This NASA AR app lets you interact and learn with a variety of spacecraft that used to explore our universe. See how they move and learn about the engineering feats used to expand our knowledge of space! Just search \"Spacecraft 3D\" on Android and iOS. . 51
10. Out of a need to power space missions, NASA has invented, and improved, photovoltaic cells, sharing the advancements with other companies to accelerate the technology. 11. Along with two airline pilots who'd invented a prototype of a wireless headset, NASA built a light, hands-free communication system that would allow astronauts to communicate with teams on Earth. The technology was utilized in the Mercury and Apollo missions. 12. In the 1990s, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory invented a light, miniature imaging system that required little energy in order to take high quality photographs from space. This technology has become standard in cell phone and computer cameras. 13. NASA's digital signal technology, originally used to recreate images of the moon during the Apollo missions, is the underlying technology that makes CAT scans and MRIs possible. 14. A nutritious, algae-based vegetable oil invented by NASA scientists who were searching for a recycling agent to use during long space missions is now an additive in many infant formulas. It has two essential fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by the human body. 15. The first portable computer, the Grid Compass, was used on multiple shuttle missions in the 1980s. Nicknamed SPOC (Shuttle Portable On-Board Computer), the computer could communicate with onboard devices and was used to launch satellites off space shuttles. 52
After Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space in 1961, Tereshkova volunteered for the Soviet space program. Although she did not have any experience as a pilot, she was accepted into the program because of her 126 parachute jumps. At the time, cosmonauts had to parachute from their capsules seconds before they hit the ground on returning to Earth. Along with four other women, Tereshkova received 18 months of training, which included tests to determine how she would react to long periods of time being alone, to extreme gravity conditions and to zero-gravity conditions. Of the five women, only Tereshkova went into space. Tereshkova was chosen to pilot Vostok 6. It was to be a dual mission. Cosmonaut Valeriy Bykovsky launched on Vostok 5 on June 14, 1963. Two days later, Tereshkova launched. The two spacecraft took different orbits and came within 3 miles (5 km) of each other. Tereshkova logged more than 70 hours in space and made 48 orbits of Earth. Soviet and European TV viewers saw her smiling face and her logbook floating in front of her. They 53
did not realize that the flight almost turned into tragedy, a fact that was classified for about 40 years. An error in the spacecraft's automatic navigation software caused the ship to move away from Earth, according to the RT news channel. Tereshkova noticed this and Soviet scientists quickly developed a new landing algorithm. Tereshkova landed safely but received a bruise on her face. She landed in the Altay region near today's Kazakhstan- Mongolia-China border. Villagers helped Tereshkova out of her spacesuit and asked her to join them for dinner. She accepted, and was later reprimanded for violating the rules and not undergoing medical tests first. However, Tereshkova was honoured with the title Hero of the Soviet Union. She received the Order of Lenin and the Gold Star Medal. She became a spokesperson for the Soviet Union and while fulfilling this role, she received the United Nations Gold Medal of Peace. Tereshkova never flew in space again. She later became a test pilot and instructor and earned a doctorate in technical sciences, retiring from the Air Force as a Major General. . 54
. The launch rod can be aimed at different angles by tilting to one side or another. • Empty (and rinsed) 2-litre plastic soft drink bottles When using the launcher, place it in an open space. If using inside, aim the • 2 1/2” PVC tee connectors launch tube at a low angle towards a far • 1 1/2” PVC connector wall. Select a target to aim for. If using • 2 1/2” PVC caps outside (choose a calm day), the launcher • 1- 5’ length of 1/2” PVC pipe should be aimed at a clear area. • Duct tape • Ruler Make sure the cadet doing the launching • Optional: PVC cutter and any other cadets near the launcher • Eye protection for anyone near are wearing eye protection. Do not permit any cadet to stand in front of the launcher launcher or in the landing zone while “launch operations” are taking place. Cadet stamp or jump on an empty 2-liter soft drink (“pop”) bottle and force the air 1. Cut the PVC pipe into the following inside through connected plastic pipes to lengths: propel a paper rocket. The PVC pipe will be cut into smaller 3 pieces 12” long pieces. Use a fine-tooth saw or a PVC cutter. The PVC parts do not have to be 3 pieces 6” long cemented together. Friction will hold the parts with occasional adjustments. 2. Insert the end of one 12” pipe a few inches into the neck of the bottle and tape it securely with duct tape. 3. Follow the construction diagram below for assembly of the launcher. The launcher is ready for use. 55
1. Place the launcher in an open space and tilt the launch tube in the desired direction . If there is a light wind, aim in the direction of the wind. If shooting at targets, have each cadet aim the launcher for his or her flight. 2. Make sure the landing zone is clear of anyone who might be hit by the rocket. 3. Have the launching cadet put on eye protection and do a countdown to zero. 4. The cadet should stamp or jump on the label of the bottle. This will force most of the air inside the bottle through the tubes and launch the rocket. 5. While the cadet is retrieving the rocket, re-inflate the 2 litre bottle. Separate the bottle from the launcher by pulling it from the connector. Wrap your hand around the pipe end to make a loose fist and blow through opening into the pipe. Doing so keeps your lips from touching the pipe. Reconnect the bottle to the launcher and it is ready to go again. 6. When the landing zone is clear, have the next cadet put on the goggles, slide the rocket on to the launcher, aim the launcher, do the countdown and stamp on the bottle. 56
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• Creating the Recognised Air Picture, identifying all aircraft flying over the UK and monitoring any suspicious air activity. • Form part of the team that provides the Army and other Services with air situational awareness. • Running airfield operations in the central ops room making sure that all flying programmes run smoothly and on time, planning logistics in advance. • Task planning and coordination of a flying squadron to make sure operations run smoothly i.e. making sure Typhoons can refuel over the North Sea. • Diplomatic negotiation with foreign partners for access to international airspace. • HQ planning: Responsible for coordinating all UK armed forces to plan in advance of an overseas deployment. • Monitoring foreign surveillance satellites and highlighting potential enemy action and espionage. • Tracking everything happening in space from space debris to the International Space Station. • Form part of the team that operates the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System, detecting and reporting any object that could threaten the UK or our allies. 58
Air Operations (Systems) is a diverse, exciting and complex role which directs and supports operations both in the UK and around the world. The three key areas of employment are within the Flight Operations, Aerospace Surveillance and Space Operations/Control domains. Officers within this specialisation will use sophisticated radar and communications technology to provide organisations with the information they need to make time-critical decisions that underpin the operational support functions of the RAF. As an Air Operations (Systems) officer you could be working from a field, a bunker, a building, a tent, an E-3D aircraft or even on an aircraft carrier. Regardless, you will be part of a varied and stimulating organisation which offers an excellent career and worldwide employment opportunities and is at the heart of the RAF’s flying output. Your career will start by completing the Initial Officer Training Course at the RAF College Cranwell in Lincolnshire. You will complete a challenging 24-week course designed to develop your strength, fitness, leadership and academic skills through a number of indoor and outdoor exercises across the UK. Specialist training is delivered at the Defence College of Air and Space Operations at RAF Shawbury in Shropshire and subsequently for Aerospace Surveillance at RAF Boulmer in Northumberland. This training starts with a Foundation Module and is completed alongside Air Operations (Control) officer and Non-Commissioned Controller students. After this you will be assigned to one of the two core specialisations, Aerospace Surveillance or Flight Operations and you will complete the appropriate training module for your first role. You may also return at a later date to complete a conversion course to allow you to undertake roles in any of the other core areas. https://www.raf.mod.uk/recruitment/roles/roles-finder/air-operations-support/air-operations-systems 59
This incredible fact is also known as cold welding and it happens because the atoms of two pieces of metal have no way of knowing they are separate. This doesn’t happen on Earth because of the air and water found between the pieces. Astronomers have found a massive water vapor cloud which holds 140 trillion times the mass of water in the Earth’s oceans somewhere around 10 billion light years away – making it the largest discovery of water ever found. Discovered by Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi in 1801, the dwarf planet Ceres was the first, and largest, object to be considered an asteroid. It is located in the Asteroid Belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter and accounts for 33% of the entire belt’s mass. The theory is that when Earth was a relatively young planet, it was struck by a giant object and this collision broke a piece of the Earth away to create the moon. This piece then began to orbit the Earth as a result of its gravitational pull. At 600 km wide and 21 km high, Olympus Mons is a volcano on Mars that may still be active, according to scientists. It is the tallest peak of any planet. However, the Rheasilvia central peak on the asteroid Vesta is taller at 22 km. Made of three quarters hydrogen and helium for most of its remaining mass, the Sun accounts for 99.86% of the mass in our solar system with a mass of around 330,000 times that of Earth. 60
I have been part of the UK Space developed the Black Knight rocket, which Operations Centre (UK SpOC) at RAF High lead to Britain’s first Intercontinental Wycombe since Jan 19 and more recently Ballistic Missile (ICBM), known as Blue have moved into the Analysis Cell as an Streak. First launched from Woomera in Orbital Analyst (OA). The RAF established Australia, it is acknowledged that Blue a Space Operations Centre at High Streak was a near-peer for the Soviet and Wycombe in 2008 (previously the UK US technologies at the time. Britain Missile Warning Centre) and has a proud launched its first Earth orbiting satellite in history of Space Surveillance and Tracking 1971 with Prospero. (SST) at RAF Fylingdales in North Yorkshire since the early 1960’s. The RAF In 1960 the US and UK formed a strategic established the first OA mid-2018 in order alliance to counter the threat from to increase the knowledge, skills and incoming ballistic missiles en-route to attitudes of RAF personnel affected by the continental US, and so in 1963 RAF events unfolding in the Space domain. Fylingdales joined the Ballistic Missile My role now is to provide UK Space Situational Awareness (SSA) function from within the UK SpOC, working closely with coalition partners in USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The UK, specifically the RAF has been involved in space operations since manned craft have been launched into space. During the 1950s-1970s, Great Britain’s domestic space programme was also thriving, with research and development complexes on the Isle of Wight and RAF Spadeadam, Cumbria. Militarily focused, the early programme 61
Early Warning System (BMEWS) as the orbital hazard, threat or attack, a clear third sensor in the chain. Operated by understanding of what is operating within RAF operators since declaring operational, the domain, how it is functioning, and an its mission portfolio serves both US and educated appreciation it is likely to UK governments, both through BMEWS operate is critical. In order to support UK and its significant contributions to the operations and reduce our reliance on Space Surveillance Network (SSN). partner nations but better enable the UK Building on this heritage the RAF recently to collaborate with those nations, SSA is announced a renewed surge in its being pioneered by four orbital Analysts activities in space. Air Vice-Marshal Ian based at the UK Space Operations centre, Duguid has spoken about normalising two RAF and two civilian UK Space Agency space operations, describing proposals for (UKSA); assisted by civilian Space Track £30 million UK military space projects Analysts located the Space Surveillance such as constellations of small satellites and Tracking (SST) sensor RAF Fylingdales. and Operation OLYMPIC DEFENDER. In contrast to the US Space Command Characterisation is achievable once likely model, the UK has, as yet, no identifiable hazards or threats have been identified, dedicated Space Force, relying on an air tracked and identified, enabling more focused personnel and command detailed analysis to be applied. In relation structures. SSA, sometimes described as to potential threats, characterisation Space Domain Awareness (SDA) is the includes an ability to determine foundation for all space missions, stratagem, schemes and intent of the permitting timely assessment and spacecraft. Primary responsibility for the response to space threats, risks and characterisation of UK space related events. threats rests with Defence Intelligence (DI) and sister governmental agencies. SSA is delivered through four primary functions: Detect, Track, Identify and As the role of an OA is so new and very Characterise. To detect and track an much in development, draws from years of experience in key knowledge areas. Both OAs are Air and Space Operations Managers (Aerospace Systems) by trade and were selected for their extensive experience and knowledge in the fields of orbital mechanics, electronic warfare, missile warning and space surveillance and tracking. Working to support the UK SpOC crews with SSA specific taskings, it means days are often extremely busy, anticipating events, monitoring satellites, conducting detailed analysis, tasking a variety of space surveillance sensors and reporting the outcomes. The core SSA duties of an analyst with the UK SpOC are focused around: 62
Fragmentation events could cause hundreds of debris fragments. This is the busiest job for an analyst, in This is where an object in space, whether assessing high risk conjunctions, it be a rocket body or an operational performing complex analysis and data satellite breaks up into several pieces, modelling, gathering sensor data and either by natural degradation (it is a harsh reporting. environment after all), unintentional collisions or intentional means. Now consider that each of those pieces may be travelling at 8 km/s and the impact could be a catastrophic breakup, which in turn could signify the beginning of the Kessler Effect and restrict the use of space in certain orbits for many years. The job of the analyst in this case is to gather sensor data from around the world and assess the possible impact to UK licenced spacecraft, data modelling and writing reports that can often reach ministerial level very quickly. Atmospheric re-entries It is estimated that each year, 80 tonnes of ‘space-junk’ re-enters the Earth’s atmosphere. If you have ever seen a shooting star in the night sky, it could well have been a bit of re-entering satellite burning up in the Earth’s atmosphere. Most of these objects burn up harmlessly in the atmosphere, but some are big enough to survive re-entry and could impact the UK. It is the analyst’s job to gather sensor data and model if these objects cross the UK close to their final re- entry and warn government agencies so they can be ready. Conjunction assessment. A conjunction is the coming together of 2 things, in this case two satellites (be that operational payload, rocket body or debris) or be Imagine two space objects the size of washing machines hitting each other head-on at 15 km/s (33,554 mph), not only does this cause a risk to a satellite operator in losing their spacecraft, but also in that a collision 63
16. For the Apollo missions, Nasa needed a portable, self-contained drill to extract samples from the moon’s surface. Black & Decker invented a computer programme to optimise the design of the drill’s motor and ensure its power consumption was minimised. The same software was used to develop its Dustbuster cordless vacuum cleaner. 17. Technology used in Nasa’s wind tunnel testing facilities was adopted by swimsuit manufacturers Speedo in 2008 to produce the “world’s fastest swimsuit”. The LZR Racer reduced skin friction drag by 24 per cent and helped its wearers break dozens of swimming records. 18. After NASA developed scratch-resistant astronaut helmets, the agency gave a license to Foster-Grant Corporation to continue experimenting with scratch-resistant plastics, which now comprise most sunglasses and prescription lenses. 19. Needing to monitor astronauts' vital signs in space, the Goddard Space Flight Centre created monitoring systems that have been adapted to regulate blood sugar levels and release insulin as needed. 20. The polymers created for use in space suits have been valuable in creating flame- retardant, heat-resistant suits for firefighters. Newer suits also feature circulating coolant to keep firefighters from succumbing to heat and advanced breathing systems modelled after astronaut life support systems. 21. Shock absorbers designed to protect equipment during space shuttle launches are now used to protect bridges and buildings in areas prone to earthquakes. 64
He joined the Chuguyev Air Force School in Kharkov, Ukraine, graduating in 1957 and qualified as a parachute instructor in the Soviet Air Force after performing more than 100 jumps. As an athletic and agile parachutist, as well as a competent pilot, Leonov soon came to the attention of a screening commission who told him he was under consideration for 'something new and very, very difficult'. In March 1960 he was selected for the first corps of Soviet cosmonauts with 19 others, including Gagarin. Originally, he was considered as a pilot for Vostok 1 but then became back-up for Vostok 5. His personal goals were much higher however - he made no secret that he wanted to be the first man on the Moon. Finally he was selected to fly on Voskhod 2, a two-seat version of Vostok, with Pavel Belyayev. The main objective of the mission was to carry out a spacewalk before the US astronauts could do so from their new Gemini capsule. The mission was launched on 18 March 1965. Since the Voskhod could not be depressurised, an inflatable airlock was deployed from the hatch. On the second orbit, Leonov entered the airlock to leave the spacecraft and venture outside. 65
This first extravehicular activity (EVA) in history lasted 12 minutes and rapidly turned into a nightmare for the cosmonaut. The spacesuit was rigid under pressure and made any movement highly difficult. He could not take pictures as planned and the cord connecting him to the spacecraft became twisted sending him tumbling. With great difficulty he managed to re-enter the airlock but then became stuck and unable to close the hatch behind him. He opened the valves on his suit to reduce the inner pressure, sufficient to regain enough flexibility to close the airlock. When he finally re-entered the space capsule, he was exhausted and several litres of sweat would be recovered from his spacesuit on his return to Earth. Unfortunately the return did not go as planned either. The primary retrorocket misfired and the backup had to be activated. Then the service module failed to separate and burnt on re- entry. The destabilised capsule ended up landing in the Urals, way beyond the recovery area. The two cosmonauts had to spend a night in forest surrounded by wolves, before being rescued the next day. By late 1966, Leonov’s success had been largely surpassed by the US EVAs conducted during the Gemini programme, and the Soviet Union was eagerly trying to score new ‘firsts’ in the space race. Alexei Leonov commenced training for a circumlunar flight on a modified Soyuz vehicle. Unmanned rehearsals were successfully flown in, and he was ready for the first manned mission around the Moon, scheduled for February 1969. Unfortunately, NASA speeded up its own plans and sent Apollo 8 to the Moon in December 1968. Unlike Apollo, the Russian vehicle would be unable to enter actual lunar orbit and the programme was cancelled. Leonov and another cosmonaut formed the prime Soviet crew for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in mid-1973, undergoing training both in Russia and at NASA’s Johnson Space Center. On 15 July 1975 they lifted off on Soyuz 19, an improved Soyuz spacecraft featuring an androgynous docking collar. For the first time a Soviet launch was broadcast live worldwide and two days later they rendezvoused with the last of the Apollo spacecraft (also fitted with a similar androgynous docking adapter). On 17 July at 19:19 GMT, the hatches between the Soviet and US spacecraft were opened and Leonov shook hands with NASA astronaut Thomas Stafford. The two crews conducted joint experiments for two days before separating. It would be 19 years before a US and a Russian spacecraft docked together again. On his return, Leonov was named head of the cosmonaut corps, and later the deputy director of the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre. 66
• Large bulldog clips (one per Provide open working space around each launch pad) launch pad. Explain how the straw is used for guiding • Fishing line or smooth string the rockets. The fishing line or string is • Long balloons fed through the straw and one or more • Bathroom size (3 oz) paper cup balloons are attached to it with masking • 2 straight drinking straws tape. When the balloon is released, the • 50 small paper clips straw will ride up the line. Stress that it is • Sandwich size plastic bag very important for cadets to hold the • Masking tape lower end of the line to the floor. If there • Balloon hand pumps (optional) is slack in the line or if the lower end of the line is free, the rocket will wobble about and not reach the ceiling. If you have balloon pumps, demonstrate how they are used to inflate the balloons. Prepare your classroom by setting up “launch pads” consisting of pieces of fishing line or string suspended from the ceiling (one line per team of cadets). If your classroom has a suspended ceiling, use binder clips or clothespins to attach to the metal frame supporting the ceiling tiles. Tie the fishing line to the clip or pins. Make sure the line is long enough to reach the floor. 67
NASA’s Constellation program for the next same set of materials. The team that generation of space rockets includes a is able to lift the greatest payload into heavy lift launcher called the Ares V. Ares space (the ceiling) is the winner.” V will carry heavy payloads into orbit, such as very large scientific satellites, 2. Provide each team with an identical space station replacement modules and kit of materials. Tell them that any or supplies, and Earth departure stages that all of these materials can be used for will propel human spacecraft to the Moon their rockets. and Mars. 3. Review the launching procedure. Raising heavy payloads to orbit is Explain how the straw guides the challenging. Rockets require powerful rocket up the fishing line or string and engines and massive amounts of that the line must be held snug to the propellants. floor for the launch. Remind the teams that they only get three NASA’s Ares V will be able to accomplish balloons. They can launch as many the job. It will be one of the largest and times as they want to but should try most powerful rockets ever built. to improve how many paper clips they However, Ares V won’t be the only heavy can successfully lift. lift vehicle needed. There will be a market for commercial delivery of propellants and 4. Draw a chart on the board for teams modules and robots for constructing to record their results (i.e., the tourist hotels, supply delivery, and more. number of paper clips that reach the In the future, heavy lift vehicles will ceiling). become big business. 1. Divide your cadet into teams of three. Explain the project to them. “NASA is looking for creative ideas for launching heavy payloads into orbit. Payloads include parts and supplies for the International Space Station and spacecraft that will carry humans to the Moon and Mars. NASA is also interested in rockets that can transport large fuel tanks that will be used to power deep space rockets. You are challenged to build the most efficient heavy-lift rocket from the 68
Traveling into space is a very difficult and UK SPACE AGENCY expensive endeavour. Huge rockets and tremendous amounts of propellants are https://www.gov.uk/government/organi required to accomplish the job. With sations/uk-space-agency some rockets, launch costs were approximately $20,000 per kilogram of The UK Space Agency is an executive payload delivered into Earth orbit. If that agency of the UK Government, cost were to continue, imagine staying at responsible for growth and a space hotel where it would cost about development of a civil space $10,000 for a half litre bottle of drinking programme. Its aims are to further the water! Improving heavy-lift rockets strategic capability of the UK in all (lighter rocket structures, more propellant aspects of space technology, as well efficient engines, etc.) will enable us to as increasing economic growth and accomplish much more in space at far gaining further knowledge on space- more reasonable costs. based science, as well as outreach work to educate citizens on space and space-based technologies. Some of its current work involves looking at how low earth orbit satellites may be used to increase the effectiveness of telecommunications without increasing the cost, and also looking at how space-based technologies may help with climate change. The UK Space Agency represents the UK in all space-related negotiations worldwide. The Agency was established in 2011 with the aim \"to deliver an excellent space programme with the maximum economic, scientific and policy benefit for the UK\". All jobs with them are advertised on the Civil Service Careers portal. 69
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLStC43yAV6zQvFdRe4ch2I8ihBuqTylJf As NASA begins a new era of space exploration – returning to the Moon and eventually on to Mars – education in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) subjects is increasingly important to the future of our nation’s space program. NASA’s Commercial Crew Program (CCP) plays an integral role in the agency’s deep space exploration goals as it works with commercial partners to launch astronauts to the International Space Station from U.S. soil on American-built rockets and spacecraft. In an effort to inspire the next generation of explorers, NASA’s NextGen STEM CCP project is introducing immersive technology into classrooms to share the story of ground-breaking innovation borne of this government-industry partnership. One such technology uses virtual field trips to take students along on a journey into the heart of CCP—visiting the NASA centres where the program first began, and the Boeing and SpaceX facilities where next-generation human-rated spacecraft and rockets are being developed and tested for flight. 70
During the RAF’s Air Power Conference 2018, the Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Hillier, announced that the Royal Air Force Centre for Air Power Studies would henceforth be known as the ‘Royal Air Force Centre for Air and Space Power Studies (RAF CASPS)’. This development recognises the leadership role in Space Command and Control that the Secretary of State for Defence has given the RAF on behalf of UK Defence. The rebranding of RAF CAPS to RAF CASPS therefore aligns more closely the Service’s conceptual component of fighting power with evolving UK Air and Space Power doctrine. This important step recognises the conceptual shifts already underway and the need to put innovation at the heart of everything we do. Such an approach is vital if the RAF is to maintain its decisive edge and proud reputation for operational success as it emerges as a fully-fledged next generation Air Force. It seeks to: • generate evidence-based academic research; provide strategic influence through coordinated engagement with think tanks, allies and other professional bodies in the defence and policy space; • leverage the intellectual horsepower of external institutions and RAF personnel; • and help inculcate a philosophy of learning and critical thinking within the RAF. Website: https://www.raf.mod.uk/what-we-do/centre-for-air-and-space-power-studies/ Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/RAFCASPS/ YouTube channel: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLuKBW1W_yh1kk43BljoZiewKiW3uHBb__ Royal Air Force CASPS historic interviews with influential leaders from the beginning of the Royal Air Force in 1918. 71
The need for landing space shuttles led NASA to do extensive research on minimizing hydroplaning – when vehicles slide uncontrollably on a wet surface – on runways. They discovered that cutting grooves into runways helps channel water away and significantly reduces accidents. Many roads and airports now have grooved pavement. In the sealed, artificial environment of a spacecraft, attempts to grow plants have led to ethylene build-up. NASA invented an air purifier for the International Space Station that is now used widely on Earth – everywhere from restaurants, to hospitals, to refrigerators – to remove ethylene, which hastens decay, as well as other particulates and pathogens. Ice is a real threat for shuttles in space, and NASA devised multiple electronic solutions to prevent ice formation on spacecrafts, some of which are now used on commercial aircraft. 25. Intended for use to help in growing plants aboard space shuttles, NASA's LED technology has been utilized in the development of LED medical devices that relax muscles and relieve pain in soldiers, cancer patients, and those with Parkinson's disease. 26. The ability to cook food on long space missions is no longer impossible with the invention of 3D food printers. This technology is being refined for commercial use for the production of chocolate , as well as to create nutritious foods for diabetics. 27. While searching for a way to increase interaction with onboard computers and allow users to perform tasks like manipulate data, NASA developed the first mouse. @space 72
Bruce McCandless was born in 1937 in Boston, Massachusetts, into a naval family, the son of a rear-admiral – both of his grandfathers were also decorated naval officers. After graduating from the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland, from which he took a bachelor of science he went on to qualify as a US Navy pilot. He spent two years flying Skyrays and McDonnell-Douglas F-4B Phantoms from the Forrestal, one of the United States’s first super-carriers, and the Enterprise, the world’s first nuclear-powered carrier. In 1961, while McCandless was flying Skyray’s, Yuri Gagarin was becoming the world’s first spaceman, and in 1962 President Kennedy announced the race for the moon. In 1965 McCandless, still in the US Navy, took an MSc from California’s Stanford University in electrical engineering and in 1966 he became the youngest of 19 men who comprised Nasa’s Astronaut Group Five, around half of whom flew to the moon while the rest manned the Skylab and Shuttle projects. By 1969 he was a mission control communicator during the first moon landing, a role he repeated for the Apollo 14 landing. But within two years the Apollo programme and moon landings had faded into history, which left him working around the Skylab and shuttle programmes. From the time of Skylab – the first US space station in the 1970s – McCandless had been involved in developing a backpack, known as the Manned Manoeuvring Unit (MMU). Previous space walks had been tethered (i.e., the astronaut was connected to the craft by a cable); being untethered would provide greater freedom of moment. The Space Shuttle Challenger launched from Kenne dy Space Center, Florida, on February 3, 1984, with McCandless on board effectively as a ‘scientist-astronaut’. The MMU allowed him to make his spacewalk. Using a backpack equipped with nitrogen thrusters to move himself around, McCandless floated free in the void from the space shuttle Challenger for around four hours before returning to his colleagues inside. The main aim of the nine-day mission had been to release two communications satellites, and the spacewalk, while scientifically relevant, was really just icing on the cake. Nevertheless it was a huge triumph. 73
McCandless found the untethered exercise highly exhilarating. “It was a wonderful feeling, a mix of personal elation and professional pride,” he said. “It had taken many years to get to that point. Several people were sceptical it would work, and with 300 hours of flying practice, I was over-trained.“ Later on in the mission Robert L Stewart became the second astronaut to use the MMU, and the crew returned to Earth following eight days in orbit. The MMU was used again on other missions, but two years later the space shuttle Challenger and seven crew members were lost when it exploded less than two minutes into its tenth flight. Subsequently the MMU was judged too risky for further use, although it had played no part in the tragedy. After his first Challenger mission and untethered spacewalk, McCandless’s second, and final, venture into space took place six years later in 1990, when he joined the five-day 35th mission of the space shuttle program on Discovery, which launched the Hubble space telescope into orbit around the Earth. 74
. doesn’t tip over as it falls through the air? • 1 piece of cardboard (approx. 10 x 13 cm) 1. First, design a shock-absorbing system. Think springs and cushions. • 1 small paper or plastic cup • 3 index cards (8 x 13 cm) 2. Then, put your spacecraft together. • 2 regular marshmallows Attach the shock absorbers to the • 10 miniature marshmallows cardboard platform. • 3 rubber bands • 8 straws 3. Finally, add a cabin for the astronauts. • scissors Tape the cup to the platform. Put two • tape astronauts (the large marshmallows) in it. (NOTE: The cup has to stay open—no lids!) Think about how to build a spacecraft that can absorb the shock of a landing. • What kind of shock absorber can you make from these materials that can help soften a landing? • How will you make sure the lander 75
Ready to test? Drop your lander from a EUROPEAN SPACE height of one foot (30 cm). If the AGENCY “astronauts” bounce out, figure out ways to improve your design. Study any https://www.esa.int/ problems and redesign. For example, if your spacecraft: The European Space Agency (ESA) is Europe’s gateway to space. • tips over as it falls through the air— Established in 1975, the ESA brings Make sure it’s level when you release together all European states to it. Also check that the cup is centred collaborate on scientific research to on the cardboard. Finally, check that push the boundaries of space the weight is evenly distributed. exploration. Work includes avoiding space collisions by tracking asteroids; • bounces the astronauts out of the improving the ability of satellite cup—Add soft pads or change the communications; the development of number or position of the shock Galileo, a type of GPS, and even absorbers. Also, make the springs less tracing the beginning of the Big Bang. springy so they don’t bounce the The ESA also runs the European astronauts out. Astronaut Corps. The ESA offers student internships for university students in their final year of study, lasting 3-6 months at various sites Europe. More information is available here: https://www.esa.int/About_Us/Careers _at_ESA/Student_Internships2 76
The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars. The ISS maintains an orbit with an average altitude of 400 kilometres by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft. It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes 15.5 orbits per day. The station is divided into two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment, and the United States Orbital Segment, which is shared by many nations. The first ISS component was launched in 1998, with the first long-term residents arriving on 2 November 2000. Since then, the station has been continuously occupied. This is the longest continuous human presence in low Earth orbit, having surpassed the previous record of 9 years and 357 days held by Mir. The latest major pressurised module was fitted in 2011, with an experimental inflatable space habitat added in 2016. The ISS is the largest human-made body in low Earth orbit and can often be seen with the naked eye from Earth. The ISS consists of pressurised habitation modules, structural trusses, solar arrays, radiators, docking ports, experiment bays and robotic arms. The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz, and Mir stations as well as Skylab from the US. The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft: the Russian Soyuz and Progress, the US Dragon and Cygnus, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle, and formerly the European Automated Transfer Vehicle. The Dragon spacecraft allows the return of pressurised cargo to Earth (downmass), which is used for example to repatriate scientific experiments for further analysis. https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station 77
The UK Space Agency have created an augmented reality app where you can look around the Space Station with Tim Peake to guide you! Just search \"AR Adventures in Space\" on Android and iOS. . 78
The Astronaut Al Worden Endeavour Scholarship is a non-profit organisation under the patronage of former Apollo 15 astronaut, Colonel Al Worden (USAF Retired) funded by proceeds from every Kallman USA Partnership Pavilion at leading aerospace and defence exhibitions around the world, plus sponsors, donors and partners. Awards are based on merit as determined by select stakeholders in participating air show communities, and reviewed by a Space Camp team including Worden. This exciting partnership will see cadets heading to US Space Camp in Huntsville, Alabama. Since 1982, Space Camp USA has been inspiring students from several nations to work as teams to complete simulated space missions, offering a unique and once-in-a- lifetime opportunity to experience life as a trainee astronaut. The initiative to extend this project to RAF Air Cadets was formally launched by Col Worden at the New Scientist Live exhibition at the ExCel Centre in London on 10 Oct 2019. The Endeavour Scholarships are named in honour of Col Worden USAF Retired, who was the Command Module Pilot for the Apollo 15 lunar mission in 1972. Now a global advocate for space, STEM and youth aerospace, Col Worden is one of only 24 people to have flown to the Moon. His record-setting mission included 74 solar lunar orbits in the Command Module “Endeavour”. This ground-breaking project highlights the recent work to develop a space syllabus in the RAF Air Cadets, reflecting the RAF’s lead in this environment. 79
. Pull the nozzle through the ring. While someone assists you, inflate the second • 2 long party balloons balloon. The front end of the second • Nylon fishing line balloon should extend through the ring a • 2 Plastic straws (non-bendable) short distance. As the second balloon • Styrofoam cup inflates it will press against the nozzle of • Masking tape the first balloon and take over the job of • Scissors holding it shut. It may take a bit of • Balloon hand pumps (optional) practice to achieve this. Thread the fishing line through the two Take the balloons to one end of the straws. Stretch the fishing line snugly fishing line and tape each balloon to a across a room and secure its ends. Make straw. The balloons should be pointed sure the line is just high enough for along the length of the fishing line. people to pass safely underneath. Cut the cup in half so that the lip of the If you wish, do a rocket countdown and cup forms a continuous ring. release the second balloon you inflated. Loosen the balloons by pre-inflating them. The escaping air will propel both balloons Inflate the first balloon about 3/4 full of along the fishing line. When the first air and squeeze its nozzle tight. balloon released runs out of air, it will release the other balloon to continue the trip. 80
Travel into outer space takes enormous NASA amounts of energy. Much of that energy is used to lift rocket propellants that will https://www.nasa.gov/ be used for later phases of the rocket's flight. To eliminate the technological The National Aeronautics and Space problems and cost of building giant one- Administration (NASA) is an independent piece rockets to reach outer space, NASA, agency of the United States Federal as well as all other space fairing nations of Government responsible for the civilian the world have chosen to use a rocket space program, as well as aeronautics technique that was invented by 16th- and aerospace research. century fireworks maker Johann Schmidlap. To reach higher altitudes with NASA was formed in 1958, succeeding his aerial displays, Schmidlap attached the National Advisory Committee for smaller rockets to the top of larger ones. Aeronautics (NACA). The agency has a When the larger rockets were exhausted, civilian orientation, encouraging peaceful the smaller rocket climbed to even higher applications in space science. Since its altitudes. Schmidlap called his invention a establishment, most US space \"step rocket.\" exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing NASA utilizes Schmidlap's invention missions, Skylab space station, and the through \"multi staging.\" A large first Space Shuttle . NASA supports the stage rocket carries the smaller upper International Space Station and oversees stages for the first minute or two of flight. the development of the Orion Multi- When the first stage is exhausted, it is Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space released to return to the Earth. In doing Launch System and Commercial Crew so, the upper stages are much more vehicles. efficient and are able to reach much higher attitudes than they would have The agency is also responsible for the been able to do simply because they do Launch Services Program which provides not have to carry the expired engines and oversight of launch operations and empty propellant tanks that make up the countdown management for un-crewed first stage. Space rockets are often NASA launches. designed with three or four stages that each fire in turn to send a payload into orbit. 81
https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/resources/2213/spitzer-space-telescope-3d-model/ Spitzer is one of NASA's Great Observatories. The space telescope illuminated some of the oldest galaxies in the universe, revealed a new ring around Saturn, and peered through shrouds of dust to study new-born stars and black holes. Spitzer assisted in the discovery of planets beyond our solar system, including the detection of seven Earth-size planets orbiting the star TRAPPIST-1, among other accomplishments. Initially scheduled for a minimum 2.5-year primary mission, Spitzer Space Telescope far exceeded its expected lifetime; its mission ended on Jan. 30, 2020. Spitzer is a technological marvel, featuring many innovations never before used on a space mission. It stands about 13 feet (4 meters) tall, and weighs approximately 1,906 pounds. Spitzer's primary mission ended up lasting 5.5 years, during which time the spacecraft operated in a \"cold phase,\" with a supply of liquid helium cooling three onboard instruments to just above absolute zero. The cooling system reduced excess heat from the instruments themselves that could contaminate their observations. In July 2009, after Spitzer's helium supply ran out, the spacecraft entered a so -called \"warm phase.\" Spitzer's main instrument, called the Infrared Array Camera (IRAC), has four cameras, two of which continue to operate. Spitzer orbits the Sun in an Earth-trailing orbit (meaning it literally trails behind Earth as the planet orbits the Sun) and has continued to fall farther and farther behind Earth during its lifetime. This now poses a challenge for the spacecraft, because while it is downloading data to Earth, its solar panels do not directly face the Sun. As a result, Spitzer must use battery power during data downloads. The batteries are then recharged between downloads. Credit NASA Visualization Technology Applications and Development (VTAD) 82
https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/resources/2214/hubble-space-telescope-3d-model/ Scientists have used Hubble to observe exoplanets, distant stars and galaxies as well as the planets in our solar system. Hubble launched on April 24, 1990, aboard the space shuttle Discovery. The space telescope observes the universe in near-ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared light. Over the years, Hubble's breakthrough discoveries have revolutionized nearly all fields of astronomy and astrophysics. Among Hubble's landmark accomplishments include making the deepest views ever taken of the evolving universe, finding planet-forming disks around nearby stars, chemically probing the atmospheres of exoplanets, identifying the first supermassive black hole in the heart of a neighbouring galaxy, and providing evidence of an accelerating universe, propelled perhaps by some unknown source of energy in the fabric of space. Hubble orbits Earth above the atmosphere, which distorts and blocks the light that reaches our planet, gives it a view of the universe that typically far surpasses that of ground- based telescopes. Hubble is one of NASA's most successful and long-lasting science missions, beaming hundreds of thousands of images back to Earth. Every 97 minutes, Hubble completes a spin around Earth, moving at the speed of about five miles per second (8 km per second) — fast enough to travel across the United States in about 10 minutes. As it travels, Hubble's mirror captures light and directs it into its several science instruments. In another first for Hubble, astronomers used it to detect helium in the atmosphere of a planet outside our solar system. The discovery of helium in WASP-107b’s atmosphere demonstrated the ability to use infrared spectra to study exoplanet extended atmospheres. Credit NASA Visualization Technology Applications and Development (VTAD) 83
Create a Moon or Mars exploration game using Scratch, a visual programming language. Think like NASA space-mission planners to design your game! https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/learn/project/make-a-moon-or-mars- rover-game/ The NASA app showcases a huge collection of the latest NASA content, including over 18,000 images, videos on- demand, NASA Television, Solar System Exploration feature, podcasts, news & feature stories, ISS sighting opportunities and tracking, mission information, Third Rock Radio and much more https://www.nasa.gov/connect/apps.html NASA spacecraft travel to far-off destinations in space, but a new mobile app produced by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, brings spacecraft to users. The app, called Spacecraft AR, uses the latest augmented reality (AR) technology to put virtual 3-D models of NASA's robotic space explorers into any environment with a flat surface. Intended for use to help in growing plants aboard space shuttles, NASA's LED technology has been utilized in the development of LED medical devices that relax muscles and relieve pain in soldiers, cancer patients, and those with Parkinson's disease. https://www.nasa.gov/connect/apps.html 84
The 3DV mobile app allows you to examine several of NASA’s Deep Space Exploration projects that will take our space program to the Moon and Mars, and destinations beyond. https://www.nasa.gov/connect/apps.html In NASA's Exoplanet Excursions virtual reality app, VR users are taken on a guided tour of the TRAPPIST-1 planetary system. TRAPPIST-1 is the only known exoplanet system to host seven roughly Earth-size planets. Spitzer played a major role in detecting these planets and providing information that has helped scientists learn about the planets' likely compositions. The TRAPPIST-1 system is too far away for telescopes to directly observe these planets, but this VR experience features artists' impressions of what the planets might look like. These impressions are based on data from Spitzer and other telescopes that have studied the TRAPPIST-1 system. https://www.nasa.gov/connect/apps.html NASA’s Eyes Experience Earth and our solar system, the universe and the spacecraft exploring them, with immersive apps for Mac, PC and mobile devices https://eyes.nasa.gov/ 85
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