Coffee table book

TIMELINE ARCHITECTURE

DECLARATION I,Nidhi Bauva from FYS-E hereby declare that all digital and written work appearing in this book as part of my Imaging course 15th week submission under the academic guidance of my course faculty is my own and all sources of knowledge used have been duly acknowledged. I will be solely responsible for any irregularity found with respect to non-adherence of academic integrity as per ISDI School of Design and Innovation’s standards and requirements.

CONTENTS Trajan Market 02 Hypostyle Hall 04 Great Ziggurat Of Ur 06 Parthenon Temple 08 Colosseum 10 Pyramid of Djoser 12 Tarxien Temples 14 Lucor Temple 16 Pyramid of Giza 18 Theatre of Epidauras 20

TARJAN MARKET Trajan’s Market is the name given in the early 20th century CE to a complex of buildings in the imperial fora of Rome constructed in 107-110 CE during the reign of Trajan. The complex in- cluded a covered market, small shop fronts and a residential apartment block. The complex was built at one end of Trajan’s Forum and includes buildings that had a number of different functions, predominantly commercial. Constructed on three different levels into the terraced hillside behind, access to the various parts was provided via connecting staircases. The ground level shallow alcoves opened onto a street and were used for small shops whilst there were more shops in the arcades above. The ground level alcoves are of uneven depth due to the fact that they were constructed following the bedrock of the hill. Originally, they would have all been framed with travertine, extending their capacity for displaying goods. One alcove (5th from the left) has been restored to illustrate the original look and also has the typical window above the lintel. On the upper level, access staircases were built at each end of via Biberatica running above the semi-circular façade. The large uppermost central building was used as an apartment block, and the large structure further left functioned as a covered shopping arcade. In front of the whole complex, separated by a tufa wall but accessible through a large central gateway, was the Exhedra and Porticus of Trajan’s Forum. The buildings are largely constructed using concrete and faced with brick, and it is one of the finest examples of Imperial Roman architecture using these materials. The decorative semi-circu- lar façade includes brick pilasters with travertine bases and capitals framing each archway on the second level. Decorative brick-work gives an added elegance, including entablatures of carved brick and alternate triangular and semi-circular pediments. White stucco would have once covered much of this brickwork and the pilasters, entablature, and pediments display evidence of having once been painted red. First properly excavated in the 1920s and 1930s CE, the site quickly acquired the name Trajan’s Market and it not only stands as one of the most imposing ruins of Imperial Rome but is also the current home of the Museum of the Imperial Forums.

100 - 110 AD 2 | ARCHITECTURE

HYPOSTLE HALL The Great Hypostyle Hall was part of one of the largest religious complexes in the ancient world, located in Egypt in Thebes (today, the city of Luxor). The Great Hypostyle Hall was built by Pha- raoh Seti I beginning around 1290 BC. Some decorations on the structure were finished during the reign of his son, Ramesses II. The hall was located between two gateway structures known as pylons that had been built earlier. Before we get to specifics about the structure, let’s cover an architectural definition. A hypostyle is a large interior space with a flat roof supported by columns. The word comes from ancient Greek and it means ‘under pillars.’ In places like ancient Egypt and Persia, hypostyles were a way to create large inner spaces before the invention of more advanced roof systems like vaulted ceilings and arches. But all the columns meant a hypostyle wasn’t an open space. Instead, it was like a forest of stone columns. Often, they were decorated with images or symbols related to the building’s purpose or the ruler who built it. Today the Great Hypostyle Hall in Karnak is an archaeological site. It isn’t in great shape, and some parts have fallen down. But enough still stands to create a sense of awe at what must have been an imposing space. The Great Hypostyle Hall was dominated by sandstone columns. On both sides of a central hall, round columns supported two large roof sections. Then, lining the central hall were 12 higher, larger columns that allowed sections of vertical wall between them to contain slotted stone open- ings called clerestory windows. These narrow windows were the only way to allow some light into the interior. But it wouldn’t have been very bright and must have created a sense of mystery in the mostly dark space. The central hall also led to the innermost room of the temple, a sanc- tum that served as the home of the god Amun-Ra. The columns supported a network of large stone horizontal beams called architraves. Four sets of architraves sat over the large columns in the center, and they ran east to west. On the sides, where the lower roof sections were located, the architraves ran north to south. The architraves then supported the actual flat roof structure. Inside the Great Hypostyle Hall, the columns were covered with carved relief decorations from floor to ceiling.

1290 - 1224 BC 4 | ARCHITECTURE

GREAT ZIGGURAT OF UR The city of Ur was one of the most important Sumerian city states in ancient Mesopotamia during the 3 rd millennium BC. One of best preserved and most spectacular remains of this ancient city is the Great Ziggurat of Ur. The Great Ziggurat, which is today located in the Dhi Qar Province, in the south of Iraq, is a massive step pyramid measuring 64 m in length, 46 m in width, and 30 m in height. This height, however, is just speculation, as only the foundations of this ancient monument survive today. The Great Ziggurat of Ur consisted of successively smaller platforms that had a solid core of mud-brick which was covered by burnt brick. This outer layer protected the core from the ele- ments. The construction of the Great Ziggurat of Ur began under King Ur-Nammu of the Third Dynasty of Ur (about the 21 st century B.C.), and was completed by his son, King Shulgi. The Great Ziggurat of Ur was located in the temple complex of the city state, which was the adminis- trative heart of Ur. The Great Ziggurat of Ur was dedicated to the moon god Nanna, who was the patron deity of the city. As the Mesopotamian gods were commonly linked to the eastern mountains, the ziggurat may have functioned as a representation of their homes. Thus, the people of Ur believed that their ziggurat was the place on earth where Nanna chose to dwell. Therefore, a single small shrine was placed on the summit of the ziggurat for the god. The people of ancient Mesopota- mia believed that their gods had needs just like their mortal subjects. Hence, a bedchamber was provided for Nanna in the shrine on top of his ziggurat. This chamber was occupied by a maiden chosen to be the god’s companion. On the side stairway of the ziggurat’s north western part is a kitchen, which was likely used to prepare food for this god. The god’s mortal servants had to be provided for as well, and the outer enclosure of the ziggurat contained a temple storehouse, the houses of the priests and a royal ceremonial palace. In the 19 th century, however, European exploration in the Mesopotamian region brought Ur and other ancient city states back to the knowledge of mankind. Excavations were carried out, and the remains of the Great Ziggurat of Ur were rediscovered. Since then, extensive restoration work has been carried out to bring back the magnificence of this ancient structure.

2100 - 2001 BC 6 | ARCHITECTURE

PARTHENON TEMPLE Parthenon, temple that dominates the hill of the Acropolis at Athens. The temple is generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order, the simplest of the three Classical Greek architectural orders. Although the rectangular white marble Parthenon has suffered damage over the centuries, including the loss of most of its sculpture, its basic structure has remained intact. A colonnade of fluted, baseless columns with square capitals stands on a three-stepped base and supports an entablature, or roof structure, consisting of a plain architrave, or band of stone; a frieze of alternating triglyphs (vertically grooved blocks) and metopes (plain blocks with relief sculpture, now partly removed); and, at the east and west ends, a low triangular pediment, also with relief sculpture (now mostly removed). The colonnade, consisting of 8 columns on the east and west and 17 on the north and south, encloses a walled interior rectangular chamber, or cella, original- ly divided into three aisles by two smaller Doric colonnades closed at the west end just behind the great cult statue. The only light came through the east doorway, except for some that might have filtered through the marble tiles in the roof and ceiling. Behind the cella, but not originally connected with it, is a smaller, square chamber entered from the west. The east and west ends of the interior of the building are each faced by a portico of six columns. Measured by the top step of the base, the building is 101.34 feet (30.89 metres) wide and 228.14 feet (69.54 metres) long. The Parthenon embodies an extraordinary number of architectural refinements, which combine to give a plastic, sculptural appearance to the building. Among them are an upward curvature of the base along the ends and repeated in the entablature; an imperceptible, delicate convexity (en- tasis) of the columns as they diminish in diameter toward the top; and a thickening of the four corner columns to counteract the thinning effect of being seen at certain angles against the sky. The sculpture decorating the Parthenon rivaled its architecture in careful harmony. The metopes over the outer colonnade were carved in high relief and represented, on the east, a battle between gods and giants; on the south, Greeks and centaurs; and on the west, probably Greeks and Ama- zons. The entire work is a marvel of composition and clarity.

447 - 438 BC 8 | ARCHITECTURE

COLOSSEUM Colosseum, also called Flavian Amphitheatre, giant amphitheatre built in Rome under the Flavian emperors. Construction of the Colosseum was begun sometime between 70 and 72 ce during the reign of Vespasian. It is located just east of the Palatine Hill, on the grounds of what was Nero’s Golden House. The artificial lake that was the centrepiece of that palace complex was drained, and the Colosseum was sited there, a decision that was as much symbolic as it was prac- tical. Vespasian, whose path to the throne had relatively humble beginnings, chose to replace the tyrannical emperor’s private lake with a public amphitheatre that could host tens of thousands of Romans. The structure was officially dedicated in 80 ce by Titus in a ceremony that included 100 days of games. Later, in 82 ce, Domitian completed the work by adding the uppermost story. Unlike earlier amphitheatres, which were nearly all dug into convenient hillsides for extra support, the Colosseum is a freestanding structure of stone and concrete, using a complex system of barrel vaults and groin vaults and measuring 620 by 513 feet (189 by 156 metres) overall. Three of the arena’s stories are encircled by arcades framed on the exterior by engaged columns in the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders; the structure’s rising arrangement of columns became the basis of the Renaissance codification known as the assemblage of orders. The main structural frame- work and facade are travertine, the secondary walls are volcanic tufa, and the inner bowl and the arcade vaults are concrete. The amphitheatre seated some 50,000 spectators, who were shielded from the sun by a massive retractable velarium (awning). Supporting masts extended from corbels built into the Colosse- um’s top, or attic, story, and hundreds of Roman sailors were required to manipulate the rigging that extended and retracted the velarium. The Colosseum was the scene of thousands of hand- to-hand combats between gladiators, of contests between men and animals, and of many larger combats, including mock naval engagements. However, it is uncertain whether the arena was the site of the martyrdom of early Christians. The Colosseum was damaged by lightning and earthquakes in medieval times and, even more severely, by vandalism. All the marble seats and decorative materials disappeared, as the site was treated as little more than a quarry.

70 - 72 AD 10 | ARCHITECTURE

PYRAMID OF DJOSER The Step Pyramid has been thoroughly examined and investigated over the last century and it is now known that the building process went through many different stages and there were a few false starts. Imhotep seems to have first begun building a simple mastaba tomb. The highest mastaba was 20 feet (6 meters) but Imhotep decided to go higher. Investigations have shown that the pyramid began as a square mastaba, instead of the usual rectangular shape, and then was changed to rectangular. Why Imhotep decided to change the traditional rectangular mastaba shape is unknown but it is probable that Imhotep had in mind a square-based pyramid from the start. The early mastabas had been decorated with inscriptions and engravings of reeds and Imhotep wanted to continue that tradition. His great, towering mastaba pyramid would have the same delicate touches and resonant symbolism as the more modest tombs which had preceded it and, better yet, these would all be worked in stone instead of dried mud. When completed, the Step Pyramid rose 204 feet (62 meters) high and was the tallest structure of its time. The surrounding complex included a temple, courtyards, shrines, and living quar- ters for the priests covering an area of 40 acres (16 hectares) and surrounded by a wall 30 feet (10.5 meters) high. The wall had 13 false doors cut into it with only one true entrance cut in the south-east corner; the entire wall was then ringed by a trench 2,460 feet (750 meters) long and 131 feet (40 meters) wide. The false doors and the trench were incorporated into the complex to discourage unwanted guests. If one wished to visit the inner courtyard and temples, one would have needed to have been told how to enter. The pyramid and its surrounding complex was designed to be stunning and inspire awe. Djoser was so proud of his accomplishment that he broke precedent of having only his own name on a monument and had Imhotep’s name carved as well. The complex consists of the Step Pyramid, the House of the North, the House of the South, the Serdab, the Heb Sed Court, the South Tomb, Temple T, and the Northern Mortuary Temple. All of these, with the surrounding wall, made up a complex the size of a city in ancient Egypt. Djoser’s complex, in fact, was larger than the city of Hierkanpolis at the time.

2670 - 2650BC 12 | ARCHITECTURE

TARXIEN TEMPLES A group of enormous megalithic structures stand tall in Tarxien, on the southeastern part of the main island of Malta. Called the Tarxien Temples, the huge structures remain as a testament to the architectural, artistic, and technological abilities of the ancient islanders who constructed them. The Tarxien Temples have been dated to the Temple Period (which lies between the Neolithic pe- riod and the Bronze Age). This temple complex is one of six sites that form the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the Megalithic Temples of Malta (the other five being Ġgantija, Ħaġar Qim, Mnajdra, Skorba and Ta’ Ħaġrat). The Tarxien Temples consists of four structures built out of enormous stone blocks. It is the larg- est known prehistoric site in Malta. These four separate temples are connected by a square court and each of them may be accessed via separate entrances. The construction of these structures has been dated to between 3600 and 2500 BC, with a phase of re-utilization between 2400 and 1500 BC. The temples were then abandoned, only to be re-discovered during the early part of the 20th century. Whilst little survived of the Tarxien Temples when they were re-discovered, their layouts were still clearly visible. Three of the temples have a five-apse plan, whilst the Central Temple has a six-apse plan. This is unique, as it is the only known example of such a temple lay- out on the island. It has also been suggested that the Central Temple was the last one to be built and it represents the pinnacle of the evolution of temple architecture in pre-historic Malta. Apart from the animal reliefs, the Tarxien Temples are also decorated with spirals, which is a common motif in the megalithic art of Malta. It is believed by some that spirals symbolize eternity, and therefore this was a popular motif, not only in pre-historic Malta, but also at other megalithic sites across the globe. Stone spheres have also been found at the Tarxien Temples. These, however, served neither a ritualistic purpose nor a decorative one. Instead, these objects are believed to shed some light on the way the structures were constructed. The most widely-accepted theory is that the builders of the temples moved the massive blocks of stone by rolling them over these spheres whilst towing them with ropes.

3600 - 2500 BC 14 | ARCHITECTURE

LUXOR TEMPLE The original part of the Temple of Luxor consisted of a large peristyle court and a complex of halls and chambers beyond. In one hall is a granite shrine of Alexander the Great. The great peristyle forecourt is surrounded on three sides by a double row of graceful papyrus-cluster columns, their capitals imitating the umbels of the papyrus plant in bud. An entrance flanked by the towers of a pylon was planned for the north end, but this design was altered, and, instead, the most striking feature of the temple, a majestic colonnade of 14 pillars, 52 feet (16 metres) high, was added. This colonnade, which also has papyrus-umbel capitals, may have been intended for the central nave of a hypostyle hall similar to that at Karnak, but the side aisles were not built; instead, enclosing walls were built down either side. Ramses II added an outer court, decorated with colossal statues of himself between the pillars of a double colonnade, and a lofty pylon on which he depicted festival scenes and episodes from his wars in Syria. In front of the pylon were colossal statues of the pharaoh (some of which remain) and a pair of obelisks, one of which still stands; the other was removed in 1831 and reerected in the Place de la Concorde in Paris. When Thebes declined politically, Luxor remained the populated part of the town, which huddled around the Ramesside pylon. A Roman legion had its headquarters inside the 18th-dy- nasty temple, and Coptic churches were built around the temple and in the Ramesside court. In the Fāṭimid period (909–1171), a mosque was built over the foundations of the church in the court; the mosque was dedicated to Sheikh Yūsuf al-Ḥaggāg, a local saint who is reputed to have introduced Islam to Luxor. His feast is celebrated with a boat procession resembling an ancient rite, the festival of Opet, during which, on the 19th day of the second month, Amon was said to come from Karnak on his state barge to visit his other temple at Luxor, escorted by the people of Thebes in holiday attire. Reliefs on the walls of the great colonnade depict preparations for the procession of sacred barks during the festival. Luxor, together with other Theban sites—Karnak, the Valley of the Queens, and the Valley of the Kings—was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979. Excavations and preservation efforts have been ongoing. In the 21st century a project began to excavate the avenue of sphinxes between the Temple of Luxor and the Great Temple of Amon at Karnak.

1390 - 1352 BC 16 | ARCHITECTURE

PYRAMIDS OF GIZA The designations of the pyramids—Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure—correspond to the kings for whom they were built. The northernmost and oldest pyramid of the group was built for Khufu (Greek: Cheops), the second king of the 4th dynasty. Called the Great Pyramid, it is the largest of the three, the length of each side at the base averaging 755.75 feet (230 metres) and its original height being 481.4 feet (147 metres). The middle pyramid was built for Khafre (Greek: Chephren), the fourth of the eight kings of the 4th dynasty; the structure measures 707.75 feet (216 metres) on each side and was originally 471 feet (143 metres) high. The southernmost and last pyramid to be built was that of Men- kaure (Greek: Mykerinus), the fifth king of the 4th dynasty; each side measures 356.5 feet (109 metres), and the structure’s completed height was 218 feet (66 metres). All three pyramids were plundered both internally and externally in ancient and medieval times. Thus, the grave goods originally deposited in the burial chambers are missing, and the pyramids no longer reach their original heights because they have been almost entirely stripped of their outer casings of smooth white limestone; the Great Pyramid, for example, is now only 451.4 feet (138 metres) high. That of Khafre retains the outer limestone casing only at its topmost portion. Constructed near each pyramid was a mortuary temple, which was linked via a sloping causeway to a valley temple on the edge of the Nile floodplain. Also nearby were subsidiary pyramids used for the burials of oth- er members of the royal family. The Great Pyramid’s core is made of yellowish limestone blocks, the outer casing (now almost completely gone) and the inner passages are of finer light-coloured limestone, and the interior burial chamber is built of huge blocks of granite. Approximately 2.3 million blocks of stone were cut, transported, and assembled to create the 5.75-million-ton structure, which is a masterpiece of technical skill and engineering ability. The internal walls as well as those few outer-casing stones that still remain in place show finer joints than any other masonry constructed in ancient Egypt.\\Surrounding the three pyramids are extensive fields of flat-topped funerary structures called mastabas; arranged in a grid pattern, the mastabas were used for the burials of relatives or officials of the kings.

2575 - 2465 BC 18 | ARCHITECTURE

THEATRE OF EPIDAURUS The Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus, Peloponnese: The Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus is regarded as the best preserved ancient theatre in Greece in terms of its perfect acoustics and fine structure. It was constructed in the late 4th century BC and it was finalized in two stages. Originally the theatre had 34 rows of seats divided into 34 blocks by stairs and walkways. It is situated near the ancient sanctuary of Asklepios, a celebrated healing center of the classical world. It was used as a therapeutic and religious center dedicated to Asklepios, the god of healing. Today the sanctuary is an extended archeological site with interesting buildings. The theatre is surrounded by lush greenery, an integral part of the theatre itself. This famous ancient theatre distinguishes for its architectural symmetry and the great acoustics. Due to its incomparable acoustics, the actors can be perfectly heard by all 15,000 spectators, as you can even hear the sound of a pin dropping. It is known from the antiquity until the present days for its size, the unique architecture and harmonious proportions. It was built by the archi- tect Polykleitos on the side of a mountain and overlooking the sanctuary of Asklepius. This is a superb example of classical theater with an orchestra and the circular area between the seats and the stage. The highest distance of the concave is 58 meters, while the diameter of the stage is 20 meters. For centuries the monument remained covered by a slope of trees until the year 1881, when sev- eral excavations took place. As the theatre was built after the classical times, not a single original ancient drama had been presented there, but all performances were repetitions of classic plays. Since 1938, when modern dramas started to be presented again in the theatre, it has hosted hun- dreds of plays. The famous Epidavria Festival, presently Athens Epidaurus Festival, begun in1954 and it is held every summer with famous ancient dramas or modern plays. Over the years, the festival has hosted both Greek and foreign artists. The amazing sound produced in the theatre has been the subject of speculation for some time. Even in the first century B.C., architects like Rome’s Vitru- vius were scratching their heads about it. Early theories concluded that the wind carried sound to the viewers, or that masks worn by the actors amplified the sound.

400 - 301 BC 20 | ARCHITECTURE



CITATIONS http://www.ancient.eu http://www.maltauncovered.com http://www.britannica.com http://www.khanacademy.com http://www.thoughtco.in http://www.sacred-destinations.com http://www.judasim-and-rome.org http://www.aviewoncities.com