Self-Efficacy_ Encyclopedya of Mental Health

Self-Efficacy Vicarious Experienced through the observed or imagined feelings or behaviors of another person. EL Usher, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA T Urdan, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA, USA r 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Glossary Efficacy The ability to produce a desired result; effectiveness; power. Physiological Physiological relates to the functions of living organisms and their parts. Self-Efficacy of their life circumstances and not just products of them (Pajares and Usher, 2008). For example, a student who is confident in Self-efficacy refers to the beliefs individuals hold about their her ability to succeed in an advanced mathematics course may capabilities to carry out specific tasks (Bandura, 1977). When choose to enroll in such a course, thereby influencing her en- faced with a task to accomplish, individuals evaluate the vironment and, potentially, her future opportunities. situation and judge their personal capability to perform it. A belief in one’s efficacy typically leads to successful action, Through the process of self-reflection, people can evaluate whereas a doubt about one’s efficacy leads to failure or in- previous courses of action and plan future ones. In doing so, action. Personal efficacy beliefs therefore serve to guide human they revise their beliefs about what they can and cannot do. action in diverse domains of functioning. Their self-efficacy beliefs in turn guide future thoughts and be- haviors. As a consequence, people are partly responsible Albert Bandura (1997) conceptualized efficacy as a gen- for creating the very psychological environments in which erative capability that influences how individuals integrate they live (Bandura, 1997). People who believe themselves their skills into appropriate actions. To function optimally, capable of handling the tasks before them also tend to put effort people must not only possess skills but also the belief that they toward those tasks; those beset with doubts tend to avoid them. can put their skills to effective use under a variety of circum- stances. Indeed, Bandura argued that “people’s level of mo- Distinction Between Self-Efficacy and Related tivation, affective states, and actions are based more on what Competence Beliefs they believe than on what is objectively true” (p. 2). For this reason, efficacy beliefs form a primary means by which indi- Self-efficacy is distinct from related constructs, such as self- viduals are able to exercise control over their lives. concept and outcome expectations. Self-efficacy refers to a task-specific judgment about what one can do within a par- Theoretical Background ticular domain. Self-concept, however, refers to one’s self- perception formed through experience and interpretations of In his 1986 book, Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A one’s environment (Shavelson and Bolus, 1982). Self-concept Social Cognitive Theory, Bandura advanced a cognitive inter- is multidimensional (i.e., an individual forms a self-concept in actional framework to explain human functioning in terms of athletics, academics, art, and so forth). Some scholars have three primary modes of influence: behavioral, environmental, argued that its multiple dimensions form a higher-order vari- and personal. His social cognitive theory emphasized the able known as a global self-esteem, although the hierarchical centrality of people’s thoughts, feelings, and beliefs in guiding nature of self-concept is disputed (Marsh et al., 2012). Self- their life outcomes. Social cognitive theory therefore repre- efficacy refers to a context-specific, cognitive judgment that is sented a departure from dominant psychological theories of present or future oriented; self-concept is primarily affective, the early twentieth century, such as behaviorism, which con- depends on social norms, and is past-oriented (Bong and tended that all human functioning could be explained and Skaalvik, 2003). Nevertheless, the two self-beliefs are often predicted by understanding environmental antecedents and related. Individuals with a favorable self-concept also tend to consequences. believe they can bring about desired outcomes by their actions (Pajares and Schunk, 2005). Rather than relegating human behavior to specific environ- mental conditions, Bandura (1986) emphasized the important Self-efficacy is also distinct from outcome expectations, role of cognition in enabling people to be proactive, to create which refer to the anticipated consequences of one’s actions. more suitable environments for themselves, to select infor- Self-efficacy influences the course of action people take, which mation, and to regulate their thoughts and actions. Human in turn affects what they expect to happen as a result of their functioning, he argued, is determined by a process of triadic actions. Self-efficacy can therefore be viewed as a precursor to reciprocality, wherein behavioral, environmental, and personal the expected outcome of one’s actions. An individual with factors dynamically interact. Because of the unique human high self-efficacy typically expects a favorable outcome, but capacity for self-referent thought, people are therefore producers this is not necessarily the case. In circumstances where Encyclopedia of Mental Health, Volume 4 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-397045-9.00249-4 75

76 Self-Efficacy individuals do not feel they have control of the outcomes of typically high among young children who lack metacognitive their behaviors, such as in work environments that engage in awareness required to evaluate task demands. As they grow, discriminatory evaluation practices, no amount of self-efficacy children become better able to evaluate what they can do. Peer will ensure a favorable outcome (Bandura, 1997). A high relationships expand youngsters’ awareness of their capabil- school student with a strong sense of academic efficacy still ities from the conceptions they developed at home. Schools might not apply to a prestigious college because she may not function as a primary source of efficacy information as learn- expect to be accepted by the highly-selective institution. Both ers’ performances are socially compared. As they transition examples show that self-efficacy and outcome expectations can from adolescence to adulthood, individuals develop efficacy predict behavior independently. beliefs that guide them as parents, romantic partners, and employees. Measurement of Self-Efficacy Bandura (1997) hypothesized that individuals rely on four Self-efficacy is typically assessed with self-report measures that primary sources of information when judging their own effi- ask individuals to rate how well they believe they can perform a cacy: enactive experience, vicarious experience, social per- given task or achieve a certain benchmark. Self-efficacy measures suasions, and their own emotional or physiological states. should be designed with a specific context in mind reflecting the Before these informational sources are reviewed, it bears not- particular situation an individual is facing. For example, in the ing that how information from each source influences self- educational arena, self-efficacy items might assess a student’s efficacy depends on how it is interpreted by the individual. The beliefs that she can perform mathematics skills related to a given same source of self-efficacy might raise, lower, or have no ef- unit. Such items will reflect two critical aspects of valid self- fect on self-efficacy depending on situational factors. efficacy assessment: (a) correspondence to the criterial task at hand (e.g., competence in solving particular mathematics Enactive Experience problems) and (b) specificity to the task. By contrast, items that ask students to rate their general belief that they can do well in The most logical precursor to one’s sense of efficacy is how one school would not afford such predictive utility. has performed in the past. A javelin thrower assumes he can clear a distance just beyond the one he last reached. When he Self-efficacy is not a trait or a personality type. It is a con- reaches his goal, his beliefs in his personal efficacy are revised, text-specific set of beliefs about what one can do in a given and a new goal is set. This provides a clear example of self- situation (i.e., a judgment of one’s capabilities). Respondents efficacy’s motivating power. Individuals evaluate their previous rate the strength of their belief that they can do a particular performances – both successful and unsuccessful – as a gauge task. To be useful for explaining and predicting motivation of whether they can succeed. Previous successes typically raise and behavior, self-efficacy measures must be tailored to the one’s self-efficacy; failures lower it. Mastery experiences pro- specific domain of functioning of interest, and items must vide a powerful boost to self-efficacy. Researchers who have reflect varying levels of difficulty. Readers interested in detailed studied all four sources of self-efficacy information have found information on self-efficacy measurement are referred to that, in most contexts, mastery experience bears the strongest Bandura’s (2006) Guide for Constructive Self-Efficacy Scales. influence on self-efficacy (e.g., Usher and Pajares, 2008). Effects of Self-Efficacy Vicarious Experience Self-efficacy is a determinant of life outcomes both directly and In addition to interpreting their own experiences, people ob- by its influence on other psychological, social, and behavioral serve the actions of others and make inferences about them- factors. A sense of personal efficacy influences an individual’s selves and what they can do. Social models save people the thoughts, motivation, affect, and consequently the ultimate time and expense of having to undertake every activity before performances one realizes (Bandura, 1997). People with a high knowing whether they could succeed. Perceived similarity to a sense of efficacy put forth more effort, set higher goals, and model increases the model’s vicarious influence. Watching a approach difficult tasks as challenges to be surmounted. They similar other succeed at a task typically raises an observer’s hold higher expectations for the outcomes of their actions. They perceived efficacy to accomplish it. Seeing others fail can attribute failures to insufficient effort or faulty strategy use ra- convince an observer that a task is not worth undertaking. ther than to internal, stable causes, and therefore tend to be Models can also expose observers to more effective ways of more persistent. Conversely, those with a low sense of efficacy doing things, which can also raise self-efficacy. For example, are quick to give up in the face of setbacks. They view challenges when a busy mother tunes in to a television show and sees the as threats to be avoided and anticipate unfavorable outcomes. story of a similar woman losing weight and choosing healthy They attribute their failure to their own incompetence and give food, she might become convinced that she, too, can start a in more easily to feelings of stress and depression. new health program. Greater exposure to modeled behavior leads to stronger effects on self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Development of Self-Efficacy Watching others overcome adversity can convince even the most downtrodden that they can better their own life cir- Individuals form personal efficacy beliefs as they make sense cumstances. However, seeing someone fail or face ridicule can of their experiences, both direct and vicarious. Self-efficacy is convince an observer that similar efforts might also be futile. Coaches, therapists, and teachers often make use of social models to provide efficacy-building vicarious experiences.

Self-Efficacy 77 Social Persuasion Academic self-efficacy has also been linked to students’ choice of courses and major in college (Betz, 2007; Hackett, 1995). A third type of efficacy-relevant information comes from the evaluative messages one receives from others. Verbal praise Self-efficacy is also related to students’ academic motiv- that communicates a trust in one’s capabilities can raise self- ation. Compared to those beset with doubt, students with high efficacy. Conversely, critical appraisals can lead to self-doubt. self-efficacy approach their work with the goal of mastering In fact, it is easier to lower self-efficacy by harsh criticism than content rather than demonstrating their competence to others, to raise it (Bandura, 1997). The influence of social persuasory report greater interest in learning, and participate more in class information on one’s self-efficacy depends on numerous fac- (Pajares and Urdan, 2006). They are more likely to persist in tors, such as the knowledge of the persuader, the degree to the face of difficulty, mustering the necessary effort to set and which the message seems truthful, and the timing of the achieve their goals (Multon et al., 1991). Students’ academic feedback. Empty praise or inspirational platitudes do little to trajectories are also affected by their beliefs about their cap- change a person’s sense of efficacy. However, when social ability to implement appropriate self-regulatory strategies that support and guidance are offered during early phases of assist in learning, such as attention, progress monitoring, study learning, the resulting sense of efficacy can lead to sustained skills, and time management. Students who doubt their self- personal change. regulatory capabilities earn lower grades and are more likely to drop out of school than are those who believe themselves to Emotional and Physiological Arousal be good self-regulators (Caprara et al., 2008). People experience emotional and physiological reactions to Health Promotion the tasks they undertake or consider undertaking. They inter- pret their somatic reactions as clues that they either can or A belief in one’s ability to exercise control is a powerful mech- cannot perform a given action. Although some degree of anism for health promotion and change (Bandura, 2004). arousal might facilitate performance, a high degree of negative Hundreds of studies of self-efficacy in clinical settings have arousal can convince people of their inefficacy. If, for instance, documented the influence of efficacy beliefs on mental and thinking of speaking in front of others brings forth profuse physical functioning. Self-efficacy has been linked to behaviors, sweating and nervousness, a person will likely conclude that such as smoking cessation, adherence to medical protocols, diet he or she does not have what it takes to address the crowd. In and weight management, and contraception use. Self-efficacy situations that demand that one pays close attention to exerts its influence on health functioning by (a) activating physiological and affective information, this source of physiological responses and (b) influencing one’s health-related self-efficacy may be particularly influential. For example, re- habits (Bandura, 1997). For example, a low sense of efficacy for searchers found that emotional arousal was the primary source coping with a taxing environmental situation can make an in- of women’s self-efficacy when they underwent the often- dividual more susceptible to mental and physical illness by stressful experience of disclosing their sexual orientation to activating stress-related hormones that impair functioning. A others (Anderson and Mavis, 1996). sense of one’s inefficacy can lead to imagined realities that fur- ther increase distress. By contrast, a high sense of coping efficacy Self-Efficacy in Diverse Contexts enables people to regulate their emotions effectively and can lower susceptibility to adverse physiological events. Social cognitive theory posits and research has attested that beliefs of personal efficacy influence all domains of human Beliefs in one’s efficacy are fundamental for effective self- functioning across cultural contexts (Bandura, 1995, 1997). management. Unless individuals believe that they can enact From education to healthcare, aging to coping with loss, ath- health-promoting regimes and minimize unwanted behaviors, letic performance to technology adoption, and from business they will have little incentive to act. Results from controlled, venture to political campaigning, a strong sense of efficacy clinical trials have shown that teaching individuals to self- seems to be a foundational mechanism of personal and col- manage their chronic health conditions is more effective than lective growth and well-being. Below are several key findings providing them with information only (Bodenhemier et al., from select domains. 2002). Interventions that target the four sources of efficacy in- formation have been successful in raising individuals’ health- Education related self-efficacy. For example, diabetic children who played an interactive video game that required them to help a dinosaur Perhaps no area has received as much attention from self- manage his diabetes reported increases in their self-efficacy for efficacy researchers as education, where self-efficacy has been regulating their own blood sugar (Lieberman, 1997). People shown to be an essential component of both teaching and with a higher sense of efficacy for improving their lives through learning outcomes (Klassen and Usher, 2010). Students’ be- self-management enjoy better clinical outcomes (Bodenheimer liefs about their academic capabilities influence their academic et al., 2002). Perceived efficacy for health regulation has been motivation, self-regulation, and achievement (Zimmerman, found to be positively associated with habit change regimens 2000). Even when previous achievement, scholastic aptitude, and a range of beneficial behaviors, such as emotion regulation, and demographic factors are controlled, students who have pain management, and cessation of drug and alcohol use. higher academic self-efficacy achieve higher grades than do those who doubt their academic capabilities (Pajares, 1996). Workplace and Career Social cognitive career theorists have demonstrated the power of efficacy beliefs to influence the career decision making

78 Self-Efficacy process (Brown and Lent, 2006). People with a high sense of care, for better or worse, through their influence on indi- efficacy select activities that present them with increasing viduals’ self-beliefs. challenge (Bandura, 1997). Their selected activities lead to new social environments that further enhance personal growth and See also: Health Beliefs and Patient Adherence to Treatment. opportunity. Career-related efficacy judgments can be focused Intrinsic Motivation and Goals. Optimism, Motivation, and Mental on specific tasks, such as completing a degree requirement, on Health. Positive Psychology. Resilience. Self-Esteem. Self-Fulfilling coping with barriers and challenges in a degree program or Prophecies. Self-Regulation workplace setting, and/or on self-regulatory processes specific to managing one’s career trajectory (e.g., preparing job search References materials) (Lent and Brown, 2013). Meta-analysis has revealed that a strong sense of career decision self-efficacy is related to Anderson, M.K., Mavis, B.E., 1996. Sources of coming out self-efficacy for lesbians. lower levels of career indecision, greater peer support, and Journal of Homosexuality 32, 37–52. higher outcome expectations (Choi et al., 2012). Bandura, A., 1977. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Self-efficacy is also related to work-related performance. On Psychological Review 84, 191–215. average, self-efficacy is associated with a 28% gain in indi- vidual performance at work. These gains are significantly Bandura, A., 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive higher than those associated with other psychosocial factors, Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. such as goal setting and behavior modification interventions (Stajkovic and Luthans, 1998). Because individuals with high Bandura, A. (Ed.), 1995. Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies. New York, NY: self-efficacy tend to summon the effort to persist and succeed Cambridge University Press. at their pursuits, they in turn experience greater success and satisfaction on the job (Judge and Bono, 2001). Bandura, A., 1997. Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York, NY: Freeman. Bandura, A., 2004. Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education & Social Change Behavior 31, 143–164. Beliefs of personal efficacy are not only central to individual Bandura, A., 2006. Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. In: Pajares, F., Urdan, pursuits, but also to collective ones. Interdependent and col- lectivistic societies rely on individuals’ personal sense of effi- T. (Eds.), Adolescence and Education, Vol. 5: Self-Efficacy and Adolescence. cacy to reach common goals and to better the community. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing, pp. 307–337. Individuals also rely on the collective agency of the groups and Betz, N.E., 2007. Career self-efficacy: Exemplary recent research and emerging communities to which they belong. A sense of collective effi- directions. Journal of Career Assessment 15 (4), 403–422. cacy refers to the beliefs that group and community members Bodenheimer, T., Lorig, K., Holman, H., Grumbach, K., 2002. Patient self- share about their capability to achieve desired goals. Thus, management of chronic disease in primary care. JAMA: The Journal of the efficacy beliefs undergird social change. As Bandura (1997) American Medical Association 288 (19), 2469–2475. noted, “because social reformers encounter considerable re- Bong, M., Skaalvik, E.M., 2003. Academic self-concept and self-efficacy: How sistance and retaliatory threats, they must have a tenacious different are they really? Educational Psychology Review 15, 1–40. belief in their ability to produce social change through col- Brown, S.D., Lent, R.W., 2006. Preparing adolescents to make career decisions: A lective effort. If they do not believe in themselves, they are social cognitive perspective. In: Pajares, F., Urdan, T. (Eds.), Adolescence and unlikely to empower others” (p. 33). A strong sense of per- Education, Vol. 5: Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Adolescents. Greenwich, CT: sonal and collective efficacy is therefore necessary to effect Information Age Publishing, pp. 201–223. lasting social change. Caprara, G.V., Fida, R., Vecchione, M., et al., 2008. Longitudinal analysis of the role of perceived efficacy for self-regulated learning in academic continuance and Relatedly, the social influence of parents, teachers, and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology 100, 525–534. other caregivers is also guided by personal efficacy beliefs. For Choi, B.Y., Park, H., Yang, E., et al., 2012. Understanding career decision example, teachers who feel efficacious in their instructional self-efficacy: A meta-analytic approach. Journal of Career Development 39, capabilities are more effective, have fewer disciplinary dis- 443–460. ruptions, and communicate more effectively (Woolfolk Hoy Hackett, G., 1995. Self-efficacy in career choice and development. In: Bandura, A. et al., 2009). Likewise, therapists with a higher sense of efficacy (Ed.), Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies. New York, NY: Cambridge University in their clinical skills bring about more effective outcomes Press, pp. 232–258. with their clients (Heppner et al., 1998). Heppner, M.J., Multon, K.D., Gysbers, N.C., Ellis, C.A., Zook, C.E., 1998. The relationship of trainee self-efficacy to the process and outcome of career Conclusion counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology 45, 393–402. Judge, T.A., Bono, J.E., 2001. Relationship of core self-evaluations traits − self- The beliefs people form about what they can do become esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability − with guides by which they live their lives. Consequently, self- job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied efficacy enables humans to be ‘at least partial architects of their Psychology 86 (1), 80–92. own destinies’ and positions them as primary agents of change Klassen, R.M., Usher, E.L., 2010. Self-efficacy in educational settings: Recent in their own lives (Bandura, 1997, p. 206). Efficacy beliefs are research and emerging directions. In: Urdan, T.C., Karabenick, S.A. (Eds.), susceptible to cues in the environment. Those who are re- Advances in Motivation and Achievement: Vol. 16A. The Decade Ahead: sponsible for leading others (e.g., teachers, parents, and social Theoretical Perspectives on Motivation and Achievement. Bingley: Emerald activists) can therefore influence the behavior of those in their Publishing Group, pp. 1–33. Lent, R.W., Brown, S.D., 2013. Social cognitive model of career self-management: Toward a unifying view of adaptive career behavior across the life span. Journal of Counseling Psychology 60 (4), 557–568. Lieberman, D.A., 1997. Interactive video games for health promotion: Effects on knowledge, self-efficacy, social support, and health. In: Street, R.I., Gold, W.R., Manning, T. (Eds.), Health Promotion and Interactive Technology: Theoretical Applications and Future Directions. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 103–120. Marsh, H.W., Xu, M., Martin, A.J., 2012. Self-concept: A synergy of theory, method, and application. In: Harris, K.R., Graham, S., Urdan, T.C. (Eds.), APA Educational

Self-Efficacy 79 Psychology Handbook, Vol. 1: Theories, Constructs, and Critical Issues. Karabenick, S. (Eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement. Vol. 15: Social Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 427–458. Multon, K.D., Brown, S.D., Lent, R.W., 1991. Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to Psychological Perspectives. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology 38, 30–38. pp. 391–423. Pajares, F., 1996. Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Shavelson, R.J., Bolus, R., 1982. Self-concept: The interplay of theory and models. Research 66, 543–578. Pajares, F., Schunk, D.H., 2005. Self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs: Jointly Journal of Educational Psychology 74, 3–17. contributing to the quality of human life. In: Marsh, H., Craven, R., McInerney, Stajkovic, A.D., Luthans, F., 1998. Self-efficacy and work-related performances: A D. (Eds.), International Advances in Self Research, vol. 2. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing, pp. 95–121. meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 124, 240–261. Pajares, F., Urdan, T. (Eds.), 2006. Adolescence and education, Vol. 5: Self-efficacy Usher, E.L., Pajares, F., 2008. Sources of self-efficacy in school: Critical review of Beliefs of Adolescents. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Pajares, F., Usher, E.L., 2008. Self-efficacy, motivation, and achievement in school the literature and future directions. Review of Educational Research 78, 751–796. from the perspective of reciprocal determinism. In: Maehr, M., Urdan, T.C., Woolfolk Hoy, A., Hoy, W.K., Davis, H., 2009. Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. In: Wentzel, K., Wigfield, A. (Eds.), Handbook of Motivation in School. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 627–653. Zimmerman, B.J., 2000. Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology 25, 82–91.