Trudne Zagadki Logiczne

596 Index dead reckoning  313, 321 dopamine (DA) system  47–68, 363–5, decision‐making see choice and 366–7, 395–400 decision‐making avoidance and  458 declarative memory  251, 252, 253, 258 blocking and latent inhibition and  95 default choices  570–3 habit formation and  424, 425, 426 defensive reactions  444 midbrain  30–1, 34, 61, 99, 459 delay‐dependent memory deficits/forgetting  phasic firing of dopaminergic 254, 264–6 neurons  363–4, 394 dementia 271 prediction error and  31, 57–65, 102, 103, dendritic spines  145–6, 148, 151 104, 395–9 medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in dorsal reward and  58–64, 98, 99 striatum and  368, 369 temporal learning and  363–5 transporter gene  398–9 depolarization, postsynaptic  27, 28 value‐guided choice and  574–6, 582 derived attention in humans  114–35 dopamine D2 receptor  49 devaluation (outcome)  413–18, 419, 432, gene, and polymorphisms  395–8 habit formation and  424, 425 433–5 dot probe procedure  117–19, 130 reinforcer 455–8 double dissociations  250, 258, 262 unconditioned stimuli  11 drift diffusion model of choice  562 development (incl. childhood) “drive” conditioning  35 fear learning  471, 472–7, 478, 479 Drosophila lexical 538–53 conditioned stimuli–unconditioned mirror neuron  519, 520, 521, 522, 523, stimuli 13 526, 528, 529, 530 epigenetics  148, 159, 160, 164, 165, 168 diagonal band, vertical limb of  101 drug addiction  129–30, 287 Dicer  145, 147, 149, 163 dual processes and systems differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL) avoidance behavior  454–7 recognition memory  179, 188, 192–3, 195 of behavior  358 short and long‐term memory  253, 256 differentiation in perceptual learning  duration of cues, fixed vs. from trial to trial  353 229–33, 235 of salience, perceived  131 direct learning vs. mediated learning  79 EEG see electroencephalography directed behavioral adaptation  576–83 effective salience  119, 120, 126, 129, 130 directional information in spatial eight‐arm radial maze see radial maze electroencephalography (EEG) perceptual learning  319, 325–6, 336 discrimination (learning)  87, 89, 90–1, 93, learning  211, 212, 231 mirror neurons and  527 294, 423, 424 elements in perceptual learning  202–3, contextual  294, 295 206–9 fear conditioning  289–93, 294, 307 common  202, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208 visual discrimination  296–8 unique  202, 203, 206, 207, 208, 209 perceptual learning and  203–5, 209 eligibility trace  355 spatial learning  330 emotional learning and memory  294 temporal learning and  359 encoding (memory)  137 visual see visual discrimination of context‐specific inhibitory dispositions, specific inherited  153 dissociations association 298 double  250, 258, 262 epigenetics  138, 150, 152 neuroanatomical 179 endocannabinoids  425, 426 triple, within a triple dissociation  296–7 distinctiveness, acquired  87, 88, 90, 226 DNA methylation  137, 139–41, 143, 144, 152, 154, 161–3, 166, 167 fear conditioning  145, 146, 147, 148, 149

Index 597 English language  236 face (and its perception)  232–3, 271 children and  226 adults imitating infants facial movements 520 engrams  136–7, 138 categorization 226 environment processing 234 contextual 286 familiarity  179, 188, 203, 205, 265, 266, in spatial learning 549, 550 exploration 328–30 environmental, spatial learning and  321, familiar  321, 327, 331 327, 331 geometry  324, 332–6, 337 shape  321, 324, 333 fear  145–50, 468–88 epigenetics 136–76 conditioning/learning  32–3, 72, 75–6, mechanisms 139–42 453, 459, 470, 471, 473, 476 cellular associations and  150–1 anxious and non‐anxious youths  469–70 equivalence 224 children and adolescents  468–88 acquired  224, 226, 520, 528 in contextual paradigms  288–94 Eriksen flanker task  497, 499 deficits 471 Espinet effect  492–3, 493, 496 discriminative  289–93, 294, 307 event‐related potentials and evoked epigenetics  145–50, 153, 155–7, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 167 potentials individual differences (in humans)  motor see motor evoked potentials 469–70 N2pc component  122, 125 nondiscriminative  288, 289, 290, evolution 291, 292 associative learning  154 temporal cognition and  357 mirror neurons  515, 519, 520, 522, extinction  145, 398, 469, 474–5, 477–8 anxious and non‐anxious youths  469 524, 529 epigenetics 145–50 excitatory conditioning/learning  12, 13, 16, retention 474–5 generalized (enhancement of)  288, 289 21, 22, 25, 33, 34–5, 389, 482, 489 multiple measures of  291 causation and  387, 388–90, 393 reactivation/reinstatement  474, 476 contextual  294, 295–6, 298, 300–1, 301–2 reduction  445, 446, 447, 449 executive control  489, 497, 506 return/spontaneous recovery (after exosomes 151–2 extinction) 476–7 expectations/expectancy (outcome) spontaneous forgetting  474 avoidance and  448–50 see also anxiety brain and  393–5 experiential transmission  152 feature ambiguity  255, 257, 267–9, 270 exploration (visual/of environment)  328–30 flavor (taste) aversion  14–15, 71, 72–3, 74, directed behavioral adaptation and an 77, 80, 229, 315, 413–14, 417, 419, experiment in  577–8 427, 455–6, 492 recognition memory and  187, 190, 194 flexibility of avoidance behavior  454–5 exposure schedule in perceptual flooding 453 food learning 203–6 allergy (experiment)  116–17, 119, 394 brain imaging and  212–17 flavor/taste aversion  14–15, 71, 72–3, 74, extinction  304–5, 492 77, 80, 229, 315, 413–14, 417, 419, contextual control  286, 304–5 427, 455–6, 492 fear see fear foot shock  19, 20, 80, 144, 145, 288, 289, eye movements  116, 122, 123, 124, 125 290, 294 eye gaze  62, 122, 123, 560 avoidance and  453 eye tracking  116, 117, 119, 122, 125 temporal cognition  357 saccades  121, 122, 560, 561, 562 eyeblink conditioning  13, 17, 20, 29, 31–2, 33, 34

598 Index forebrain avoidance and  454 basal, and reductions in attention  101 habitual actions and  416 fear conditioning and  291–2 memory systems  291–2 comparing 414 differentiating between  412–14, 432 forebrain bundle, medial  60 interaction between  423, 428–35 forgetting mirror neurons and  523–4 Gryllus pennsylvanicus 168 of fear, spontaneous  474 habenula, lateral  103, 575 over a delay (delay‐dependent memory habit (habitual actions)  412–41 definition 411–12 deficits/forgetting)  254, 264–6 formation 412–41 forward conditioned inhibition  493 perspectives on  414–23 frames of reference and value‐guided goal‐directed processes and see goal‐ choice  554, 567 directed processes free‐operant procedures  366, 445, 447, as model‐free reinforcement learning  451, 459 419–22 freezing behavior  75, 144, 288, 289, 357 neural correlates  423–8 frontal brain areas habituation 180–1 long‐term  181–2, 183, 184, 185, 191 attentional set and  90–2 short‐term  180–1, 182, 183, 184, 191 response inhibition and  501 Hall and Pearce model  86, 94, 95, 96–8, value‐guided choice and  555 frontopolar cortex, lateral (lFPC),  578, 582 98–9, 100–1, 102, 105, 106, 107, 495 functional imaging see neuroimaging hand actions and mirror neurons  518, 523, functional specialization of memory  249–82 GABAergic system  32 524, 529 interneurons  31, 563 head direction cells  319, 336 value‐guided choice and  563, 566 heat avoidance  456 Gallus gallus 168 Hebb, Donald  26, 50, 349 gametes, direct transmission of epigenetic Hebbian learning  26–30 information via  152–3 lexical development and  540, 541, gaze  62, 122, 123, 560 545, 546 gene timing and  349 RNA‐mediated targeted deletions  141 Helix lucorum 159 silencing  141–2, 149 heredity see inheritance and heredity generative causes (learning about)  380–6 hexagonal maze  320 asymmetries between preventive learning hierarchies and 388–90 in habitual action–goal‐directed action genetic manipulation experiments, dopamine interactions  423, 428–35 and reward  62–3 in perceptual learning, reverse genetic markers  394–400 (RHT)  217, 239, 240 geometry learning in navigation  324, representational–hierarchical framework 332–6, 337 for object memory  254–77 germline transmission of epigenetic hippocampus information 152–3 attention and its reduction  101 globus pallidus (GP) and conditioned contextual conditioning and  301–6 fear conditioning  32–3, 291–2 inhibitory control  498 inhibitory  294, 295, 296, 301–6 GluA1 AMPA receptor subunit  189–92 fear conditioning  357 go pathways and responses  397, 498, contextual conditioning and  32–3, 291–2 500–7, 558 latent inhibition and  101, 305 goal‐directed processes/behaviours/ actions  127–8, 315, 316, 412–14, 421, 423, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458

Index 599 lexical development and  541 fear learning and  473, 475 mnemonic processes  75 habit formation and  427, 431 recognition memory and  192–6 value‐guided choice and  563, 564 simultaneous visual discrimination and  inheritance and heredity cell 139 270–2 epigenetic  139, 166–8 spatial learning transgenerational  137, 142, 152–3, cognitive maps 318, 319 154, 155–8 conditions of learning  327 performance 336 inhibitory conditioning/learning (and place cells  318, 319, 327, 336, 337 conditioned inhibition)  13, 19, 34–5, temporal cognition and  193–5, 357–62 307, 387–93, 489–514 value‐guided choice and  577–8 histone backward 493 modification (acetylation/methylation causation and  387, 387–93 context‐specific  294–306, 307 etc.)  141, 143, 152, 155, 157–60, defining 489 161, 162, 166, 167 dopamine and reward and  63 deacetylation and deacetylases forward 493 (HDACs)  141, 145, 146, 148, humans 493–4 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162 integration of association and  505–7 fear conditioning and  144, 145 latent see latent inhibition variants 141 learning and what is learned during  494–7 Homer1a  144, 156 mediated 492–3 humans tests for inhibition  491 derived attention  114–35 inhibitory control  489 fear learning  470–1, 477–8 acquisition 491–2 inhibition in  493–4 conditioned  497–505, 506, 507 mirror neurons and  518–19, 520, 524, instrumental learning/conditioning  7, 432, 525, 526–8, 529, 530, 531 perceptual learning see perception 505, 506–7 see also adolescents; adults; children; appetitive see appetitive conditioning infancy contingency  412, 422, 432, 445, 452–3 5‐hydroxytryptaminergic (serotonergic) dopamine and  61 system and temporal learning  366–7 habits and  411–12 imaging of brain see neuroimaging serial model of instrumental behavior  432 imitation  526, 527, 528 visual 296 automatic  519, 529 intercellular neuronal connections and their incidental learning and associations  296–8 spatial  327, 328, 330 formation, memory and  151–2 independent race model  500–1, 501 interference control  497, 497–8 individual differences fear learning in intermixed exposure in perceptual humans 469–70 infancy learning  205, 206, 213–16 fear conditioning  472, 478, 484 interneurons, GABAergic  31, 563 lexical development  541–50 interpositus nucleus, cerebellar (IPN)  29, mirror neurons  522, 526–7 see also neonates 30, 31–2 information processing theory  351–2, 366 intertrial interval (ITI) and I/T ratio  11, 16, infralimbic cortex  427 attentional set and  93, 94 23, 350–1, 356, 359–60, 364, 445 avoidance and  460 interval vs. ratio schedules of reinforcement 416–17 intracranial stimulation  59–60 intradimensional–extradimensional (ID–ED) shift effect  89, 90, 91, 331 intraparietal area (LIP), lateral, and value‐ guided choice  559–60, 563

600 Index Japanese language  230 magnetic resonance imaging, functional see joint attentional events and lexical neuroimaging development 545 magnetoencephalography (MEG) and landmarks in spatial learning  325–34 value‐guided choice  563, 567 language, categorization in  226, map(s) 230, 236 cognitive  318–25, 326, 327, 329, 330, latent inhibition  10, 94–6, 305, 306, 330 331, 332, 336, 337, 338 self‐organizing, and lexical cholinergic systems and  101 development 544–5 context‐specific  305, 306 MAPK (mitogen‐activated protein fear conditioning and extinction kinase)  474, 475 and 144 marginal value theorem (MVT)  573, hippocampus and  101, 305 574, 575 mutual exclusivity and  549 latent spatial learning  328–30, 330, 336 marmoset monkey  90, 106, 163 learning curves and epigenetics  150–1 mathematics, associative learning  57 lexical development  538–53 mazes light (experiments using) attentive processes  94–5, 97–8, 100 beacons  320, 325, 327, 330–1, 332 sensory preconditioning  70–1, 79 radial see radial mazes short‐term effects of stimulus exposure on sunburst  319, 320 T  87, 91, 92, 314, 427 orienting to a  191–2 water  316, 318, 321, 323, 325, 326, 330, lip movements and mirror neurons  518, 331, 332 520, 523, 527 Y see Y‐maze lithium chloride (LiCl) and taste aversion  Mecp2  146, 161 medial forebrain bundle  60 11, 15, 21, 72, 229, 315, 413–14, medial nucleus and thalamus and attentional 418, 432, 455, 492 localization claims in functional MRI  3 set 92–3 location see place medial prefrontal cortex see prefrontal cortex long‐term depression (LTD)  151, 424, 425 medial septum and reductions in long‐term habituation  181–2, 183, 184, 185, 191 attention 101 long‐term memory (LTM)  145, 147, medial temporal lobe see temporal lobe 191, 251, 253, 254, 266, 352, mediated inhibition  492–3 359, 367 mediated learning  69, 71, 72–7 short‐term memory and competition between  184, 189 brain mechanisms  74–7 dual system of  253, 256 direct learning vs.  79 interactions between  190 sensory preconditioning and  72–4 long‐term potentiation (LTP)  27–30, 151, trace conditioning as  77–8 424, 426 medium spiny neurons (MSNs; spiny long‐term spontaneous novelty preference 185 projection neurons) macaques habit formation and  424, 425 mirror neurons and  515, 516, 516–18, temporal learning and  368, 369 519–20, 525, 526, 527, 531 memory  136–76, 249–82 temporal order learning tasks  362 cellular  136, 137, 139, 143 Mackintosh’s model attention and associative computational and functional learning  86, 88, 94–7, 102, 103, 105, 106–7, 126 specialization 249–82 declarative  251, 252, 253, 258 delay‐dependent deficits in (delay‐ dependent forgetting)  254–6 dissociations between perception and  258–62 emotional 294

Index 601 epigenetics 136–76 multiple memory and learning systems  251, fear conditioning and  291–2 252, 262, 294 forebrain and  291–2 general characterization  138–9 mutual exclusivity  546–50 long‐term see long‐term memory mutual inhibition between habitual and multiple memory systems  251, 252, goal‐directed systems  428 262, 294 N2pc component of event‐related potential  recognition see recognition memory retinal snapshot in (in spatial learning)  336 122, 125 retrieval see retrieval navigation 313–36 short‐term see short‐term memory negative priming  499, 502 working 400 neonates (newborns) and mirror neurons  see also forgetting mental representations see representations 526, 527 mesencephalon see midbrain networks methylation DNA see DNA methylation in lexical development  540, 543, 544, 545 histone  144, 146, 160 neural see connectivity mice see mouse neuroimaging/brain imaging (incl. microRNAs  141–2, 151, 152, 154 fear conditioning and extinction  145–6, functional imaging/MRI) habit formation  424 147, 149 inhibitory control  497 microstimuli 355 localization claims  3 midbrain (mesencephalon) perceptual learning  207–17 dopamine system  30–1, 34, 58, 59, 61, exposure schedule and  212–17 62, 99, 459 visual memory and perception and their structures in  58, 59 modular organization in  249 mild cognitive impairment (MCI)  neurons 276, 277 dendritic spines see dendritic spines mirror neurons  515–37 epigenetics 139–52 localization  515, 516 memory systems  143–4 mitogen‐activated protein kinase  474, 475 memory and formation of connections mnemonic processes/tasks  250, 260 between 151–2 hippocampus 75 see also specific types model‐free and model‐based reinforcement neurotransmitters and neuromodulators prediction errors  64, 65 learning 419–22 timing behavior and  365–7 modules value‐guided choice and  574, 576 see also specific neurotransmitters of learning  35 newborns (neonates) and mirror of visual memory and perception in brain  neurons  526, 527 249–53, 258, 262 nigrostriatal dopaminergic projection and motor evoked potentials (MEPs) habit formation  426 mirror patterns of  519, 529 NMDA receptors  75, 82 testing of response inhibition  498 motor inhibition  490, 497 fear learning and  473, 475 motor resonance  530, 531 value‐guided choice  563 mouse nogo pathways and responses  498, 500, 558 Alzheimer’s disease model  155, 275 nonassociative processes epigenetics  157–8, 161–2, 163–4, 166–7 fear 288 mouth actions and mirror neurons  518, language 550 recognition memory  184, 188, 189, 519, 523 multiple attribute items, choices with  568–9 192–6 noncoding RNA see RNA noncontingent outcomes  418–19

602 Index nonhistone proteins  141 parallel models of decision‐making  567, 583 nonspatial and spatial learning, relation Paramecia  138, 143 parietal brain areas and response between  313, 338 norepinephrine (NE) and value‐guided inhibition 501 parietal cortex, posterior (PPC)  100, 125 choice  576, 582 no‐US representation  495, 496, 499 value‐guided choice and  563, 568, 573 novelty 548–50 parietal lobule, inferior, mirror neurons and  objects see object recognition 515, 516, 531 preference  180–2, 189–90 passive avoidance  442, 443 path integration (dead reckoning)  313, 321 spatial  181, 182, 183, 189, 190 Pavlov, Ivan  48 spontaneous  179, 180, 183–7, 189 Pavlovian contingency  340–2 words  540, 542, 545, 546, 547, 549 Pavlovian learning and conditioning  1–2, nucleus accumbens (NAc) attentional set and  92, 93, 95 7–46, 48 avoidance and  458–9 conditions for  35–6 value‐guided choice and  574, 575 contents of see contents object constraint, whole  539, 539–42 dopamine and  61 object‐directed actions and mirror neurons  fear and  32–3, 453, 459 major variables supporting  9–21 523, 529 neural principles  26–33 object recognition psychological principles  21–3 Pavlovian‐to‐instrumental task  12 memory (ORM)  251, 253, 254, 262–7, Pearce–Hall model  86, 94, 95, 96–8, 98–9, 272–7 100–1, 102, 105, 106, 107, 495 novel  179, 180, 182, 185, 192, 193, 234, perception (perceptual learning)  201–48 266, 273–6 animals 201–22 epigenetics  156, 157, 158, 163, 174 attention and  131, 225–9 lexical development and  547–50 categorical 236–9 temporal order of presentation and  of causality 193–5 redundancy and its role in  381–2 object representation  237, 249, 321, 361 temporal information in  382–6 definition  201, 223 representational–hierarchical framework dissociations between memory and for object memory  254–77 perception and  258–62 obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD)  453, of duration of stimulation  131 456–7, 462 humans 223–48 oculomotor inhibition  497 mechanisms of change  225–37 oddity tasks/tests  269, 271–2 quality vs. quantity  207–8 olive, inferior (IO)  31, 32 terminology 202–3 omission trials (of reward)  63, 100, 102, performance, spatial learning  336–7 periaqueductal gray ‐3(PAG)  32 104, 123–4 perirhinal cortex (PRC)  251–8, 259, 260–6, optional shift task  93, 94 orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and value‐guided 267, 269, 271–4, 275, 276 phasic firing of dopaminergic neurons  choice  555–9, 567, 574 outcome see action–outcome; cue–outcome; 363–4, 394 physically‐defined contextual cues  286 devaluation; expectations; pigeon autoshaping  16–17, 20, 23, 25 noncontingent outcomes; value Piwi‐interacting RNAs (piRNAs)  142, 146, overshadowing  52, 350 spatial learning and  331, 332, 333, 147, 149 334, 337 place (location)  314–37 overt attention  116, 117, 119, 120, 124, 125 place cells  318, 319, 327, 336, 337 overtraining in habit formation  415, see also space 417–18, 422, 424, 426, 427, 432

Index 603 place preference task, conditioned (CPP)  287 premotor complex (PMC)  432–3, 535 plasticity (neural incl. brain)  1 habit formation and  432–3 mirror neurons and  515, 516, epigenetics  136, 137, 139, 142, 143, 145, 519, 531 146, 151, 152, 155–65 presupplementary motor area (PMA; fear conditioning and  32 pre‐SMA)  433, 499, 561, 570 Hebbian  26, 27 perception and  239 presynaptic stimulation  27, 28 synaptic see synaptic plasticity preventive causes (learning about)  point of subjective equality (PSE)  366 polymorphisms  395–8, 399 387–8 pontine nuclei (PN)  31 asymmetries between generative and  pop‐out in visual search tasks  234 postsynaptic depolarization  27, 28 388–90 posttranscriptional silencing  141 redundancy and its role  387–8 PP1 145 priming PPP1R1B (protein phosphatase 1 regulatory negative  499, 502 repetition 502 subunit 1B)  395–8 prion(s) 151–2 prediction (and predictiveness)  52–3, prion‐like proteins  147, 150, 165 priority (of occurrence or 57–65, 87–96, 115–19 effects of predictiveness  87–96 predictiveness) 52–3 error  23–6, 31, 32, 48–9, 102–4, 126–7, protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit 1B  385–400 395–8 brain and  33, 57–65, 102–3, 393–5 psychological principles of Pavlovian causal learning and  382, 385–400 dopamine and  31, 57–65, 102, 103, learning 21–3 psychophysical tradition of perceptual 104, 395–9 signed  102–3, 103 learning research  201, 210–12 temporal learning and  354, 364 psychosis 129–30 unsigned 103–4 Purkinje cells (PCs)  31, 32 prefrontal cortex (PFC) putamen  424, 559 active avoidance and  460–1 quality vs. quantity in perceptual learning  attentional set and  90–2, 93 dopaminergic genes and  396 207–8 dorsolateral, perceptual learning and  Quinean conundrum  539, 541 radial mazes and alleys (incl. eight‐arm)  293, 211–12, 215 extinction and extinction retention and  475 295, 296, 296–7, 297, 299, 306, fear learning and  473 315, 331 medial/ventromedial  92, 93, 94, 473 dark arm  296, 298, 298–300, 300, 301 spatial learning and  321–2, 331, 332 avoidance and  460–1 rate expectancy theory (RET)  10, 12, 351, infralimbic cortex of see infralimbic 352, 353, 356 ratio vs. interval schedules of cortex reinforcement 416–17 lateral, value‐guided choice and  558–9, reactivation and reinstatement (of forgotten original experience)  294 560, 569, 574 fear  474, 476 prelimbic cortex of see prelimbic cortex real‐time models, temporal information value‐guided choice and  557–9, 561–2, implemented in  383–6 receiver operating characteristic (ROC) 564, 566–7, 568–9, 573, 574, 578 curves 187–8 visual discrimination learning and  302 receiver operating characteristic (ROC) prediction errors and  33 curves and recognition memory  prelimbic (PL) cortex/region 187–8 attentional set shifting and  94 fear learning and  473–4, 475 habit formation and  428–31

604 Index recognition memory  179–200 retrieval (memory)  71, 75, 77, 79, 81, 137, hippocampus and  192–6 185, 186, 193, 194, 305 nonassociative processes  184, 188, 189, 190, 192–6 epigenetics  138, 145 objects see object recognition inhibition and  493, 499, 502, 504, 505 spontaneous novelty preference and  185–7 recollection  179, 188, 192, 195 retrieval see memory redundancy reversal learning  298, 300–1, 301, 302, implemented in an error‐correction 306, 555 rule 382 reverse hierarchy theory (RHT)  217, in perception of causality, role of  381–2 239, 240 in preventive learning  387–8 reward  58–64, 98–101, 555–62 regulatory RNA see RNA reinforcers (and reinforcement)  49–50, 51 correlation between response rate and rate devaluation in avoidance  455–8 of 414–16 interval vs. ratio schedules of dopamine and  58–64, 98, 99 reinforcement 416–17 omission trials  63, 100, 102, 104, model‐free and model‐based 123–4 reinforcement learning  419–22 sensitivity to downshifts in  98–100 secondary reinforcers  50, 51, 60 sensitivity to upshifts in  100–1 stimulus–reinforcer relevance  21, 23 unexpected  103, 104 see also differential reinforcement of low temporally  265, 363–4 rates value and  119–25, 126, 555–62 reinstatement see reactivation risky decision‐making  104–6 relative cue validity  20, 23, 24, 25, 33 RNA (regulatory/non‐coding)  141–2, renewal tests  298 repetition priming effects  502 163–5 representations (associative)  201–22 fear conditioning and extinction and  content of  454 145, 147 contextual 286 Russian language  236 CS–US  22–3, 25, 26, 33, 34 saccades  121, 122, 560, 561, 562 No‐US  495, 496, 499 salience  115–16, 130, 206, 333, 334, 568 object see object representation US  490, 493, 494, 495, 497, 499 aberrant 129 of value  554–60, 560, 561, 562, conditioned stimuli (CS)  10 effective  119, 120, 126, 129, 130 567, 583 perceived duration of  131 Rescorla–Wagner model  23, 24, 25, 34, 54, scalar expectancy theory (SET)  352, 55, 57, 60, 63, 64, 65, 100–1, 102, 359–60, 363, 367, 370 156, 183, 262, 337, 354, 364, 370, schizophrenia  129, 130 381, 452, 494, 550 selective associations  21, 56, 64 response self‐organizing maps and lexical conditioned, see also conditioned response; conflict; stimulus–organism–response development 544–5 task; stimulus–response associations self‐sustaining autocatalytic loops  142 correlation between reward rate and rate semantic dementia  271 of 414–16 Semon, Richard  136–7 definition and distinction from action  435 sensorimotor learning and mirror neurons inhibition of  497–503, 506, 507 response–no US contingency  452–3 and  526, 527, 528–9, 532 retardation tests  298–9, 491, 492, 495, 503 sensory preconditioning  70–80, 82, retinal snapshot (in spatial learning)  336 329, 492 mediated learning during  72–4 septum, medial, and reductions in attention 101

Index 605 serial conditioning  97–8 novelty preference  181, 182, 183, WBP (Wilson, Boumphrey and Pearce) 189, 190 task  98, 99, 100, 101 spatial relations  325–7 serial models translation of learning to of decision‐making  567 of instrumental behavior  432 performance 336–7 true spatial learning  327, 328, 330, serotonergic system and temporal learning 366–7 332, 338 see also place set (attentional) species‐specific defensive reactions  444 neural correlates  90–4 spiny projection neurons see medium spiny shifting  87–9, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 106 neurons shape spontaneous novelty preference  179, 180, of environment in spatial learning, shape  321, 324, 333 183–7, 189 perception  224, 225, 239–40 S–R associations see stimulus–response short‐term habituation  180–1, 182, 183, associations 184, 191 S–S (stimulus–stimulus) associations in short‐term memory (STM)  251, 252, spatial learning  314–18, 328, 253, 254 329, 337 standard operating procedures (SOP; long‐term memory and sometimes opponent process) theory  competition between  184, 189 22, 24, 80, 96, 183–4, 186, 188, dual system of  253, 256 189, 190, 192, 193, 195, 196, interactions 190 354, 356 stimulus (and stimuli in Pavlovian learning) signed prediction error  102–3, 103 associative strength  24, 54, 55–7, 88, 96, simulations (and simulation data) 126, 127, 189, 355 attention to see attention attentional theory  128 avoidance response and the degree of causation learning  293, 383, 390 change in (after avoidance computational and functional response) 447 conditioned see conditioned stimuli specialization of memory  254, derived attention and the processing 262, 266 of 126–9 simultaneous conditioning/training  14–15 generalization, lexical development simultaneous visual discrimination  269–72 and 542–3 single unit recording intensity 9–10 attentional processes  125 present vs. not present  69–85 choice and  566 selection  19, 20, 23, 33, 151 perceptual learning  234 substitution 50–2 prediction error  102 unconditioned see unconditioned stimuli temporal cognition  359–62 stimulus‐driven process  126, 127, 128, 207, small noncoding RNA molecules (small 216, 217, 218 ncRNAs)  141, 142, 143, 152 stimulus‐onset asynchrony (SOA)  117–19 fear conditioning and extinction and  147 stimulus–organism–response (SOR) social behavior and mirror neurons  529–31 task  273, 274–5 soma‐soma transmission  152 stimulus–reinforcer relevance  21, 23 sometimes opponent process (SOP; Standard stimulus–response (S–R) associations Operating Procedures) theory  22, habit formation  412, 414, 416, 418, 419, 24, 80, 96, 183–4, 186, 188, 189, 422, 426, 428 190, 192, 193, 195, 196, 354, 356 spatial learning  313–14, 324, 336 space (and spatial learning)  203–407 conditions of learning  327–36 contiguity 17–18

606 Index stimulus–stimulus (S–S) associations in T‐maze  87, 91, 92, 314, 427 spatial learning  314–18, 328, task relevance  122–3, 124, 125, 498 329, 337 taste (flavor) aversion  14–15, 71, 72–3, 74, stop pathways/processors  500–7 77, 80, 229, 315, 413–14, 417, 419, storage (memory)  137 427, 455–6, 492 taxonomic constraint  539, 542–6 epigenetics  138, 150, 152 tegmental area, ventral (VTA)  21, 64, 99, stream 102, 103, 104, 363 temporal characteristics and information associative, in perceptual learning  201, 202 (time and timing)  25–6, 348–79 ventral visual (VVS)  249, 250, 255, 258, hippocampus and  357–62 neural substrates  356–62 259, 260, 262, 263 perception of causality and  382–6 striatum temporal contiguity  13–15, 20, 24, 26–30, 348–50 conditioned inhibitory control and  see also duration 498, 499 temporal cortex, inferior  232 temporal difference (TD) model  354–6, dopaminergic genes and  396 359, 363, 364, 365 dorsal/dorso‐lateral (DLS)  367–70, 424–6 temporal lobe dopamine and reward and  59 beat frequency  368–70 medial (MTL)  249, 250, 251, 262 contextual conditioning and  294, 295, amnesia  272, 274 damage or degeneration  252, 253, 269, 296, 301 271, 276, 277 habit formation and  424–6, 427, 428, object‐recognition memory (ORM) and 262 429, 432 value‐guided choice and  563 timing behavior and  367–70 thalamus dorsomedial (DMS), habit formation and  attentional set and the medial nucleus of 92–3 431, 432 conditioned inhibitory control and  outcome expectations and prediction 498–9 prediction errors and  33 errors and  394 time‐accumulation models  352, 353, 356, see also cortico‐striatal and cortico‐striato‐ 359, 363, 367, 370 see also duration; temporal characteristics thalamic circuitry; nigrostriatal tool‐use mirror neurons  525 dopaminergic projection top‐down response inhibition  structural templating  142 497–501, 506 substance (drug) addiction  129–30, 287 aftereffects 499–500 substantia innominata of behavior  500–1 reductions in attention and  100 total intertrial interval (TII)  10–11 reward and  99–100 trace conditioning  80, 349, 350, 355, substantia nigra  58, 62, 459 356, 357 pars compacta (SNc) as mediated learning  77–8 habit formation and  424, 427, 428 tracking of several decision variables  569 reward and  99 training (and training trials)  11–12, 120, projections to  428, 430 289, 292, 295 summation tests  298–300, 489, 491, CS–US 11–12 492, 503 transcriptional silencing  141, 149 sunburst maze  319, 320 supplementary motor area (SMA)  433, 499, 560, 561 swimming and navigation  316, 322, 324, 329 see also water maze synaptic plasticity  27, 30, 137, 146, 151, 473 fear learning and  473 see also postsynaptic depolarization; presynaptic stimulation

Index 607 transgenerational inheritance/transmission  ventral visual stream (VVS)  249, 250, 255, 137, 142, 152–3, 154, 155–8 258, 259, 260, 262, 263 trial‐based associative theories  348, 350, vertical limb of diagonal band  101 351, 367, 369, 370 visual cortex and perceptual learning  challenges to  252–62 210–12, 214, 215–16 triple dissociation within a triple human  225–6, 231, 239 visual discrimination  250, 252, 254–62, dissociation 296–7 two‐factor theory of avoidance  445–8 263, 267–72, 295, 296–300, 301–2, unblocking effect  32, 33, 62, 99, 100–1 305–6, 307 uncertainty  96–102, 106 simultaneous 269–72 spatial learning  330 value and  569, 575, 576, 577, 578, 582 visual exploration see exploration unconditioned stimuli (US)  8–35 visual features and lexical development  541, 542 contextual learning and  286, 287–94, visual memory, modular organization in 306–7 brain  249–53, 258, 262 visual perception and processing (of stimuli) fear learning and  468, 469, 470, 471, humans  223–4, 228, 229, 230–1, 234, 472, 473, 474 236–7, 239 lexical development and  543, 544, 545 intensity 9–10 modular organization in brain  249–53, novelty 10 258, 262 representations (US‐representations)  visual stream, ventral (VVS)  249, 250, 255, 258, 259, 260, 262, 263 490, 493, 494, 495, 497, 499 vocabulary and lexical development  538–53 surprise and prediction error  23–6, 32–3, Wagner’s Standard Operating Procedures (SOP; sometimes opponent process) 34, 35 theory  22, 24, 80, 96, 183–4, 186, neural evidence for importance  30 188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 195, 196, timing and  348–71 354, 356 see also conditioned stimuli–unconditioned water maze  316, 318, 321, 323, 325, 326, 330, 331, 332 stimuli; response–no US contingency see also swimming unconditioned stimuli–conditioned stimuli whole object constraint  539, 539–42 Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST)  90 (US–CS) intervals/pairings, word‐learning and lexical backward  13, 22 development 538–53 undirected behavioral adaptation  573–6 working memory  400 unitization 233–5 Y‐maze  181, 189, 190, 315, 330, 472 unsigned prediction error  103–4 modified 273 value (outcome)  119–25 choice guided by  554–91 manipulating 413–14 reward and  119–25, 126, 555–62 see also devaluation vector learning  325, 326, 336 ventral tegmental area (VTA)  21, 64, 99, 102, 103, 104, 363