcry against the then Chief Minister of Kerala who openly protected the IG. 152
Challenges to and Responses of Media Education in Kerala The High Court ruling against the IG and his consequent suspension forced the Chief Minister to resign from his post. A sexual harassment issue that surfaced in the media also occupied the public domain in Kerala for quite some time. The Maldivian women through interviews with the periodicals India Today, Savy, and the Asianet TV Channel exposed the sexual harassment they underwent during the investigation process. But the interviews resulted in three defamation cases against them by the police, which further delayed their release. 13.3 THE P. E. Usha Case This is a more recent incident of sexual harassment that happened in December 1999 in which P.E. Usha, an employee of Calicut University, was sexually assaulted while traveling in a bus. Being an activist, she responded to the issue instantly. Though the accused was handed over to the police by the passengers, the First Investigation Report (FIR) was found to have been manipulated against her favour. Usha faced greater harassment at her workplace, the Calicut University campus where she was cornered and defamed by the employees union led by the Marxist Party. They propagated a claim that she cooperated with the accused till the act was noticed by the fellow passengers. The media debate on the issue was significant. On the one hand, the so-called right wing newspaper Malayala Manorama which often turned a blind eye to gender issues came out in support of Usha. They launched coverage of the issue with a full-page first person account which became a milestone in the entire debate. Moreover they used the issue as a weapon to fight against the Marxist-led government. On the other hand, the employees’union fought back vehemently with the aid of Deshabhimani, the Marxist Party-owned newspaper, to defeat Usha. It is striking to note that the ‘left’ representation (Deshabhimani) of Usha as an isolated case and a lone irritant was inverse to the ‘right’ representation (Malayala Manorama) of Usha as a morally outraged woman and lone warrior.2 153
Challenges to and Responses of Media Education in Kerala 13.4 Role of Media Based on the above case studies, observations can be made on the complex media environment of Kerala. In the first case, one of the most powerful chief ministers of the state had to resign to subdue public outrage and the resultant dissidence within the political front. In the second, a simple and straightforward case of sexual harassment and the disturbing questions it raises about Kerala society3 is rendered invisible by the media by its taking sides and protecting certain interests, all the while demanding transparency and social justice in all other matters. Depending on the various interests of the media – financial, political, and institutional – they have taken stands to suit the situation. In the process, they have overblown selected issues and ignored several other vital issues that didn’t have ‘news value’. More often what gets sidelined is public interest. This brings before us very unsettling questions about the role of the media in the public sphere and democratic politics. 13.5 Educational Scenario Education that also plays a significant role in defining the Malayalee subjectivity does not always play a positive role towards the empowerment of people. The state has been spending about 40 percent of its revenue on education until recently. Economists point out that the education system is a total failure as far as the needs of the maginalised, the economy and job markets are concerned. Kerala could boast of the highest number of educated unemployed in the world! In 1989, when the State Public Service Commission invited applications for the posts of bus conductors for the Kerala State Road Transport Corporation, 268,000 people applied. Although the minimum qualification required was Secondary School Leaving Certificate, about 80% of the applicants had higher educational qualifications. Among them, 20% were post-graduates, and one of them was doing research in laser physics. But the First World fans of the Kerala model defend this inverse relationship between education and economic development arguing that this is exactly what the Kerala model is i.e. quality of life indicators must be inverse to economic development. 154
Challenges to and Responses of Media Education in Kerala One Malayalee economist quips: “Malayalees reading the writings on the Kerala model emanating from the First World are reminded of the Malayalam proverb, ‘you will know about your partner’s fever only if you sleep together!’\"4. In this Fund-Bank era, when structural adjustment policies promoted by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank are implemented throughout the Indian Union, Kerala is going through its worst crisis. But as far as the people are concerned, formal education is the sacred cow. Any attempt to transform the formal education process faces stiff opposition. The latest example is the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) which the Marxist government initiated in 1996 in the attempt to bring in changes in the educational curriculum and practice. The prevailing ‘banking concept of education’ to a certain extent was replaced by the concept of empowerment. Though the programme had many flaws, it offered a lot of space for creative research by students and teachers inside and outside the classrooms. DPEP faced lot of resistance from the opposition parties as well as from factions among the ruling Left Front. Though DPEP was extended from primary to the secondary school level, it was abandoned by the Congress-led ‘right front government’ that came into power in 2001. 13.6 Status of Media Studies/Media Education in Kerala The rapid changes in the media environment have had no bearing on the syllabus and the curriculum of media studies. Although some teachers make use of media as a teaching tool, the awareness about the nature, role and function of the Media and its impact is largely unknown to the students. There are periodical revisions in academic curriculum for almost all disciplines, but media studies/ media Education was never considered for inclusion in the syllabus. The same is the case for media institutes in Kerala. There are many courses on print and electronic media which are meant to teach skills in media production. The space in the curriculum for media analysis is negligibly small. Thus, any attempt to facilitate media analysis and debate assumes significance. The ‘naturalness’ of media images must be challenged by foregrounding questions of representation and communication. 155
Challenges to and Responses of Media Education in Kerala 13.7 Challenges and Responses It is in this context, Mediact launched the Media Education Programme in Trivandrum in 2000-2001 with the school children at the most impressionable age (in the 8th standard, when they are about 12 years of age) as the focus group. The programme is designed to help them to understand the nature, role and function of media in Kerala society, and give them sufficient tools to become discerning media consumers. This would also make them more responsible citizens so that at least some among them would become responsible media users in the future. Media education is currently carried out inside the educational system as an extra- curricular activity along with the formal curriculum. Institutional involvement on the part of the schools/authorities is nil or limited. There is considerably less involvement either on the side of the parents or the teachers. Instead, more often one encounters hostility and indifference from the teachers. We are trying to overcome these institutional impediments by associating with media professionals and by seeking the cooperation of the Department of Public Instruction (DPI). The children come from a wide range of socio-economic groups: among them three are from government high schools which are economically and socially backward. The remaining two schools are a Catholic managed school with a majority of the children coming from fishing community and an elite residential school run by a Christian Organisation. Three are girls’ schools. The focus on girls schools assumes significance in the context of existing gender discriminations in Kerala society. The government School students are mostly Dalits (disadvantaged community) and their parents are manual labourers. Very few of them have newspapers or TV sets at their homes. They regularly watch TV programmes in the neighborhood and they are familiar with the current news/programmes. All the students belonging to the elite school are coming from affluent families that subscribes to at least two newspapers and most of them are having personal computers with internet connection. Thus we interact with a cross- section of students and this enables us to know how the students from various social backgrounds respond to media experiences. 156
Challenges to and Responses of Media Education in Kerala 13.8 Pedagogical Practice The media education programme seeks to provide basic concepts, tools, approaches and information about the production, dissemination and content of the various media. The students are exposed to the language and techniques of various media and the dominant world views and ideologies projected by them. This will encourage the reader/spectator to resist dominant systems of meanings and to make ‘alternative readings’ of the media. The curriculum for the academic year 2002-2003 has a specific emphasis on ‘media and gender’. During the course, the students will bring out their own media products such as class newspaper, story board, advertisement collage et cetera as course assignments. As part of the course, we expose students to various media institutions such as newspaper establishments and television studios and bring media professionals to schools so that students will have interaction with them. Apart from the regular course, seminars, film shows, exhibitions and competitions are organised in schools. All the students who completed the course during the academic years 2000—2001 and 2001-2002 were given media education certificates signed by media professionals. It is a real challenge to communicate with children. We try to generate interest and aptitude in the programme by developing a learning space where both students and teachers derive pleasure from the exchange that is different from the conventional one. The teaching modules used in the classrooms were kept tentative and open, and were designed to encourage interaction with and among students. But the tools/modules one took to the classes were more often inadequate to address the specific questions thrown up during the course of the session. Collaboration with Working Women’s Organisation (SEWA), Women’s Organisation (Sakhi) and Fish Worker’s Movement (KSMTF), provides us opportunities to interact with non-student groups too. Mar Thoma Church has set up a Media Education commission with the support of Mediact and two media education workshops were organised for different focus groups belonging to the Church. 157
Challenges to and Responses of Media Education in Kerala 13.9 Concluding Remarks: Differing Concepts of Media Education When defining media education, there are differing perceptions within the group. The objective approach defines media education as a process which encourage the reader/spectator to resist dominant systems of meaning and to make alternative readings of the media. The emphasis here is on the potential of critical education to question not only the media and its agenda, but also the dominant relations of power that it reproduces. But an alternative approach puts forward the argument that such an objective analysis is not possible at all. The relation between a representation and a reader/spectator is a complex web of desire, pleasure, power, resistance etc which cannot be caught in any universal, all-time, all-contexts module. Media education as a movement obviously has to remain self-critical and self- reflexive, something possible only when it is able to exist in a catalytic/ critical relationship with the new social movements in society as well as theoretical developments. ❖ End Notes 1 See Robin Jeffrey, India’s Newspaper Revolution; Capitalism, Politics and the Indian Language Press, 1977-99 (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000). 2 J. Devika and Praveena Kodoth, ‘Sexual Violence and Predicament of Feminist Politics in Kerala’, Economic and Political Weekly, August 18, 2001 3 Though the male-female ratio in Kerala is 1000:1058 and female literacy is the highest in the whole of India, out of the 140 Legislative Assembly constituencies, only eight are represented by women. Women have entered into all realms of Kerala society, but they are denied their rights in the decision-making processes at all levels. There is also a definite increase in crime against women. Over 6,250 harassment cases are filed at various state police stations. These cases include dowry harassment and domestic violence. 519 rape charges have been booked between May 2001 and May 2002. It points to the implications of gender inequality in the Kerala society which is often reinforced by the mainstream media. (The Times of India, July 25, 2002). 4 For an excellent discussion on the Kerala model, see Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 30, Nos. 3 & 4, 1998. 158
Chapter 14 (Philippines) Media Education in the Formal and Non-Formal Setting: A Call for Networking Delia C. Hernandez 14.1 Looking Back Twelve years ago, in an exclusive school for boys, an activity was given to Grade 7 students aged 13 to 14 years. The students were asked to come up with a scenario on what communication media would be like in the year 2000 when they would be the producer of a television programme, the editor of a newspaper, and the owner of an advertising firm or the announcer of a radio station. From the discussion of the students, I gathered that a bright future awaited our next generation. The media persons of the year 2000 would: a) think of children as the receivers of media messages. b) improve television programmes on prime time schedules. c) approve airing of programmes that help develop positive values. d) encourage educational shows. e) balance radio and television programmes. f) write news that is truthful and reliable. g) produce advertisements that are screened in the context of how they affect the consumers. h) air pop songs on radio after proper censorship. 159
Media Education in the Formal and Non-Formal Setting: A Call for Networking 14.2 Examining the Present Today, twelve years later, I face a more challenged communication media. The programmes are worse if not the same. Children’s programmes are not a priority. Much is to be desired in prime time television. Songs, especially those locally composed and produced, are getting worse, news is more opinionated and advertisements are here to stay. Money is still the name of the game. I would like to think that these students never joined the world of communication media. Thus it was never improved; but again, what can a hundred or more students do even if they had dreams larger than life? The development and availability of more communication media accessible to the youth not only in their homes but also in school and malls has changed the whole scenario of what these students can do. Consequently, today’s generation has become connectivity-driven. We can see this in the many activities that they enjoy doing. While they are still TV watchers and radio listeners, they have expanded their interests to include texting, chatting, and surfing the internet to connect with other people and the outside world. In the Youth Study Survey 2001, conducted by NFO-Trends for Global Filipino Foundation, The Philippine Province of the Society of Jesus, The Ateneo de Manila Grade School Grade 7 Parents Council 1998-1999 and One Dream Foundation, media and technology are the important things in the lives of the youth, with television and radio having the highest reach. Technology is still a function of class, but the internet cafés mushrooming in our midst will democratise their availability to the youth. Globalisation will happen faster in this generation as the world opens up through media and technology. According to the youth, with the Internet they can learn about anything. 160
Media Education in the Formal and Non-Formal Setting: A Call for Networking 14.3 Role of Family and School Home and family serve as the refuge of children but do not sufficiently offer the intellectual and emotional support that they need. Parents, while acknowledged to be good providers, are just not equipped to deal with the psychological needs of their children. Parents lack education and may not have the right priorities in life. As such, the youth especially the older ones, seek deeper intimacy with their parents but end up frustrated. Not that their parents do not care; they just do not know how to address this need. The school serves as a surrogate home. They like school not only for the academic merits but for the opportunities for socialisation that it provides. School allows them to be with people of their age and to listen to mentors who can help process their thoughts and feelings. Therefore, the importance of good teachers to shower them with the understanding and kindness that they seek cannot be overemphasised. There is a great concern among us parents and teachers about how our children are affected by the media. Media which is a reality and a fact our children encounter every moment of their waking hours has a direct and indirect effect on them. Our children at home and in school are growing up on media. ‘Media is a parallel school system where the young receive conflicting messages about values and attitudes traditionally taught in the classroom or learned from parents at home.’ There is an emerging debate about a new value system. As the superhighway expands rapidly, raising and teaching the youth in a fast changing world becomes doubly difficult at home and in school. 14.4 Redefining Learning and Education There is now a need to redefine learning and probably even education. Neil Postman, a cultural critic and author said that education must be presented with a purpose. Traditionally, he observes, that purpose has been presented in the form of a narrative story. The story tells of origins and envisions a future. It teaches ideals, prescribes rules of conduct, provides a source of authority and gives a sense of continuity and purpose. 161
Media Education in the Formal and Non-Formal Setting: A Call for Networking To make education work today, we need a compelling story. Without such a compelling story, life has no meaning. Without meaning, learning has no purpose. Without purpose school becomes houses of detention, not attention. Postman further illustrates the four stories that dominate education today. First, the story of economic utility. This story tells young people that they are what they do for a living. The main purpose of learning is how to make a living, not how to make a life. The story of consumerism tells the young that the surest way to earn favour is to buy things. It tells them they are not what they do but what they own. The story of technology insists that the main purpose of learning is to help the young accommodate themselves to vast technological change. And last but not least, is the story of multiculturalism. This is used to advocate exclusivity, a point of view that expresses the separateness from and hostility towards others. These four stories create a sense of confusion about what schools are for and about what they can be for. 14.5 Addressing the Curriculum There is a call for a curriculum of change. The youth no longer respond well to traditional methods of learning. These do not stimulate their young minds. It therefore implies the need for new teaching approaches. Media education forms the innovation in teaching and learning today. Fran Tramplets in the article ‘Ask an Expert: Why Teach Media Literacy’ wrote that media education is teaching traditional subjects in new ways – ways that reflect the realities of today’s information age. It is not a case of replacing traditional subjects. Media education teaches students how to set learning objectives and how to access information that will help them reach those objectives. It teaches the youth how to analyse and evaluate the information they find and determine what’s most relevant and helpful. Action Learning (the empowerment spiral) based on the work of Brazilian educator Paolo Freire, is a strategy that leads to greater comprehension and critical thinking as well as informed judgments. 162
Media Education in the Formal and Non-Formal Setting: A Call for Networking Fig. 1. Action Learning Model (adopted from Paolo Freire) Action awareness experience reflection analysis 14.6 Four Steps to Effective Media Education Since I learned the four steps of empowerment process from articles written by Elizabeth Thoman, associated with the Center for Media Literacy, I have used it in all my classes. The four steps assure me that media education has been effectively done. Step 1 Awareness: This help students become aware of media insights. Awareness activities set the foundation of media literacy pedagogy. For example in my lesson on advertisements and consumerism, I made the students become aware, thru a question- and- answer technique, about how ads are important for media to operate. I used a game show familiar to them to introduce this lesson. Step 2 Analysis: This help students go deeper in their understanding of how an issue came to be. Core questioning, close analysis and production experiences are techniques used in this step. My students analyse the how and what of ads through group work using different types of magazine ads. A set of guide questions were given to help students analyse. 163
Media Education in the Formal and Non-Formal Setting: A Call for Networking Step 3 Reflection: This help students look deeper and consider what they have learned at home and in school as well as teachings of the church. Here my students reflected on lifestyles, on wants and on needs. Step 4 Action: This challenges students to produce action plans. My students usually write, draw, make posters and keep log books. In the lesson on ads, the students after learning and understanding the techniques used in ads, created posters ‘advertising’ Filipino values that have long been forgotten by their generation. Given the media environment of our students today, more and more schools in the country realised that for teaching to be effective, it is important to include media education in the curriculum. The integration of the media education model is most widely accepted and used. It has varying degrees of success, depending on the teacher’s knowledge and preparation, lesson content and the availability of materials. Outside the academic periods, the school’s co-curricular offerings include media clubs at various levels. Hand in hand with different media education activities in schools, we also conduct media literacy education for parents. These seminars aside from helping parents cope with their kids are also designed to encourage parents to support media education in schools. An additional seminar for babysitters is also given. Babysitters, caregivers of the preschool children are significant adults in the lives of Filipino children. Their role in the development of children at home is crucial. Through the years, we have seen the development and growth of media education in our country. Ateneo de Manila University has responded by offering a Masters of Arts in Basic Education major in media education. A good number of graduate students are making their theses and practicum papers on Media Literacy and Education. Media education is now an academic and curricular concern. 164
Media Education in the Formal and Non-Formal Setting: A Call for Networking 14.7 Role of the Philippine Association for Media Education (PAME) The Philippine Association for Media Education, an organisation of teachers and practitioners is visibly creating short training programmes for formal and non-formaleducation that will facilitate the movement towards media literacy education in the country. Education beyond the classroom is a challenge for all of us. A PAME website will be launched soon. Our children are exposed to two kinds of educational curricula; the curriculum of the school and the curriculum of the media. As an educator and a mother, I am alarmed at the outrageous speed by which the curricular offerings of mass media keep on changing compared to the pace of changes in what our schools have to offer. Thus, we call on parents, teachers, the youth and even media people to participate, to cooperate and to network. We need a communication system which is collaborative and participatory. It means working together. There are many possibilities for networking. a) Teachers networking with other teachers - of the same school, with other schools like those connected through the structure of consortiums or organisations. b) Parents networking with parents of the same class, level, or school. c) Students networking with students of the same school and consortium schools or other schools. d) Media professionals networking with other professionals. All these groups can also network with each other for a common goal and purpose. Some structures will lend itself to easy networking - like those with students and teachers, while others need an initial breakthrough - like with parents and more with media professionals. 165
Media Education in the Formal and Non-Formal Setting: A Call for Networking The emerging technology will facilitate these networking initiatives. The internet will be a great source of sharing vast materials for information and ideas, for communication and participatory collaboration, and access to resources. At the Ateneo de Manila University primary and middle schools, many opportunities for networking are evident. At the beginning we called it articulation among levels, among subjects, among schools. The organisational structure lended itself even to collaborate with parents and other communities involved with the school. The awareness of a media topic like violence may be done in a religious class, analysed and reflected in a social studies class in relation to peace education and may work for action posters and exhibits in an art class. We have started initial planning for our Grade 7 students to chat on peace education with students of other countries. My recent trip to Fiji has opened some possibilities first thru an e-mail system, then a network arrangement. PAME hopes to expand networking with other media organisations in the country as well as media education organisations of other countries. I am quite impressed with the work done by Fiji Media Watch. Through a small office headed by Fr. Larry Hannah, a Marist father, they do a lot of work through newsletters and websites. We hope we can network with them as well as our Asian media affiliates. These networking activities will challenge all of us to undertake group media monitoring, and write letters, newsletters, and or press releases. We open dialogue with the media, allow ourselves to be interviewed, use radio, television and computer networks for communicating advocacy messages and even hold small rallies to put our point across. Hand in hand, we continue conducting workshops to develop skills for understanding, analysis, and critical thinking. We continue developing strategies to facilitate learning these skills. We are also called to develop campaigns that will eventually teach the skills in using alternative media. PAME’s next project is a step-by-step lesson on integrating media education in the classrooms across the curriculum and we will do this by modular Power Point presentations. This will hopefully solve our problem of not having enough professionals as well as time to reach the many who would like to start this innovation in their schools and communities. 166
Media Education in the Formal and Non-Formal Setting: A Call for Networking At the end, we are challenged to review our own media consumption habits. Everything has to start with our own self. As a teacher, I will find it difficult to teach and to tell them to follow what I say and not what I do. 14.8 Future of Media Education Media education of the future will depend on new kinds of teachers, new forms of teaching and new kinds of classrooms. It calls for active parental participation and challenges the introduction of alternative activities for the home. In our initial attempt and efforts to democratise the media and introduce media reforms, networking, lobbying and advocacy, some questions we can reflect on are: a) What implications will media education and reforms have on our work? b) What is the state of media education and refroms in a fast-changing technological world? How do we address this in a global dimension? c) How do we establish linkages and network with each other? d) Are we ready for collaborative and or interdisciplinary, or integrated learning? e) What are the implication/s on our school system? Do we need to review our mental frameworks or pedagogy or both? f) What are the implications of the internet on the learning of our youth? g) How can we maximise media messages to be more focused on addressing local issues and concerns? On preserving our individual culture as well as our Asian values and culture? 167
Media Education in the Formal and Non-Formal Setting: A Call for Networking Media education and reforms are the most important undertaking today. If media education is to be successful in the future, it will need greater linkages and networking in terms of sharing materials, information, training and human resources. Only through this will it mark the beginning of a life- long learning process that will enable our kids at home and our students in school to become not just consumers and passive users of globalised media, but reflective and active citizens of the world. ❖ References Martin, Bryan, Beyond Mass Media Metro V.101 pp. 17-23, 1995 Thoman, Elizabeth, ‘Skills and Strategies in Media Education’, Educational Leadership, Feb. 1999 Trampiets, Fran, Ask An Expert: Why Teach Media Literacy? Fyi.com (2000) Postman, Neil, Learning Redefined and Four Schools Today, (n.a.) NFO: Trends for Global Filipino Foundation, Youth Study 2001, (n.a.) 168
Chapter 15 (Cambodia) Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience Tive Sarayeth 15.1 Background of the Media in Cambodia a) Media in Cambodia During their time in power in Cambodia in the 1970s, the Khmer Rouge killed more than a million people, especially the highly educated, including journalists. Very few professional journalists survived after the ousting of the Khmer Rouge in 1979, and in the subsequent Vietnamese rule, the media basically acted as a government tool for disseminating information and party propaganda. The arrival of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) prior to the elections was accompanied by an explosion in the number of print and broadcast media outlets. Today, there are hundred and twenty five newspapers, six television stations and thirteen radio stations in Cambodia. This number may seem high for a population of twelve million but the statistics can be misleading. Only twenty to thirty newspapers publish on a regular basis and very few publish their newspapers every week. Due to a lack of funds, most only print issues for special occasions such as birthdays or holidays. The print media is not that popular in Cambodia, as it cannot reach people who live in remote areas and there is the underlying problem of illiteracy. Television still doesn't broadcast nation-wide, although coverage is expanded. It is popular and an effective tool for transmitting knowledge but most people still cannot afford to purchase a television. Radio on the other hand, still remains the most accessible form of mass media. It is not expensive to purchase and it operates cheaply on batteries where there is no electricity. 169
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience Yet another advantage is that the radio is portable, so people can listen to it while they are working outdoors. According to a Forum Syd and SIDA commissioned study in 2000, The Women's Media Centre of Cambodia (WMC) radio station, FM 102, is the only radio station generally considered to be independent. Another study, in September 2000 on the ‘Attitudes to Media Coverage of Women and Social Issues’ (IMIC) found that: (i) 57% of the population owns or has access to a television set (ii) Radio stations broadcast for an average of 18 hours per day (iii) 62% of the population listens to the radio regularly. (iv) Rates are highest in rural areas where literacy rates and television ownership is lowest. The number of media organisations in Cambodia reflects a certain freedom, which is associated with a democratic media. But what about the freedom of expression? There is a close link between politics and the media in Cambodia. The broadcasting media in Cambodia is dominated by the ruling political party, the Cambodian Peoples Party (CPP). Opposition newspapers do write articles, which openly criticise the government, its politics and policies, but employees are often unwilling to reveal the addresses of the newspapers offices as they fear for their safety. One example comes to mind: a few years ago, before Radio FM102 was launched, WMC aired its programmes on a local radio station, and they advised us that they were not willing to air programmes on any topics related to politics. Even today we often find that television stations or other media refuse to broadcast our programmes on any topics which might be seen as controversial politically. This once again demonstrates the media's fear and concern for their security. 170
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience b) Women in the Media It is widely accepted that the media is an extremely powerful and influential tool. However, the media in Cambodia does not represent women adequately or in a balanced way. The results of the Women’s Media Centre’s three-year monitoring of the portrayal of women in the media in Cambodia from 1996 to 1998 found that Cambodian newspapers and television violate, threaten, oppress and incite further violence and disrespect towards women. We found that: (i) One quarter of all print articles about women in Cambodia are pornographic. (ii) Over 80% of drawings of women were obscene. (iii) ‘Women as victims’ was the most common category of articles in newspapers. (iv) Women are threatened if they do not behave in the way which tradition dictates. (v) Newspapers condone domestic violence. (vi) Television oppresses women by restricting them to the traditional roles of wife, mother, lover, sex object and in the entertainment world. As a result of this we felt that the media oppressed and enforced a stereotype of women, that women are tools for entertainment and decoration for the house. An opinion poll which WMC conducted in December 1997 showed that 80% of respondents considered pornography in the newspapers to be a problem. Media did not reflect the reality that women had been contributing strongly to the development of the country in all fields. 171
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience We tried to find the reasons for such a distortion, and concluded that: (i) Codes of ethics are not well respected. (ii) There is insufficient journalism training. Most reporters have not been trained before being recruited. (iii) Competition to attract readers and pressure on sales figures is high (the number of print media outlets is very high for the number of readers). (iv) There are few female journalists. Journalism in Cambodia is a male-dominated occupation. There are no female editors-in-chief for any of the newspapers or television stations in this country. The Women's Media Centre is the exception, for obvious reasons, and they play an important role in shaping the identity of Cambodian female journalists. The only radio station run by women is FM 102 at the Women's Media Centre. The Forum Syd and SIDA study in 2000 stated that: ...Few women are attracted to the media due to women's role in Cambodian society. At the university a number of students claimed it was difficult for women students to follow the curriculum, which requires field trips to the provinces... it is seen as improper, said one male student... Some claimed that women don't have the right coverage to do the job. The female journalists interviewed refuted this and claimed that they were prepared to fight tradition. At the Journalists Section of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, the dropout rate for women is much higher than for men. Some believe this is due to the fact that women, in general, work more than the male students outside their studies and that families sometimes refuse to let female students join in field trips outside of Phnom Penh. 172
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience 15.2 Women's Media Centre (WMC) of Cambodia a) Background of WMC WMC was born from a movement to increase the participation of women in democratic processes during the UN-sponsored elections of 1993. This process included radio and video productions promoting women's rights in the elections and in the constitution. Some members of this movement decided to take this idea further and went on to become the founders of the Women's Media Centre of Cambodia. Officially established in January 1995, WMC has since grown from an initial staff of five to over 40 women working in media- production, lobbying, networking and service providing. WMC is managed by five female co-directors, who take collective responsibility for running the organisation. Each of these directors is also responsible for one of the five departments within WMC. These departments conduct various media-related activities and include gender advocacy in all their programmes. The main aims of WMC are firstly to raise the awareness of social issues from the unique perspective of Cambodian women, i.e. to work directly in the broadcast media to educate and inform the people. We also hope that our programming will have a secondary media education effect, showing the people what socially and gender conscious media can produce. Secondly, we strive to improve women's status by means of promoting socially conscious television, video and radio programmes through workshops, forum discussions and lobbying. This takes the form of both media education and media reform work. Thirdly, we try to increase women's participation in the mainstream media, and by this we hope to improve gender sensitivity within the media through increased and active participation of women. 173
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience b) How does WMC educate various sections of society including government and NGOs on gender issues? The production work of WMC includes the following: (i) Radio Station: The radio station is the biggest department among the five. The aim of the station is to raise awareness about development issues in Cambodia. Radio WMC is on the air seven days a week, from 6am to 9pm. It produces educational and entertainment programmes and provides airtime for NGOs to publicise their activities. (ii) Television Department: Its purpose is that through the WMC's television programming, all members of society will have a better understanding of women's issues and their perception of women will be more positive. The TV department produces a weekly TV series exploring women's issues in Cambodia. The programmes are broadcast on national and provincial stations and the series include drama, comedy and documentaries. (iii) Media Campaign Department: The team cooperates with local and international NGOs to produce television and radio campaigns on social issues in Cambodia. They also initiate WMC campaigns on selected social issues. The department's purpose is to strengthen the relationship with NGOs and institutions so as to better serve the cause of women in radio and television. (iv) Service Centre: The purpose of the centre is to generate income to contribute to the funding of the entire organisation. The activities of this department are: hiring out video and audio equipment, marketing, video subtitling, dubbing and copying. The Service Centre also works with TVE (Television Trust for the Environment) on language versioning and distributing their productions in Cambodia. 174
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience 15.3 Work of the Networking Department This is the department which I run. Our team is not directly involved in the production of video and radio programmes. Rather, the department's purpose is to work with the media as an information and educational tool, with the aim that society will have a better insight into women's issues and will begin to change their attitudes and beliefs about the traditional roles of women. We see ourselves as having a media education role, but work primarily in media reform. The projects undertaken by the Networking Department are in the areas of direct education of the people on social and gender issues, media education, and primarily media reform. This is done through working directly with the media and through education and lobbying the government and other NGOs. The projects we are currently working on are: a) Education on Social and Gender Issues The direct education side of the Networking Department’s work includes the setting up of mobile broadcasting teams in two provinces in 2002. These teams travel around the provinces showing WMC productions to the villagers who would otherwise not have access to television. Also an article solicitation programme was set up in 2001 by the networking team. Listeners of radio WMC were invited to write and send in articles related to various gender issues. The qualified articles were selected and published in the most popular newspaper, Rasmey Kampuchea. Recently our media monitoring group has suggested widening the audience by airing selected articles on our radio show. b) Media Education Media education is not the primary aim of any of the Networking Department’s projects, but we believe that WMC broadcasting throughout the country sets 175
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience a standard and an example to the people as to what they can expect from socially and gender conscious media productions, and hopefully makes them re-examine the other popular media from this viewpoint. We also encourage school visits, and since 2001 have run an internship programme, where we give girls from different universities the opportunity to study practical media work at our centre. We hope that though these programmes the younger generation will better understand the role of the media in shaping social attitudes. c) Media Reform In media reform, the WMC works on many projects: (i) We have an ongoing media monitoring programme looking at the content of print media in Cambodia, primarily newspapers and popular magazines. This takes the form both of informal monitoring to assess the general standard of media reporting about women and women’s issues, and of regular assessments of the content of the media, categorising the depiction of women into various positive or negative roles and analysing the results to assess the progress made. We then issue a press release on our findings and write directly to the editors-in-chief of the newspapers or magazines found to be portraying women particularly well or badly. (ii) After four years monitoring the portrayal of women in the media then we moved to the creation of the ‘Gender Equity Media Awards’ which was held in early 2002. For ten months the Networking team monitored the articles in three radio stations, three television stations and three newspapers. We looked at the total number of the programmes from each sector and then monitored the number of programs which focused on gender issues. Those with the greatest number of articles and programmes related to gender themes were chosen as the winners, and were awarded cash prizes. 176
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience (iii) We also organise workshops and discussion forums with journalists and editors, to talk about gender consciousness in the media and to listen to their views. We try to work together with the media to improve their understanding and awareness of such issues. (iv) We host a solidarity dinner annually, with editors-in-chief of all kinds of media and journalists associations, to encourage informal discussion on gender issues and to build links with the mainstream media. (v) As well as this, I have attended a meeting of the Journalists Association, to suggest to them strengthening the existing press code of ethics to specifically include guidelines on the portrayal of women in the media. (vi) Our Article Solicitation Programme aims to influence the type of articles published in the mainstream media, (vii) There are also our student visits and internship programmes. These have the primary aim of getting women interested and involved in the media, a long-term process. The WMC believes that increasing the number of female journalists will lead to the improvement of the portrayal of women in the media, since it is much easier for women journalists to understand women's problems and issues in Cambodia. 15.4 Results of Our Work in Media Education and Reform a) Media Education Results Media education is a long-term goal, and it is difficult to see concrete results resulting from the work. While not a major part of our work, we do believe that we have had a positive impact on media education in Cambodia. WMC's innovative video productions have from year to year become recognised as some of the highest quality broadcast media in the country, and so our styles and production methods are often used as examples by other media organisations. 177
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience We feel that being at the cutting edge of technology and production in the country helps our productions gain further attention and respect, and helps to counter any negative stereotypes of women working in the media. We also believe in showing people that gender and socially conscious media productions can be entertaining, and through this to increase the public awareness and demand for such entertainment. We are aided by some TV stations airing our programmes free of charge or for a reduced fee, agreements which show that WMC productions are considered both educational and entertaining. We also believe that our efforts to encourage women and society in general to participate and learn about the media through our school visits, internship programme and our article solicitation, will encourage more discussion and assessment of the role of the media in society, and the effects of the media’s portrayal of women. b) Media Reform Results This comprises the majority of the work of the Networking Department, and after four years of working very hard on monitoring the portrayal of women in the media, I am very happy to say that there are no more pornographic articles in any newspaper in Cambodia. The attitudes of the editors have changed dramatically over this time, and they have often ended up creating columns for educational articles on women or society in their place. One very stubborn magazine which was very obscene, recently changed one hundred percent into an educational magazine. However, there is a definite need for more gender advocacy since one new magazine in particular still publishes material which is not gender sensitive in nature. The ‘Gender Equality Media Awards’ was one of our most successful projects. Feedback for the Awards has been more than positive. Most participants expressed their support for this project and suggested that the awards should be continued so as to encourage radio, television and newspapers to include gender sensitive topics in their programming. One newspaper, Koh Sentepheap, which used to publish obscene materials, won an award for its work on gender equality. 178
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience I learned that this is an effective way to lobby people to change their attitudes. However, some male journalists asked: “How can we join the awards when we do not know what gender is? What's the difference between gender and women's rights?” In response to this, we organised our annual discussion forum around the topic of how to include a gender perspective in the mainstream media. Entitled ‘Gender Perspectives in the Media’ the forum hosted by WMC last August gained positive feedback from the journalists. They said that it was interesting to learn from the discussion forum how to be gender-sensitive in their productions. Some suggested that the forum should have been longer and included more participants. Having a solidarity dinner with editors-in-chief of all kind of media including journalists associations is useful. It strengthens WMC's relationship with them and makes them feel that WMC is not against them. During the dinner they get to express their opinions and let us know what they really want from us. We are sure that editors-in-chief are the key people in making media gender sensitive, as they are the decision makers who have a direct influence on what the reporters write about. Article solicitation was supported and encouraged by readers. The Networking Department received numerous articles during its selection campaign. They originated from cities and provinces and were written by people from all levels including students, state and private workers, soldiers, monks etc. This demonstrated that a lot of people are very interested in women's issues. An informal survey of ten people, undertaken by the WMC, found that articles published in the newspaper were valued and were said to increase the public’s awareness of women's issues and their contribution to Cambodian society. Most of those surveyed stated that they enjoyed reading such articles and believe that this type of materials will contribute to the reduction of problems that many women must face today. The internship and student visit programmes have the long-term aim of increasing women's participation in the media, but already have had positive results. Some of our previous interns now work for the WMC, and some are doing freelance work with other media organisations in Cambodia. Most are still continuing their studies, but we hope that we will see further progress in the future. 179
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience 15.5 Difficulties and Misconceptions a) When I started the project on monitoring, many friends said that I was crazy to run this project as they thought that I would be interfering in the business of the media companies who write in order to increase sales, and there would be nothing I could do to change that. b) Some editors-in chiefs said WMC can do what it wants because it has donors. Some felt that WMC works against journalists, and that WMC always blames journalists. c) Most editors don't like to listen to a lecture or theories, but they like brainstorming, sharing ideas or discussions. d) Feedback on article solicitation showed that there should not be too many educational articles. e) In one instance, the Ministry of Information closed down a magazine which printed pornographic images of women, but then allowed it to reopen shortly after. f) Some criticised the WMC as a group which provokes or encourage women to fight for divorce. 15.6 Future Plan Our three-year strategic plan (2002-2004) identifies several goals for the Networking Department including to: a) Organise workshops to educate media workers, and NGOs and other organisations on gender in the media, women and the media, hot issues in the country and other issues suggested by journalists. This is to increase the awareness of the media workers and participants and to improve the way the media present women. 180
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience b) Extend to more provinces the mobile broadcasting teams to improve gender and media education and reforms for the people who do not have access to the information. c) Conduct a national survey to compare the findings of the previous survey on the participation and portrayal of women in the media. This would be most extensive such survey in Cambodia. d) Continue our internship programme to increase women's participation and contribution in media work. e) Organise the second gender equality media awards which were so positively supported by journalists. 15.7 Conclusions From my point of view, there are many different strategies for media education and reforms. However, effective media reforms will vary with the situation in each place or country. My experience with media reform - improving the portrayal of women in the media - has taught me the following: a) To create change within the Cambodian society we need to provide moral and financial support to the journalists who do write positive, gender- sensitive material. This will encourage others to do the same. b) There need to be open lines of communication between government officials and journalists associations. c) Using the term ‘discussion forum’ is more appealing than using the word ‘workshop’. Journalists, especially editors-in-chief like to share ideas, to discuss or to brainstorm rather than listen to a lecture. d) Whether in direct or indirect lobbying, the wrong target person or the wrong occasion results in failure. 181
Media Education and Reforms: A Cambodian Experience e) Contribution and support from people in power, civil society and the public is necessary. However, we are very careful with the Ministry of Information not to let them use us to close any media. f) Most of the difficulties we face with the media are due to lack of understanding of the goals or purpose of our projects. g) It takes a long time (WMC spent six years) to make journalists improve their treatment of women. As you can see, media reform work in a country such as Cambodia can be a long and difficult struggle. There are many misconceptions and attitudes which are hard to change. But progress can be made, especially when working with the media organisations rather than adopting a confrontational approach. The Women's Media Centre of Cambodia is looking forward to continuing its mission to improve the situation of Cambodia and its women through media in the future. ❖ 182
Chapter 16 (Japan) ‘Media Literacy’ as a Driving Force for Media Democracy: The Experience of the Forum for Citizens' Television and Media (FCT) Toshiko Miyazaki 16.1 Introduction There are several ways to advance media reforms. One of them is to create alternative media, which can express the voices of people. Here, we, the FCT, would like to argue that ‘Media Literacy Workshops’ and related activities should be included as one such alternative media, which can be used to reform the mainstream media. By describing the activities of the FCT in Japan, I would like to show how our Media Literacy Workshops contributed to some changes to the media in Japan. 16.2 What is FCT? Midori Suzuki, the present president of the FCT, founded the Forum for Citizens’ Television and Media (FCT) in 1977. It was formed with the aim of advancing the idea that all citizens should have access to and influence over the media, claiming that such rights should not be kept solely in the hands of the media industry. We try to achieve this goal by creating ‘forums, where citizens (all people) could meet to talk about and deal with the problems of television and media.’ We organise symposia and panel discussions on various media issues and conduct workshops on media literacy. 183
‘Media Literacy’ as a Driving Force for Media Democracy: The Experience of the Forum for Citizens' Television and Media (FCT) a) History At the start FCT stood for ‘Forum for Children’s Television’, but in 1992 it was renamed as ‘Forum for Citizens’ (the peoples’) Television’ and further in 1998 we added ‘Media’ at the end. This re-naming shows how our interests expanded from ‘children and media’ to ‘all people and media,’ dealing with the issues of children, gender, race, the aged, the disabled and others. Our subjects of concern also expanded from just television to all the media, including newspapers, magazines and the Internet. In 1999, FCT formally acquired the status of NPO (non-profit organisation). FCT operates solely on a voluntary basis, without any paid member. Around 1990, FCT became active in disseminating ‘critical Media Literacy’ through workshops and publications. Through ‘critical media literacy’ activities, citizens could be made aware of their relationship with media. At the same time, we can make them recognise the importance of ‘people’s right to communicate’. b) Activities We carry out various activities, but these can be roughly categorised into the following four units. (i) Sponsoring forums and workshops The FCT sponsors events such as international symposia, regular forums (in which we discuss the current issues concerning the media), and media literacy workshops. We held the FCT/ANWIC (Asian Network of Women in Communication) International Seminar-Workshop on ‘Gender and Media Literacy in Japan’ in 1998. 184
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