2016 BPP PASSCARD F1

The purpose and Writers on Management What is Leadership process of management management and supervision leadership? skills and styles FrederickTaylor: Scientific management Henri Fayol: Classical management 'All knowledge which had hitherto been kept in the 'Universality of management principles' heads of workmen should be gathered and recorded by management. Every single subject Five Functions of Management becomes the question for scientific investigation, for reduction to law.' 1 Planning: Selecting objectives, and the strategies, policies and plans to achieve them Scientific management techniques 2 Organising: Grouping tasks into jobs and Work study techniques used to deter mine functions; allocating authority to perform them efficient methods and standard times Jobs broken down into single specialised 3 Commanding: Instructing subordinates to operations perform allocated tasks Workers trained and offered monetary incentives to accept new methods and output norms 4 Co-ordinating: Integrating objectives and work flows, harmonising different interests 5 Controlling: Monitoring, measuring, feeding back and correcting deviation from plan

Elton Mayo: Human relations 'Although significant technological advances were made ... the serious weakness of the scientific approach to management was that it de-humanised the organisation member, who became ... an impersonal cog in the machine of production.' (Hicks) Mayo: managerial training 'must include knowledge of relevant Peter Drucker technical skills, of the systematic ordering of operations, and of the organisation of co-operation'. The prime function of a business manager is economic performance. 1 People are motivated by 'belonging' needs which are satisfied by social relationships at work The 'Hawthorne Studies' demonstrated the power of the 2 Group dynamics and other human factors have a key influence human factor – particularly in on work performance work groups 3 Later (neo-human relations) writers (Maslow, Herzberg, 11: Leading and managing people McGregor) suggested that people are motivated by 'higher' psychological needs for growth, responsibility, challenge and fulfilment Page 97

The purpose and Writers on Management What is Leadership process of management management and supervision leadership? skills and styles Henry Mintzberg: Managerial roles Managers are not reflective, systematic planners: managerial work, in practice, is disjointed and discontinuous, and involves verbal/informal communication, intuition and judgement. 1 INTERPERSONAL Figure head A ceremonial role, representing the organisation ROLES Leader Motivating, commanding, inspiring, developing staff Liaison Maintaining contacts outside the vertical chain of command 2 INFORMATIONAL Monitor Scanning for information from internal and external networks ROLES Spokesperson Providing information to interested parties on behalf of the organisation Disseminator Sharing information via networks with those who need it 3 DECISIONAL Entrepreneur Initiating projects, mobilising resources to meet oppor tunities ROLES Disturbance Responding to pressures and problems that affect performance handler Resource Mobilising and allocating limited resources to teams/objectives allocator Negotiator Integrating different interests through bargaining processes

The purpose and Writers on Management What is Leadership process of management management and supervision leadership? skills and styles Strategic decision-making Top 3 Non-routine, uncertain, un-detailed management Middle management Interface Tactical decision-making between managerial Operational decision-making THE SUPERVISOR and non managerial Routine, predictable, detailed Workers staff 1 Manager at Planning lowest 2 Doer 4 Organising level of own operational Commanding work tasks Gatekeeper Co-ordinating Filter of information Controlling downwards (briefings) and upwards (reports) Page 99 11: Leading and managing people

The purpose and Writers on Management What is Leadership process of management management and supervision leadership? skills and styles Leadership 'The activity of influencing people to str ive willingly for group objectives.' Management Leadership Can be exercised over tasks, time, projects, vs Can only be exercised over people resources Is an interpersonal process Is an organisational process Is based on power/influence Is based on authority Depends on 'followership': conferred from below Depends in legitimacy: delegated from above Secures commitment/extra levels of Secures compliance/standard levels of performance performance Involves influencing, persuading, enthusing: Involves structure, analysis, control activities: creating/communicating vision for change planned inputs → predictable outputs Leadership skills are in demand because of the increasing need f or committed performance, enabling flexibility, innovation, responsiveness and competitive advantage.

The purpose and Writers on Management What is Leadership process of management management and supervision leadership? skills and styles Trait theories ('leaders are born, not made') have been discredited. Style theories describe the various preferences or behavioural styles of managers. Contingency theory sees effective leadership as being dependent on circumstances. The Ashridge model TELLS SELLS CONSULTS JOINS (autocratic) (persuasive) (consultative) (democratic) It is important to be realistic about the value of style (or any) theory. TELLS + Quick decisions SELLS + Efficient for programmed work Managers may not be flexible enough to adopt new styles – Discourages feedback, initiative, commitment, satisfaction Employees dislike apparent inconsistency + Decisions explained to subordinates + Possibly more commitment but – not m uch – Communication still largely one-way No one style is 'best' CONSULTS + Involvement fosters commitment + + Team input to decisions, though – ma y not be helpful Consensus decisions, though – tak e longer JOINS + High commitment/satisfaction for subordinates +– – Page 101 11: Leading and managing people

The purpose and Writers on Management What is Leadership process of management management and supervision leadership? skills and styles Blake and Mouton (The Ohio State Leadership Concern for peopleHigh 9 1.9 9.9 Studies) proposed a two-dimensional model of leadership, based on 8 5.5 9.1 7 Concern for task/production 6 1.1 89 Concern for people 5 (Note: these are not opposite ends of a continuum: 4 1 2345 67 High managers may score high or low on either dimension 3 or both) 2 Concern for production 1 The managerial grid Low 1.1 Impoverished management Low 1.9 'Country club' management 9.1 Task management 9.9 Team management 5.5 Middle of the road (or dampened pendulum) Questionnaires are used to plot a manager's 'position' for self-insight and development purposes

Fiedler Two types Psychologically distant of leader: (formal, reserved, task-focused) Psychologically close (informal, relationship-focused) The work Leader/group relationship situation: Task structure/definition Power of the leader The situation is favourable when: Leader is liked/trusted and has high power and Task is clearly defined Highly favourable/unfavourable situation: distant style works best. Moderately favourable situation: close style works best. Page 103 11: Leading and managing people

The purpose and Writers on Management What is Leadership process of management management and supervision leadership? skills and styles John Adair's situational leadership model (action-centered leadership) is less concerned with leadership style than leadership functions. These must be seen in a context of task, group and individual needs. The total situation dictates the relative priority to be given to each of these needs. Task roles Initiating Information-seeking Diagnosing Opinion-seeking Evaluating Decision-making Group maintenance roles Task Individual maintenance roles Encouraging needs Goal-setting Peace-keeping Feedback Clarifying Group In- Recognition Standard-setting needs dividual Counselling needs Training Total situation

Warren Bennis puts forward some specific differences between the role of the manager and the role of the leader. 'Administers and maintains' 'Innovates and inspires trust' Systems Manager Short Focus on Leader Long control term view people term view 'Does things right' 'Does the right thing' through: Management of attention Heifetz – 'dispersed' leadership Management of meaning Management of trust equates to a social relations Management of self 'leadership acceptance influence' circumstances Leaders can 'emerge' from the prevailing organisational culture Page 105 11: Leading and managing people

Notes

12: Recruitment and selection Topic List Recruitment and selection are core activities in Human Resource Management, broadly aimed at ensur ing that Recruitment and selection the organisation has the human resources that it needs . The recruitment process This chapter examines the processes involved. Advertising vacancies A systematic approach to selection Selection methods and testing Evaluating recruitment practices

Recruitment The recruitment Advertising A systematic approach Selection methods Evaluating recruitment and selection process vacancies to selection and testing practices Recruitment The definition and communication of HR requirements in order to obtain applicants . Selection The process of choosing the most suitable applicants for employment. Stages 1 Define requirements 2 Attract applicants 3 Select the appropriate candidate Employees represent a scarce and cr ucial resource which must be obtained, retained, developed and mobilised for organisational success.

Senior managers Who is responsible for Recruitment recruitment? consultants are responsible for human resource planning at the strategic The HR function + Specialist skills, knowledge level: they identify staffing needs in relation to objectives may have centralised authority + Wide-ranging contacts for recruitment. It will develop Line managers policies, ensure compliance + Objective (outside) viewpoint and administer procedures (to avoid 'cloning') are increasingly involved in defining vacancies, liaising with + Anonymity of recruiter (avoid HR specialists, interviewing competitor interest) candidates and making selection decisions – Time to get to know organisation and requirements Page 109 – 'Outsider' decision-making may be resented – Inhibits internal recruitment – Cost 12: Recruitment and selection

Recruitment The recruitment Advertising A systematic approach Selection methods Evaluating recruitment and selection process vacancies to selection and testing practices The Recruitment Process Job requisition (replacement or new position) Review and update Check need for replacement - is the engagement authorised? No Obtain authority or Yes adopt alternative (such as overtime, Does a job description reorganisation) and personnel specification exist? Analyse job: prepare description/ Yes No specification Are the terms/conditions of employment agreed?

Place No Agree terms internal Yes and conditions advertisement Is there a Page 111 suitable supply of Evaluate internal candidates? alternative Yes No media Determine Prepare and selection methods publish Select information candidate 12: Recruitment and selection

Recruitment The recruitment Advertising A systematic approach Selection methods Evaluating recruitment and selection process vacancies to selection and testing practices Job analysis This determines the requirements for a job, which are then set out in a job descr iption. Job analysis concentrates on what job holders are expected to do. What information is needed? Note too that more attention is being paid to outlining and developing competences: Purpose of the job Content of the job Behavioural/personal Accountabilities Work-based Performance criteria Responsibility Organisational factors – reporting lines Developmental factors – promotion paths Environmental factors – working conditions

Job description Uses of job descriptions A job description is a written statement of facts In recruitment, to formulate requirements and to which are important in a job regarding tasks, match jobs to candidates' capacities responsibilities, conditions and organisational/ In job evaluation, to establish wage rates operational relationships. In appraisal, training and development to identify competence gaps or potential Content In organisation design and change management, Job title to appraise job design and HR needs Reporting relationships Job summary However... Key accountabilities/tasks Principal operational contacts They only suit predictable, repetitive work Unusual working conditions They go out of date as jobs change Employment terms and conditions They can be taken too literally/rigidly Date job description prepared Flexible working redefines 'jobs' as 'roles' Job descriptions have a 'use by' date! 12: Recruitment and selection Page 113

Recruitment The recruitment Advertising A systematic approach Selection methods Evaluating recruitment and selection process vacancies to selection and testing practices Person specification Seven point plan Professor Alec Rodger A person specification sets out the education, qualifications, training, experience, personal Physical attributes attributes and competence a job holder requires to Attainments (including qualifications) perform the job satisfactorily. General intelligence Special aptitudes Essential attributes, organised by Interests Desirable Disposition (manner, temperament) Contra-indicated Background circumstances (un-desirable) Note that while a job descr iption sets out the content of the job, the person specification re-formulates the information as a profile of the satisfactory/ideal job holder.

Recruitment The recruitment Advertising A systematic approach Selection methods Evaluating recruitment and selection process vacancies to selection and testing practices An effective job advertisement: Media for job ads Includes job, person and organisation factors In-house noticeboard, journal, intranet Is concise, but gives sufficient information to Professional/specialist journals/newspapers attract interest and allow self-selection Newspapers: national, local, free Is designed to attract suitable candidates Radio/TV/cinema: national, local Is honest about the job and organisation, to Job centres and other registers manage expectations Careers offices: school, universities Clearly states the requirements (and rewards) The internet: registers, own website of the vacancy Specifies how, when and to whom to apply Type of job? Is presented in line with cor porate style Is formatted for, and transmitted by, Type/number of users? Relevant circulation? appropriate advertising media Frequency of ad required? Page 115 Geographical coverage required? Organisational image? Cost of right mix of above? 12: Recruitment and selection

Recruitment The recruitment Advertising A systematic approach Selection methods Evaluating recruitment and selection process vacancies to selection and testing practices INTERVIEWS Inform rejects Inform rejects SCREEN short PROVISIONAL TAKE UP CONFIRMED CONTRACT APPLICATIONS list OFFER REFERENCES OFFER Inform reserves Inform reserves TESTS (OR OTHER)

Recruitment The recruitment Advertising A systematic approach Selection methods Evaluating recruitment and selection process vacancies to selection and testing practices Interviews are the most commonly used selection method – although the y are notoriously unreliable for predicting job performance! Purposes of interviews Limitations of interviews 1 Finding the best person for the job: direct They are limited in length/scope assessment of the candidate They are artificial situations, which distort candidates' 'normal' behaviour 2 Giving candidates the information they They are limited in relevance: not able to assess require to make a decision the full range of required attributes Interviewers often make errors of perception 3 Giving a positive impression of the and judgement: bias, stereotyping etc organisation Interviewers are often insufficiently trained and/or prepared to direct discussion effectively, 4 Ensuring that all applicants are (and feel they probe for answers and so on. have been) treated fairly (as required by law) Interviewers often fail to give sufficient, honest or relevant information to the candidate Page 117 12: Recruitment and selection

Recruitment The recruitment Advertising A systematic approach Selection methods Evaluating recruitment and selection process vacancies to selection and testing practices Effective interviewing Using appropriate questioning styles Pacing and controlling discussion Use consistent, specific, relevant criteria, as set Building (and standing back from) out in the job description, personnel specification rapport/empathy Minimise stressful dynamics Active listening to surface and subtext Directly monitor job-relevant communication, Avoiding direct and indirect discrimination interpersonal and problem-solving skills Bias should be controlled by interviewer ? awareness training and (where possible) checking with other interviewers (panels, boards) Open: Who? What? How? Why? Train interviewers in effective techniques Closed: Did you ...? (Answer: yes or no) Allocate sufficient time and resources Probing: But what in particular ...? Give candidates opportunity to seek information Multiple: How ... and why ...? Evaluate process in the light of successful Problem solving: How would you ...? candidates' performance Leading: Don't you ...? Surely you ...?

Other selection methods include: Work sampling Perusal of the candidate's 'Assessment centres' use role plays, Group selection portfolio, or setting work case study analysis, leaderless group Reference checks exercises discussion, business games and other Suitable for in-depth techniques to allow expert analysts to assessment of management appraise a range of problem-solving candidates and interpersonal skills which emerge To confirm details and get in the group. third-party view of candidate's References should confirm facts, but employability also reveal opinions. Referees may be cautious, or biased: references have Page 119 very low 'predictive validity'. 12: Recruitment and selection

Recruitment The recruitment Advertising A systematic approach Selection methods Evaluating recruitment and selection process vacancies to selection and testing practices Selection tests It is very difficult to exclude cultural and even gender bias from tests. Types Designed to measure But: Proficiency Ability to perform specific tasks (eg typing) Not all jobs are amenable to proficiency testing: eg management Aptitude Potential to exercise or Tests are subject to practice/coaching effects: learn skills (eg numeracy) style (or content) of questions becomes familiar Intelligence is difficult to define: IQ must be Intelligence IQ, usually: mental supplemented by EI (emotional intelligence), agility, verbal reasoning creativity etc Personality test results are subject to 'faking': the Personality Traits and types (eg desirable answer is often obvious introvert/extrovert) Suffer from time/ability constraints Case studies Ability to perform in All tests require expert administration and result Role plays simulated job tasks and interpretation 'In-tray' exercises situations

Recruitment The recruitment Advertising A systematic approach Selection methods Evaluating recruitment and selection process vacancies to selection and testing practices Recruitment and selection can be Examples evaluated by: Number of candidates attracted by different media Using attitude surveys and feedback Number of suitable (shortlisted) candidates questionnaires attracted To assess candidates' experience and perceptions Number of women/ethnic minorities applying of the organisation Number of women/ethnic minorities selected Monitoring the job performance and Cost per short-listed or successful candidate development of recruits Cost-effectiveness of each medium used To assess accuracy of predictions made during Average time taken to process each application recruitment/selection Post-selection performance of candidates Monitoring the composition of – and c hange in Proportion of recruits still employed two years later – the workforce To assess the effectiveness of equal opportunity 12: Recruitment and selection measures, the turnover of recruits and so on. Monitoring specific performance indicators Page 121

Notes

13: Diversity and equal opportunities Topic List Social, demographic and policy changes have steadily increased the diversity of the labour pool (more w orking Discrimination at work women; older workforce). The law protects the rights of Equal pay and equal opportunity various previously disadvantaged groups to equal The practical implications opportunity; managing workforce diversity is a key issue Diversity for HR policy and practice, and management in general.

Discrimination Equal pay and The practical Diversity at work equal opportunity implications Equal opportunities An approach to the management of people at w ork, based on equal access and fair treatment – irrespective of gender, race, ethnicity, age, disability, sexual orientation or religion. Where can Discrimination on basis of gender, race or disability are enshrined in law. discrimination Others (eg age) rely upon models of 'good pr actice'. occur? Business arguments in favour of equal opportunities Access to jobs Ethical Good Compliance Wider Image Training and HR with pool of and Promotion fair practice labour reputation Pay legislation Benefits Need to redress inequalities

Discrimination Equal pay and The practical Diversity at work equal opportunity implications Some countries have regulations which state that: men and women have the right to equal pay for work of equal value. Sex Race Example of a Sex Discrimination Act Example of a Race Relations Act Prohibits discrimination on grounds of sex/marital Outlaws certain types of discrimination on status grounds of colour, race or nationality. Advertisements Larger public organisations (150+ employees) Recruitment and selection must have detailed plans for achieving racial Access to training equality. Promotion Disciplinary procedures Selection for redundancy Dismissal Page 125 13: Diversity and equal opportunities

Discrimination Equal pay and The practical Diversity at work equal opportunity implications Direct discimination occurs when one interested group is treated less favourably than another. Indirect discimination occurs when certain requirements or conditions are imposed, with which a substantial proportion of the interested group could not comply. Victimisation occurs when a person is penalised for giving information or taking action in pursuit of a claim of discr imination. (In addition, harassment is the use of threatening, intimidator y, offensive or abusive language or behaviour.) Under both sex and race discrimination law, there may be certain exemptions ('genuine occupational qualifications') in which discrimination of a sort may be permitted, eg physiology, decency or legal restrictions.

Disability Covering access to: is defined as physical or mental impairment that Employment opportunities has a substantial/long term adverse effect on ability Interview to carry out normal activities. Selection Training Promotion Dismissal Age Some countries have Age Regulations which prohibit unjustified age discrimination in employment and vocational training; support later retirement and retirement planning; remove upper age limits for unfair dismissal and redundancy rights. Page 127 13: Diversity and equal opportunities

Discrimination Equal pay and The practical Diversity at work equal opportunity implications Implementing equal opportunity policy Examples 1 Secure support from the top management: Use ethnic languages in job ads create senior accountabilities Offer family-friendly working hours/contracts: term-time hours, part-time working etc 2 Set up a representative working party to Alter premises/equipment to accommodate produce a draft Code of Practice wheelchair users, partially-sighted/deaf workers Extend 'spouse' benefits to same-sex partners 3 Formulate action plans and allocate resources Fast-track school leavers and post managerial to publicise/implement policy vacancies internally -> more opportunities at lower levels 4 Implement monitoring and review of minority Awareness training for management staff entering/progressing/leaving Workplace childcare or childcare allowances Encourage networking of minority business 5 Plan and implement positive action initiatives people to facilitate minority access to opportunities

Discrimination Equal pay and The practical Diversity at work equal opportunity implications Diversity The concept of diversity recognises that 'equal oppor tunity' categories (gender, race, age) are only crude, irrelevant classifications. Effective managers seek to recognise more job-relevant, complex ways in which people differ: personality, working style, needs and expectations. Managers need to facilitate the unique contribution that each person – not each 'categor y' of person – brings to the team. Support for: Managing co-operative working in diverse teams Communication Tolerance of individual differences Education/training Communicating effectively with an ethnically Career development diverse workforce Recruitment/selection Managing workers with diverse family structures Work/life balance and responsibilities Managing the adjustments to be made by an to reflect diversity. ageing workforce Managing diverse career paths and aspirations Confronting educational/qualification issues in an international workforce Page 129 13: Diversity and equal opportunities

Discrimination Equal pay and The practical Diversity at work equal opportunity implications Key steps in implementing a diversity policy 1 Analyse the business environment 5 Ensure top management support 2 Identify the business benefits of diversity 3 Introduce diversity into corporate strategy 6 Involve staff at all levels 4 Include it in core HR systems 7 Communicate, communicate, communicate! 8 Understand the company's needs and resources 9 Evaluate

14: Individuals, groups and teams Topic List Managers need to understand the behaviour of individuals at work in order to motivate, control and Individuals develop performance. The basic building block of the Groups and teams organisation is the team or work group: you need to Team member roles understand how effective teams are formed, built and Team development managed. Teamwork involves both getting the job done Building a team and keeping the team together. Successful teams

Individuals Groups and Team member Team Building Successful teams roles development a team teams Personality Perception is the total pattern of characteristic ways of thinking, is the psychological process by which stimuli (in-coming feeling and behaving that constitute an individual's sensory data) are selected and organised into patter ns distinctive method of relating to the environment. which are meaningful to the individual. Key managerial issues – Compatibility? Key material issues – Misunderstanding? Different personality types may suit different work People see things differently: there is potential for Different personality types may suit particular misunderstanding, which can lead to conflict structures, systems and cultures of work People can confuse the 'map' for the 'territory': Different personality types may have different perceptions can be entrenched, even though they are orientations to/needs from work only viewpoints Different personality types may 'clash' Common clashes of perception include: 'us and them' (management/staff) and unintended racial/sexual Recruit and select carefully. Manage conflict. harassment Contingency approach to HRM Practise and facilitate 'seeing the other side'. Define terms and problems collaboratively. Recognise 'grey areas'

Attitude Roles is a mental state exerting a directive or dynamic are the parts people act out in different contexts, influence upon the individual's response to all objects according to the tasks and relationships required b y and situations with which it is related. those contexts. The people who relate to a person in a particular role are called a 'role set'. Key managerial issues Attitudes to work may be positive or negative Key managerial issues Attitudes to work-related issues (management, co-workers, conditions etc) may affect Managers (and others) need to behave appropriately co-operation, motivation, commitment and so on for their role set, giving appropriate role signs Attitudes are brought to work: these may be Managers need to make roles (responsibilities, helpful (or unhelpful) eg in regard to politics , norms of behaviour) clear to avoid role race, gender ambiguity/stress Conflicting demands (role incompatibility/conflict) Control conflict: reinforce co-operation. should be avoided Discipline unhelpful/unlawful attitudes. Reinforce (reward, recognise) positive Facilitate work/life boundaries. Clarify role attitudes expectations and relationships. Identify Page 133 positive role models 14: Individuals, groups and teams

Individuals Groups and Team member Team Building Successful teams roles development a team teams Group A sense of identity: boundaries Loyalty and conformity to group norms any collection of people who see themselves as a Purpose and leadership group. Team Teamworking is a group formally organised for the purpose of + Satisfaction of interpersonal relations performing a task + Satisfaction of participation + Pooling of skills, knowledge, experience Examples + Efficient sharing of resources + Encouraging communication/co-ordination Brainstorming teams – for ideas generation + Enables flexibility, speed of response Multi-disciplinary teams – for skills sharing Management or quality teams – for decision- – Group norms restrict flair (and output) making and problem-solving – Group maintenance distracts from task Multi-skilled teams – for flexible working – Groups take slower decisions than individuals – Groups take riskier decisions than individuals

Individuals Groups and Team member Team Building Successful teams roles development a team teams Team roles: Belbin 1 Co-ordinator: presides over team activity. 5 Resource-investigator: accesses new (Balanced, disciplined, good at working contacts and resources. (Extrovert networker; through others.) not an originator.) 2 Shaper: spurs the team on to action. 6 Implementer: translates ideas into practice, (Dominant, Extrovert, passionate about the plans. (Not a leader, but an essential task.) organiser.) 3 Plant: provides the team with ideas, 7 Team-worker: holds the team together, proposals. (Introverted but creatively supports members. (Empathetic, diplomatic.) intelligent.) 8 Completer-finisher: chivvies the team to 4 Monitor-evaluator: dissects and criticises attend to details/deadlines/follow-up. ideas: spots potential problems. (Analytically intelligent.) Belbin added a ninth role: the functional specialist (where required). Roles need to be balanced and (ideally) evenly distributed for an effective team. Page 135 14: Individuals, groups and teams

Individuals Groups and Team member Team Building Successful teams roles development a team teams Stages of team development:Tuckman 1 Forming The group is coming together. Individuals try to find out about each other and the aims and norms of the group. 2 Storming Aims, procedures and roles (including leadership) begin to be hammered out through more or less open conflict. 3 Norming The group begins to settle down, reaching agreements on work-sharing, roles and norms. Group decision-making begins. 4 Performing The group is ready to set to w ork on its task: the process of formation no longer absorbs attention. The focus shifts to results. + Dorming A long-standing, steadily-performing group may get cosy and complacent, and lose its focus on the task (added to Tuckman's model).

Individuals Groups and Team member Team Building Successful teams roles development a team teams Team building Cohesion Reinforce the group's sense of identity ('Sticking together') Reinforce team solidarity (loyalty, trust) Reinforce commitment to shared Limit groupthink by objectives Actively seeking outside ideas but Welcoming self-criticism within group Dangers of ultra-cohesive teams Consciously evaluating conflicting evidence Desire for consensus squashes and options divergent views → complacent, risky decision making 'Groupthink' (Janis) Shared responsibility → risky Page 137 decision-making Energy focused on group at expense of task Hostility to outsiders → disintegration 14: Individuals, groups and teams

Individuals Groups and Team member Team Building Successful teams roles development a team teams Objectives (indicators) of effective team-working Measures: 1 Effective job performance: meeting task Quantitative: standards, targets objectives, standards, targets Qualitative: external/internal customer satisfaction 2 Team member satisfaction with Quantitative: turnover, absenteeism relationships, process and performance Qualitative: communication, expressed attitudes 3 Effective and efficient team functioning: Quantitative: discipline/grievance incidents co-operation, balanced roles, consensus etc Qualitative: interest in decisions, motivation in leader's absence 4 Effective and efficient task functioning: ideas generation, problem-solving, steady Quantitative: output/productivity, workflow, work flow etc accidents 5 Fulfilment of the team's role in the Qualitative: ideas generated, seeking causes not organisation: reflecting values, commitment symptoms to goals, projecting image etc

15: Motivating individuals and groups Topic List Managers and leaders need to understand motivation if they are to get their staff to perf orm well. It is also about Overview of motivation offering employees the financial and non-financial Content theories rewards that will give them satisfaction. This chapter Process theories examines the key motivational theories. Choosing an approach Rewards and incentives Pay as a motivator

Overview of Content Process Choosing an Rewards and Pay as a motivation theories theories approach incentives motivator Motivation 1 'A decision-making process through which the individual chooses desired outcomes and sets in motion the beha viour appropriate to acquiring them.' (Huczynski & Buchanan) Extrinsic rewards for work, eg pay, 2 The social process by which the behaviour of an individual is benefits influenced by rewards, incentives and sanctions applied by others. Intrinsic rewards Motives in work, eg 'Learned influences on human behaviour that lead us to pursue responsibility, particular goals because they are socially valued.' challenge, interest (Huczynski & Buchanan)

Overview of Content Process Choosing an Rewards and Pay as a motivation theories theories approach incentives motivator Maslow's hierarchy of needs Content theories ask: 'What (needs or goals) motivate individuals?' They suggest that behaviour is driven by the desire to satisfy cer tain needs or People are motivated by: achieve certain outcomes. In order of priority Self- Note: Not Empirically verified actualisation Predictive Page 141 Esteem needs Culturally universal Love/social needs Safety needs Physiological needs 15: Motivating individuals and groups

Overview of Content Process Choosing an Rewards and Pay as a motivation theories theories approach incentives motivator Frederick Herzberg:Two factor theory 1 2 Need: to avoid unpleasantness Need: personal growth, fulfilment Control Policies, administration Responsibility The only way dissatisfaction Pay Challenge, interest to offer job but cannot Adequate working conditions Achievement satisfaction: offer lasting Quality of supervision Growth in the job factors in the satisfaction Hygiene factors Motivator factors job itself

Overview of Content Process Choosing an Rewards and Pay as a motivation theories theories approach incentives motivator Victor Vroom: Expectancy theory Process theories ask: 'how can individuals be motivated?' They explore the process through which outcomes become desir able and are pursued by individuals E × V=F Expectancy Valence Force of motivation The strength of the individual's The value that the individual places The strength of the individual's expectation that behaving in a on the outcome (whether positive/ motivation to behave in the given certain way will result in a given desired or negative/ undesired). way (and the likelihood that he will outcome. do so). 15: Motivating individuals and groups Page 143

Overview of Content Process Choosing an Rewards and Pay as a motivation theories theories approach incentives motivator The way managers attempt to motivate their teams, and the kind of rewards they offer them, will depend to an extent on the managers' assumptions about w orkers and their orientations. Douglas McGregor:Theory X and TheoryY Theory X The average person dislikes work and responsibility. Managerial objectives of a Workers must be coerced, controlled and directed in reward system order to make them perform adequately. Attract and retain staff Note: Two extreme Increase the predictability of assumptions – not employee behaviour 'types' of people Increase employees' willingness to change Theory Y The expenditure of effort in work is natural and not To motivate (provide incentives for) inherently disliked. People are capable of exercising effective performance responsibility and self-direction, being motivated by Be equitable the desire for growth/achievement

Overview of Content Process Choosing an Rewards and Pay as a motivation theories theories approach incentives motivator Reward A token (monetary or otherwise) given to an individual or team in recognition of some contr ibution or success. Incentive The offer or promise of a reward, designed to motivate the individual or team to behave in such a way as to earn it. The job itself can be used as a motiv ator. A well-designed job should provide five 'core dimensions'. Skill Task variety identity Constructive feedback: JOB Task SATISFACTION significance Motivational Developmental Autonomy Page 145 15: Motivating individuals and groups