A Practical Guide to Teaching Computing and ICT in the Secondary School

NEIL STANLEY AND ALISON HRAMIAK that the mark dominates, and the comment loses its impact (see Bloxham, 2007). You need to consider the implications of this finding very carefully. Think about including targets and strengths as part of your feedback process; praising and allowing pupils to know where to improve, and on what they could usefully focus. MODERATION In assessing your pupils’ work you need to be able to compare their performance with that of others. This requires some kind of moderation activity. Moderation is the process during which groups of assessors agree common standards. When schools use a variety of different teachers to deliver the subject it is essential that the Computing subject leader provides an opportunity for that delivery team to participate in internal moderation. This will ensure that the expectations on pupils are similar across the teaching team. In addition, participation in regional moderation events is particularly helpful in developing a common understanding of standards and developing accuracy in assessment. For externally accredited awards, the awarding body will provide material for which they have agreed a grade. This should then be used by the school assessing team for internal moderation. It is important that you gain as much experience with this as possible, and even if you are still training take any advantage of any opportunity provided to shadow the process. ADVICE: Attend the assessment training events held by the awarding bodies. It may also be useful for you to undertake some work as an assistant examiner. Task 4.10 Moderation Participate in a moderation session. Keep a note of how your standards compare with the rest of the team you work with. Whatever assessment method is used, it is important to remember that during moderation or ‘levelling’ exercises, sufficient evidence should have been recorded, so that other teachers looking at the same evidence would be able to come to the same conclusions. To this end, it is good practice for a ‘context’ document to be produced, setting the background of the assessment task, overviewing the ‘soft’ evidence, and explaining the thinking behind the judgements made. Task 4.11 E-assessment Have you had experience of on-screen assessing? How do you think you would cope if all work to be marked was only electronic? What do you think would be the problems you might have? What are the advantages? 88

ASSESSMENT AND COMPUTING Task 4.12 Reflection In Task 4.4 in this chapter you were asked to ‘Find a lesson that you have taught recently and try to identify the forms of assessment that you used in that lesson’. Revisit your response to that activity in the light of what you have now had a chance to think about. Has your response changed? REFERENCES Birmingham Grid for Learning (2005) Glossary. Birmingham: BGFL. Black, P. and Wiliam, D. (1998) Inside the Black Box. London: Assessment Reform Group. Bloxham, S. (2007) Guide to Assessment Escalate [online] available at http://escalate. ac.uk/4148 Accessed 03/04/2014. Capel, S., Leask, M. and Turner, T. (eds.) (2013) Learning to Teach in the Secondary School, 6th edn, London: RoutledgeFalmer. DFES (2004) Whole School Development in Assessment for Learning. London: DFES. Hramiak, A. and Hudson, T. (2011) Understanding Learning & Teaching in Secondary Schools. Harlow: Pearson Education. HMI (2004) Ofsted subject reports 2002/03: Information and communication technology in secondary schools. London: HMI. HMI (2005) Ofsted subject reports 2003/04: Information and communication technology in secondary schools. London: HMI. HMI (2009) The importance of ICT: Information and communication technology in primary and secondary schools, 2005/08 London: HMI [online] available at http://www. ofsted.gov.uk/resources/importance-of-ict-information-and-communication- technology-primary-and-secondary-schools-20052008 Accessed 03/04/2014. HMI (2011) ICT in schools 2008–11 London: HMI [online] available at http://www. ofsted.gov.uk/resources/ict-schools-2008-11 Accessed 03/04/2014. FURTHER READING Armitage, A., Donovan, G., Flanagan, K. and Poma, S. (2011) Developing Professional Practice 14–19, London: Pearson. Blanchard, J. (2009) Teaching, Learning and Assessment, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Dix, P. (2010) The Essential Guide to Classroom Assessment, Harlow: Pearson. Ecclestone, K. (2010) Transforming Formative Assessment in Lifelong Learning, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Fautley, M. and Savage, J. (2010) Secondary Education Reflective Reader, London: Learning Matters. Freeman, R. and Lewis, R. (1998) Planning and Implementing Assessment, London: Kogan Page. Gardner, J., Halen, W., Hayward, L., Stobart, G. and Montgomery, M. (2010) Developing Teacher Assessment, Maidenhead: Open University Press. Shute, V. J. (2008) Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153–189. Swaffield, S. (2008) Unlocking Assessment, Abingdon: David Fulton. USEFUL WEBSITES AND RESOURCES Diary pack: http://www.itte.org.uk/node/590 89

This page intentionally left blank

Part 2 Key Content in Computing Teaching

This page intentionally left blank

Introduction to Part 2 Key Content in Computing Teaching This section provides a variety of ideas for enhancing your teaching of Computing, and presents the Computing curriculum thematically, as an alternative to the structure of the National Curriculum in England and the examination board syllabuses. It covers the same scope and depth of Computing knowledge, skills and understanding, but incorporates some of the current thinking about the curriculum, including the key areas of Computational Thinking and creativity, which will influence future Schemes of Work in schools. Chapter 5 examines the theme of Computational Thinking; a theme that has been much neglected in England since the advent of the National Curriculum, but which now underpins the new subject of Computing. It discusses what Computation Thinking is, and why it is important in schools and in the real world. It looks at the key concepts of decomposition, pattern recognition, pattern generalisation and abstraction, and provides strategies to help pupils understand these. Chapter 6 examines the theme of Simulation, which is another underdeveloped theme that is now an important part of the Computing curriculum in England. It considers areas often thought of as difficult to learn and teach, including control, modelling and programming, and provides ideas and strategies that will allow the teacher to make these accessible to pupils. Chapter 7 reminds us that Computing includes ICT and Digital Literacy, and looks at key concepts across the main themes of these areas of the curriculum. It specifically highlights those ideas and concepts pupils find difficult, and gives guidance on how the teacher can help eliminate or reduce the misconceptions that frequently occur. Chapter 8 is linked to the others in this section, but has an independent theme of Computing and Society. In all our teaching of Computing we should present pupils with the reasons why and how Computing is used in the real world. We must also get them to consider the impacts of Computing on individuals and groups, both nationally and internationally. This chapter poses important questions for discussion with your pupils. 93

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 5 Computational Thinking ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS INTRODUCTION In this chapter we will examine: • What is Computational Thinking? • Computational Thinking and the Curriculum • Why Computational Thinking is considered to be important • The key concepts of Computational Thinking (Decomposition, Pattern Recognition, Pattern Generalisation, Abstraction) • Teaching Computational Thinking. By the end of this chapter you should be able to: • Explain what is meant by Computational Thinking in the context of secondary education • Understand the evolution of Computational Thinking and its place within the curriculum • Understand why it is considered to be important • Teach Computational Thinking and the key concepts that underpin it, including Decomposition, Pattern Recognition, Pattern Generalisation and Abstraction, using contexts across the curriculum • Link your teaching to real-world applications of Computational Thinking. Challenges From September 2014, teaching Computational Thinking is a requirement in England from Key Stage One to the end of Key Stage Four. This poses a number of challenges to the teacher. One challenge is that there is particular terminology associated with Computational Thinking, which the teacher and pupils need to understand and use. Another is that some pupils will only associate this with the subject of Computing unless we can show them its relevance across subjects. Some pupils will find logical thinking difficult and will need support. 95

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS Context is critical Looking at Computational Thinking in context is a key point you need to take on board. Problem-solving is a component part of Computational Thinking. It is also a facet of many subjects within the curriculum, even though currently the language used to describe the component parts of problem-solving may not be the same. In an ideal world all teachers would use a common language, but at this early stage this is unlikely to happen. Currently, at Key Stage Four, the National Curriculum for England states that all pupils must develop Computational Thinking skills, regardless of whether they are doing Computing or not. Thus, the ability to apply Computational Thinking beyond Computing is essential. What you can do is to help pupils recognise direct links between problem-solving in other subjects in the curriculum and techniques involved in Computational Thinking. However, in Computing it is essential you make the links between Computational Thinking and real-world application. A number of suggestions for context and examples of real-world applications are given in this chapter. Support and creativity A range of teaching strategies will be discussed that support learning using Computational Thinking, which promotes creative teaching and creativity in pupils. WHAT IS COMPUTATIONAL THINKING? There is no universally agreed definition of Computational Thinking. In America it is regarded as: a fundamental analytical skill that everyone can use to help solve problems, design systems, and understand human behavior, making it useful in a number of fields. Supporters of this viewpoint believe that computational thinking is comparable to the linguistic, mathematical and logical reasoning taught to all children. (NAP, 2010) In England, the Computing At Schools Working Group (CAS) describe it as the process of ‘recognising aspects of computation in the world that surrounds us, and applying tools and techniques from computing to understand and reason about both natural and artificial systems and processes’ (CAS, 2012a, p. 9). Task 5.1 Research definitions There are a number of additional definitions of ‘Computational Thinking’. Research and discuss how well they fit within the context of the Programme of Study for Computing in England. We regard Computational Thinking as thinking logically to try to solve problems, efficiently, using algorithms and procedures. It shares characteristics of the tools and techniques applied in engineering, design and mathematics to solve problems. 96

COMPUTATIONAL THINKING However, as has already been pointed out, these techniques are not exclusive. Computational Thinking is ‘influencing research in nearly all disciplines, both in the sciences and the humanities’ (Bundy, 2007). COMPUTATIONAL THINKING AND THE CURRICULUM Computational Thinking is a term sometimes accredited to the American scholar Seymour Papert as early as 1993 (Papert, 1993). More recently it has been linked to the work of Jeannette Wing (2006). The movement to include it as a compulsory part of the education of secondary (and primary) children began in the USA, often building on the work of Wing, and led by the Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA) and the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). It was supported by a number of influential computing businesses, who were finding it difficult to recruit workers with the kinds of skills they needed, as well as universities, who had falling rolls on their Computer Science courses. This movement was noted by the British Computer Society (BCS), British Computing industries and Computer Science university departments in the UK. A number of factors then converged. There was a change of government in England; an Ofsted report criticising aspects of ICT teaching (Ofsted, 2011); Eric Schmidt, founder of Google, made a well-publicised speech in Edinburgh (Schmidt, 2011) stating he could not believe Computer Science was not taught in UK schools; the Royal Society of London (see Resources: Computational Thinking) responded to worries of universities and some in British industry about the declining numbers studying Computer Science with its report ‘Computing in Schools: Shut Down or Restart’ (Royal Society, 2012); and an organisation similar to the CSTA was created in the UK, supported by BCS, called ‘Computing At Schools’ (CAS). Thus, the pro- Computer Science and Computational Thinking movement, which had started in the USA, migrated to the UK, particularly in England. Those behind the movement believed it could be beneficial to both pupils’ learning and to the economy. They raised its profile, subsequently influencing policymakers such that it led to the creation of a new Programme of Study (PoS) for England in Computing (DfE, 2013), replacing the previous PoS in ICT on the National Curriculum for 2014. Computational Thinking was a key theme within this PoS. Task 5.2 Discussion on Educational Policy This is a good example of how a special interest group influenced Educational Policy. However, the debate is ongoing. Discuss whether you think revisions to the PoS have gone far enough (or too far) in addressing the deficiencies that Eric Schmidt and Ofsted identified. WHY IS COMPUTATIONAL THINKING IMPORTANT? It has real-world application Computational Thinking has already influenced research in science and engineering disciplines for many years. Today’s use of expert systems to analyse massive amounts of data means that computation has been recognised by some scientists as the third pillar of science, along with theory and experimentation. 97

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS Other areas using Computational Thinking include: medicine; archaeology; economics; finance; journalism; law; social science; and humanities. Data analytics (a specialised application of Computational Thinking) is used in: training Army recruits; spam and credit card fraud detection; recommendation and reputation services; and personalising coupons at supermarket checkouts. In many higher educational institutions, Computational Thinking is taught in: applied mathematics, biology, chemistry, design, economics, finance, linguistics, mechanics, neuroscience, physics, statistical learning; and in computational photography. Areas of entertainment, such as animation and gaming, rely heavily on Computational Thinking. Performance in sport is heavily influenced by systems that collect real- time data, use algorithms to recognise patterns and make abstractions to suggest improvements. Economists use Computational Thinking to examine trends and hypotheses about future performance; for example, of the Stock Exchange. Task 5.3 Research uses of Computational Thinking Research three areas suggested above where Computational Thinking is used. Consider how you can make them relevant and accessible to your pupils. It supports learning Computational Thinking encourages problem-solving and abstract thinking. Using abstraction to think at different levels, to manage complexity and to cope with scale, brings a range of skills that are transferable and can support learning across the curriculum and beyond. It can encourage creativity Computational Thinking does not have to be constrained by reality and what is currently possible. It allows us to use ‘virtual reality’ to propose, hypothesise, test and evaluate anything, from producing a stage play to travelling to Mars. Computational Thinking allows us to be expansive, to take risks, to explore different solutions and to propose new and/or original outcomes. As illustrated above, Computational Thinking is applied in many different kinds of work and research. It can encourage creativity. It can give pupils transferable skills and may lead directly to jobs. Some even claim that if we equip all our pupils with this capacity it may impact positively on the whole economy. Additionally, it has an intrinsic value as an intellectual discipline. WHAT ARE THE KEY CONCEPTS OF COMPUTATIONAL THINKING? In teaching about Computational Thinking there are a number of key ideas and concepts we need to help pupils understand. These include ‘four elements’: decomposition; pattern recognition; pattern generalisation; and abstraction. Other writers (Tiensuu, 2012; Hu, 2011) refer to more, but in the secondary school context these are essential. In considering the ‘four elements’ of Computational Thinking it is important to avoid compartmentalisation. You need to make your pupils aware that, more often than not, the approach to problem-solving, using Computational Thinking, will be holistic. There is no defined sequence in which the four elements 98

COMPUTATIONAL THINKING should be applied. It is context-dependent and, in investigating different possible solutions, will vary. Any element can also carry greater or equal weighting. There are a number of techniques pupils need to be able to use and understand in order to engage in Computational Thinking. These include: creating algorithms and flowcharts; testing and debugging. Decomposition When looking at a problem it can help to break it down into a series of parts or subproblems. For example, the process of making dinner could be subdivided into the following activities: make starter; make main course; make sweet. This process, in Computational Thinking, is called ‘decomposition’. Pupils need to understand that it allows the problem to be solved in separate or incremental stages, or to be solved by different people or groups at different times. It helps to make complex processes more manageable. The organisation of data can also be decomposed. For example, in Geography, information about the population of a country can be decomposed into entities, such as gender, occupations, places of residence, etc. This will allow for more meaningful outcomes to emerge from any analysis. Sometimes the subprograms themselves can also be decomposed further. However, it is important that pupils understand not to continue with deconstruction to a point where coherence is lost. Another important point to teach pupils is that by decomposing into subproblems there is a potential danger if any one of the solutions to the subproblem is found to be incorrect, then the whole, when recomposed, will be incorrect. A classic example to illustrate this is that Charles Babbage, a nineteenth-century mathematician, amongst other things, was aware that tables of information (tide, movement of the planets) were created by teams of people called ‘computers’ (one who computes). Their task was to undertake a small part of the overall complex calculation associated with the area on which information was being compiled. These parts, identified by decomposing the original problem into much smaller calculations, would be answered, and the solutions gathered together to provide an overall solution. Small errors or inaccuracies in the subdivisions, of which there were many, were amplified once they were recomposed. This led to significant errors in the final tables, and much frustration by sailors and astronomers. Babbage attempted to devise a machine to do these calculations, instead of relying on people. Some regard this as the origin of the modern computer. Pattern Recognition If the problem, or the subproblem, being considered is based on or is similar to a previous problem, then the element of Computational Thinking known as ‘Pattern Recognition’, can be helpful. This is particularly true if there is significant data associated with the prior problem that has been gathered over time. In Pattern Recognition, the data is looked at to see if there are patterns or trends. Plotting graphs, establishing lines of best fit, creating charts et al. are useful to help with this. If patterns are identified by pupils, these can help with hypothesising what might now happen. For example, people looking for trends in the performance of shares can use them to help them to decide when to buy and sell. 99

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS Task 5.4 Pattern Recognition Can you identify more examples to illustrate how Pattern Recognition can be useful to your pupils? Pattern Generalisation Generalisation is the process of recognising common patterns across problems or subproblems to simplify the process by sharing common features. This is done by making explicit what is shared between the examples, and what is different about them. For example, in weather forecasting, patterns identified from past data on environmental conditions, such as various combinations of ambient temperature and humidity, are used to hypothesise future weather. In coding, having written a procedure to draw a square of size 3 and another to draw a square of size 5, pupils might recognise a rule that allows them to create a procedure to draw a square of any size N. In this way, some of the code used in different programs can be written once, debugged once and documented once. The key concept pupils must understand is that, having identified a pattern, it may be possible to extract rules from their observations that can be applied to new situations. Abstraction In Abstraction, Computational Thinking attempts to deal with complexity by hiding details behind a simplified model of the situation. Modelling, as discussed in Chapter 6, is the process of developing a representation of a real-world issue, system or situation, which captures the key aspects for a particular purpose, but omits everything considered unnecessary for the particular problem. Task 5.5 Abstraction Abstraction is a difficult concept for pupils to grasp, but once they understand it they find it a useful skill for dealing with complexity. Can you think of ways of helping Year 8 pupils to apply this concept? HOW DO YOU TEACH COMPUTATIONAL THINKING? Use the language As with any subject, Computing has subject-specific vocabulary. We must teach this to the pupils and encourage them to use it correctly and in context. Thus it is important to introduce pupils to the language of Computational Thinking from the beginning. 100

COMPUTATIONAL THINKING Task 5.6 Wall display Design a wall display to define the four elements of Computational Thinking in a language appropriate for Key Stage Three. As discussed above, Computational Thinking is not subject-specific. To really embed the language, it should be used regularly, within a variety of contexts and in a variety of subject areas. However, it may be unrealistic to expect colleagues in other subject areas, who have their own vocabularies and content to teach, to easily integrate the language of Computational Thinking as well. We, therefore, should try to use examples in our teaching that relate to other subjects, supporting pupils in seeing how it applies across different areas of the curriculum. Task 5.7 Computational Thinking across the curriculum Suggest how you might apply Computational Thinking in different areas of the curriculum. How could you support colleagues in introducing the concepts of Computational Thinking into their subject? Scaffolding learning/incremental learning As with many concepts and techniques, it is good practice, when introducing Computational Thinking, to begin with simple practical examples and problems that pupils can relate to, and then, as they grow in understanding and competence, to move to more complex problem-solving. The chapter on Simulation (Chapter 6) provides a number of examples of scaffolding/incremental learning. Algorithms Algorithms are clear, unambiguous sets of instructions. Computing at Schools (CAS, 2012a) suggests that pupils at Key Stage One should know the following: • Algorithms are sets of instructions for achieving goals, made up of pre- defined steps. • Algorithms can be represented in simple formats. • They can describe everyday activities and can be followed by humans and by computers. • Computers need more precise instructions than humans do. • Steps can be repeated and some steps can be made up of smaller steps. At Key Stage Two they suggest pupils need to know that: • Algorithms can be represented symbolically (flowcharts) or using instructions in a clearly defined language (turtle graphics). • Algorithms can include selection (if) and repetition (loops). 101

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS • Algorithms may be decomposed into component parts (procedures), each of which contains an algorithm. • Algorithms should be stated without ambiguity, and care and precision are necessary to avoid errors. • Algorithms are developed according to a plan and then tested. Algorithms are corrected if they fail these tests. • It can be easier to plan, test and correct parts of an algorithm separately. (CAS, 2012a, p. 13) As Computing is relatively new, Key Stage Three pupils may not have this understanding. Even if they have looked at the concepts before, some revision is helpful. As mentioned in another context, earlier in this chapter, you need to begin with simple algorithms that relate to everyday events and then move to more specific and complex examples. The first part of the Royal Institute Christmas Lecture, ‘Ghost in the Machine’ (Bishop, 2008), illustrates the concept of a simple algorithm well. Getting pupils to use or produce algorithms of events, processes or systems they are familiar with will generate deeper learning and reinforce the need for precision and order. There can be more than one algorithm for a particular process. For example, the stages given in Appendix 5.1 for creating a pizza can be sequenced in different ways. An edible pizza (one would hope) would still emerge. To facilitate Computational Thinking, having identified the alternative algorithms, the next stage is for pupils to determine which is the best one. Of course, this may depend on how you define ‘best’. Task 5.8 Algorithms Design a resource to introduce/recap the idea of an algorithm to Year 7, which uses a subject area other than Computing. Often pupils will create algorithms that do not work. It should be stressed that this is acceptable and reflects what happens in the real world. Algorithms need testing, ‘debugging’ and refining before we arrive at the most efficient version. This can be illustrated in an engaging and creative way by using the activity and/or video ‘Jambot’ (Bagge, 2012). At Key Stage Three, the Programme of Study for England explicitly states that pupils need to know ‘several key algorithms that reflect computational thinking [for example, ones for sorting and searching]; use logical reasoning to compare the utility of alternative algorithms for the same problem’ (DfE, 2013). Task 5.9 Sorting and searching algorithms Research the key algorithms used by computers for sorting (insert sort, merge sort, bubble sort, selection sort, quick-sort) and searching. How might you introduce these algorithms and their uses, in a creative way, to Key Stage Three pupils? 102

COMPUTATIONAL THINKING Flowcharts Flowcharts are an excellent visual way to represent algorithms. They use symbols to represent steps in the algorithm, and arrows to indicate the sequence. It is recommended that you teach pupils to use the basic symbols from Computing. There is a range of flowchart symbols, but for teaching algorithms those shown in Appendix 5.2 are usually sufficient. For examination courses, it is important to check if other symbols are required or recommended. Complex problems Once pupils understand simple algorithms, it is important to introduce more complex problems that employ Decomposition, Pattern Recognition, Pattern Generalisation and Abstraction. This approach lends itself readily to pupils working either individually or in groups. Problems could link to the ‘real world’ or be of an imaginary nature; for example, aspects of gaming or virtual worlds. Task 5.10 Computational Thinking and the PoS Cross-reference the activities suggested in the chapter (and those you may have already designed) against the requirements for Computational Thinking in the Programme of Study for Computing and the guidance given by CAS above (CAS, 2012a & b). Can you identify any gaps? If so, how might you cover these? REFERENCES Bagge, P. (2012), Program your teacher to make a Jam Sandwich (Sandwich Bot) Junior Computer Science, resources available at www.code-it.co.uk ; video available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=leBEFaVHllE&feature=youtu.be Accessed 04/03/2014. Bishop, C. (2008), Ghost in the Machine, The Royal Institute Christmas lectures, London. Available at http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/cmbi shop/outreach.htm. Accessed 04/03/2014. Bundy, A. (2007), Computational Thinking is pervasive, Journal of Scientific and Practical Computing, 1, 67–69. Edinburgh; available at http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/ publications/report/1245.html Accessed 04/03/2014. CAS (2012a), Computer Science: a curriculum for schools, Computing at School Working Group, available at http://www.computingatschool.org.uk/data/ uploads/ComputingCurric.pdf. Accessed 26/02/2014. CAS (2012b), A Curriculum Framework for Computer Science and Information Technology. Available at http://www.computingatschool.org.uk/data/uploads/Curriculum %20Framework%20for%20CS%20and%20IT.pdf Accessed 03/04/2014. DfE (2013), Department for Education, National curriculum in England: computing programmes of study, London. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications/national-curriculum-in-england-computing-programmes-of- study. Accessed 26/02/2014. Hu, C. (2011), Computational Thinking – what it might mean and what we might do about it, Proceedings of the 16th annual joint conference on Innovation and technology in computer science education. Darmstadt, Germany: Association Computing Machinery (ACM). 103

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS National Academies Press (NAP) (2010), Report of a Workshop on The Scope and Nature of Computational Thinking, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Papert, S. (1993). Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and powerful Ideas. Cambridge, MA: Perseus. Royal Society (2012), Computing in Schools: Shut down or restart? London. Available at ht t p://r oya l s o c ie t y.o r g/e du c at io n/p ol ic y/c o mput i n g-i n - s c h o ol s/r e p o r t/ Accessed 26/02/2014. Schmidt, E. (2011), MacTaggart Lecture at the Edinburgh International Television Festival. Available at http://www.mediaweek.co.uk/article/1087474/edinburgh- tv-festival-eric-schmidts-mactaggart-lecture-full Accessed 26/02/2014. Tiensuu, A. (2012), Computational Thinking in Regard to Thinking and Problem-solving, MSc Thesis, University of Tampere, Finland. Wing, J. (2006), Computational thinking, Communications of the Association of Computing Machinery (CACM), 49(3), 33–35. USEFUL WEBSITES AND RESOURCES Computational Thinking Royal Society http://royalsociety.org/about-us/ TED http://www.ted.com/search?cat=ss_all&q=computational+thinking Video http://www.iste.org/learn/computational-thinking Algorithms Algorithms http://www.teach-ict.com/gcse_computing/ocr/216_programming/ algorithms/home_algorithms.htm Bubble sort algorithm as folk dance http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= lyZQPjUT5B4 Ghost in the Machine, Professor Christopher Bishop http://research.microsoft. com/en-us/um/people/cmbishop/outreach.htm Jambot http://code-it.co.uk/ ; video at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=leBEFaV HllE&feature=youtu.be Search algorithms http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wNVCJj642n4 Programmable Hardware Bebots and Roamers http://www.tts-group.co.uk/shops/tts/Products/PD1723538/ Bee-Bot-Floor-Robot/ Big Trak http://www.bigtrakxtr.co.uk/ Associated Software Logo (free) http://el.media.mit.edu/logo-foundation/products/software.html Simple programming apps http://www.whiteboardblog.co.uk/2013/07/ipad-apps- for-coding/ Others Primary and Secondary National Curriculum for Computing in ITT Expert Group recommended resources https://sites.google.com/site/primaryictitt/ TED YouTube videos on Computing http://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLF70 32F8EB1A4F9E2 104

COMPUTATIONAL THINKING Relevant sections on the Computing Programme of Study The National Curriculum for Computing aims to ensure that all pupils: • Can understand and apply the fundamental principles and concepts of computer science, including abstraction, logic, algorithms and data representation. • Can analyse problems in computational terms, and have repeated practical experience of writing computer programs in order to solve such problems. • Can evaluate and apply information technology, including new or unfamiliar technologies, analytically to solve problems. Key Stage Three Pupils should be taught to: • Undertake creative projects that involve selecting, using, and combining multiple applications, preferably across a range of devices, to achieve challenging goals, including collecting and analysing data and meeting the needs of known users. N.B. these extracts from the Computing Programme of Study for England should always be read in the context of the whole Programme of Study. 105

Appendix 5.1 Algorithm activity ADVICE: This activity works well for groups, who discuss and decide on the sequence. This can be indicated by numbering the stages on the sheet, or you could give the stages as separate cards for them to sort into order. THE ALGORITHM FOR MAKING A PIZZA Name ____________________________________________ Can you put these steps into the correct order? Number Step Put on your apron Spread tomato sauce on top When ready, cut into slices and eat Make the dough Roll out the dough into a round shape Wash your hands Place into the oven to cook Put on your toppings Grate the cheese and sprinkle on top 106

Appendix 5.2 Flowchart symbols Start Indicates the beginning of the algorithm Process (action) Indicates a step or subproblem Decision Indicates that there are alternative sequences, dependent on the response to a ‘question’ Stop Indicates the end of the algorithm Arrow Indicates the ‘direction’ the Input/output sequence goes in Indicates data is input or output: it is recommended that this symbol is only used when pupils move on to programming 107

Chapter 6 Simulation ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS INTRODUCTION In this chapter we will examine: • What is meant by Simulation? • Modelling • Control • Programming. By the end of this chapter you should be able to: • Recognise the importance of Simulation • Understand the challenges of teaching Modelling, Control and Programming • Identify strategies for embedding Simulation in all its forms within the curriculum. WHAT IS MEANT BY SIMULATION? The term ‘Simulation’ in the context of this book is regarded as an activity in which some aspect of human enterprise is emulated and explored through virtual and/or physical models. Simulation is usually but not always ‘controlled’ by a microprocessor in one form or another, using a program to regulate the behaviour of the system. This definition has been adopted because it provides a means of unifying a number of separate but deeply related elements of Computing: Modelling, Control and Programming. Although they are dealt with separately in this chapter the greatest pedagogical value can be gained when, collectively, they play some part in a Simulation activity. 108

SIMULATION Task 6.1 Deep learning Consider the relative values of asking pupils to simulate the workings of a pelican crossing by: a) Flowchart software b) Writing the underlying program, modelling the outcome virtually, then making the connection to an interface ‘live’, to test its effectiveness. Which example most readily allows deep learning to take place that might usefully be applied to new problems and/or situations? The relationships between these different elements are easily identified and explored when Simulation is regarded as the connecting link. This definition also resonates with the application of the term when it is used beyond the world of bits and bytes. This is important. One of the key tenets adhered to by the authors is that Computational Thinking skills, essential for undertaking any Simulation activity successfully, can be applied universally. When pupils are invited to ‘act out’ different roles in a business or an environmental game, to gain a better understanding of how vested interest groups operate, they are engaged in a form of Simulation. Much of the knowledge and understanding related to Computational Thinking is being used. They are required to break down any role into its basic components, identify trends and prejudices, and formulate rules and eventually model behaviours. Pupils need to understand that Simulations allow: 1 Risks to be taken that, under normal circumstances, would never be sanctioned. For example, investigating the behaviour of infectious bacteria, or the delicate balance between species that hunt and those which are hunted, is possible, without inviting a major calamity. 2 Trials to be conducted which may be too expensive to carry out for real. Flight simulators enable trainee and experienced pilots to develop their basic flying skills and their ability to deal with a variety of different situations. Whilst this may avoid the horrendous consequences of getting things wrong, it is also cheaper than using an aircraft. 3 Events that happen too slowly or too quickly to be understood. The only way that climatologists can realistically explore the effect of different factors on weather patterns over time is to simulate the climate. The types of Simulations that can be employed in an educational context are only limited by the imagination and creativity of the learner and the teacher. They can be simple and static, or complex and dynamic. Even the plea that a lack of resources inhibits what can be done is only partially true. Recently, a thirteen-year-old pupil at a school in the north-west of England created an international stir by generating helium through nuclear fusion in a miniature reactor he built as part of a school science project (see Resources: Nuclear Fusion). He used Simulation to model his proposal, and plans to build a Hadron Collider next. 109

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS Task 6.2 Virtual games Virtual games are a form of Simulation that most pupils are very familiar with, but are not employed widely in school. Edwards (2012) contends that educators who do not make use of gaming are missing an opportunity to add to pupil motivation, and to develop a broad range of skills and competencies. Discuss with a colleague if, when and how you would use gaming with your pupils to teach Simulation. MODELLING The Computing at Schools group (CAS, 2012b) suggest that Modelling is the process of developing a representation of a real-world issue, system, or situation, which captures the key aspects for a specific purpose, but omits everything deemed unnecessary. For example, the London Underground map is a simple model of a complex reality. It contains the precise information necessary to plan a route from one station to another, but ignores actual geographic positions. Task 6.3 Storyboarding How can you use the concept of storyboarding (such as those used in films or animations) to illustrate the notion that Modelling can capture the ‘big picture’, whilst omitting the fine detail of an event or idea, without compromising validity? Modelling in schools using computers is not a new idea. In the latter part of the last century, when the first practical desktop computers began to appear, teachers were experimenting with what they regarded as a new way of promoting learning. The notion that you could model real-world events (or even imaginary ones) was both exciting and challenging. It offered a way of bridging the gap between abstract thinking and experiential learning. It belied the notion that Constructivism and Computing were mutually exclusive. Prior to this, Modelling had been the preserve of mathematicians. Making this activity less dependent on expert knowledge, particularly with the advent of the graphical interface, meant it was more widely available as a tool for teaching quite complex ideas. However, pupils must be made aware that mathematical Modelling: 1 Underpins what is happening inside the computer even if they cannot see it at work directly. 2 Is still used extensively in industry, commerce and even by bureaucrats and politicians, to explore such things as the workings of the Stock Exchange and the management of education systems. It is also important that pupils understand that computer Modelling can be used to represent an event or activity where the outcome is known and repeatable, such as a chemical reaction, or where the outcome is affected by a number of variables and is likely to be unknown. Whilst the ‘what if’ approach is enticing, models which are static suit those in the early part of their learning journey because they 110

SIMULATION more readily promote an understanding of the relationship between parts. Both approaches should be employed as part of a strategy to encourage incremental or scaffolded learning. For example, pupils who use computer Modelling to explore the relationship between the components in an electrical switching circuit may be able, at some point, to design and test their own virtual circuits. Modelling can imitate some part of an event or activity quite effectively, but how well the event or activity has been broken down into its component parts, and the quality of the information fed in, will significantly affect its workings and any resulting outcome. The phrase ‘Garbage In Garbage Out’ (GIGO) is quite widely used in relationship to this phenomenon. A dramatic example of the interdependency of parts of a model is illustrated by the work of some high school students in Arizona, on leaf shrinkage. The fossilised leaf record was used partly by climate scientists to determine weather patterns in the past. Larger leaves were regarded as an indication of warmer periods (significant growth) and smaller ones as an indication of cooler periods. Shrinkage as a result of the drying-out process was considered to be a negligible feature. The students were able to prove that this was incorrect. Leaves do shrink much more than was previously thought when they dry out. Their discovery is now factored into climate models, thus making them more accurate (see Resources: Leaf Shrinkage). A general principle that pupils need to be made aware of is that the likelihood of error increases exponentially as the scale and connections between parts multiplies. Teaching computer Modelling in schools can be achieved using a broad spectrum of tools that range from spreadsheets and algorithms, to the virtual worlds offered through gaming. The particular nature of spreadsheets makes them very valuable. Spreadsheets first emerged in 1979, for use with personal computers in the form of VisiCalc; an application designed to help with accounting tasks. The original concept of a simple array of rows and columns through which data can be updated automatically has been continually extended to now include: … libraries of mathematical and statistical functions, versatile graphing and charting facilities, powerful add-ins such as Microsoft Excel’s Solver, attractive and highly functional graphical user interfaces, and the ability to write custom code in languages such as Microsoft’s Visual Basic for Applications. (Baker and Sugden, 2007, Abstract) It is probably accurate to state that when Dan Bricklin, a MIT graduate, created VisiCalc, he could not have anticipated how all-pervasive its successors would become. However, the basic idea ‘has stood the test of time; indeed it is nowadays an indispensable item of software, not only in business and in the home, but also in academe’ (Baker and Sugden, 2007, Abstract). Spreadsheets are enormously flexible and relatively easy to use. They require the application of Computational Thinking. Pupils must engage in Abstract Reasoning and Pattern Recognition and make rules to employ them properly (see Resources: Modelling). They can be employed to investigate and test activities and events, and readily support the dreaded ‘what if’ question. They enable direct links with mathematical Modelling and programming to be made by pupils. And of course, they are cheap. There is a section in Chapter 7 on common misconceptions associated with spreadsheets. 111

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS Task 6.4 Key terms for Modelling The passage above by no means includes all the technical terms associated with the concept of computer Modelling. Discuss with a colleague additional words you would include in your list, and identify activities you might ask pupils to engage in, to increase their understanding of these terms (see Resources: Theory of Modelling). CONTROL A Control system should be regarded as a method of achieving a specified end, or an event involving direction by a computer. It usually entails: 1 A change in the status of data or a device. 2 The interaction of a set of parts of the system working together. Control systems in schools, dependant on context and the resources available, can be virtual and/or modelled. It is essential that you encourage pupils from the very start to identify the overarching reason(s) for the specified end or event, before they can make real sense of the role of the parts. Avoid the temptation of concentrating on the discrete at the expense of understanding the whole. For example, you could establish with pupils that safety is the main purpose of a Control system for monitoring the number of people entering and exiting a given space at a concert or a sporting venue. Having decided what you want to control, specifying how the parts of the system should behave will follow more readily. This could mean that you engage in a meaningful discussion about the most important outcome of the monitoring system: perhaps an alert sent to appropriate personnel warning of potential overcrowding is triggered once a predetermined total is reached. Hence it is much easier to establish that parts for counting, comparing totals and issuing warnings are required, and work out how they interrelate. Task 6.5 Systems The systems approach to Control makes it much easier to apply what has been learnt from the familiar to the new and unfamiliar. How would you help pupils to recognise the learning they could apply from this approach to other disciplines? A Control system usually contains: 1 A computer or microprocessor. 2 An interface which converts signals between the sensors and the processor. 3 A control program which manages data from input sensors and sends signals to output devices or actuators. Pupils need to understand that signals can commence on a one-way journey (open loop), or may be redirected and used to provide feedback (closed loop) that 112

SIMULATION influences the behaviour of the system. The signals are either analogue or digital in nature, and a device to convert them from one format to the other may be required (Analogue to Digital Convertor [ADC]/Digital to Analogue Convertor [DAC]). Both feedback and ADC/DAC are pivotal concepts and need to be introduced with care. Incremental or scaffolded learning and teaching, through the use of analogy and/or examples with which pupils will be familiar is a good way to do this. For instance, you may choose to make reference to thermoregulation, to explain to your pupils the connections between the parts of a Control system. Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different. In human beings this means that receptors in the skin sense external temperature (Input). The hypothalamus in the brain compares this with body temperature (Process). If there is a significant difference, e.g. it is cold outside, a signal is transmitted that induces shivering, which generates heat (Output). This is an unconscious action that continues until the difference is no longer a threat, or further action is required (Feedback). This approach also strengthens the notion that you can teach some aspects of Computer control without access to expensive equipment and programmes. Task 6.6 Analogies How would you explain the following using an exemplar and/or an analogy? Input; Process; Output; Open/Closed Loops; ADC/DAC It is important to make pupils aware that although the discrete parts of a Control system do exist separately in some devices, they are difficult to identify; e.g. the microprocessor in an automatic kettle, or a car engine management system. Pupils also encounter many features of a Control system, particularly input and output devices, in different subjects; e.g. Design and Technology, Science. They may not transfer this knowledge readily to Computing. Therefore, you need to help them make links by reinforcing what they should already know. Some of the Control kits available for use in schools have an array of input and output devices that are useful in this context. Task 6.7 Sensors There are a multitude of sensors and actuators used in Control systems. Identify which devices you regard as the most important, to introduce to children who are encountering the concept for the first time, and state how you would do it. The word ‘Control’ is not mentioned explicitly in the current Computing programmes of study at Key Stages Three and Four. However, it is hard to imagine Computing being taught without some significant examination of this area because it: 113

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS 1 Affords pupils the opportunity to apply the skills, knowledge and understanding associated with Computational Thinking in familiar and sometimes not so familiar contexts. 2 Can be highly motivating if presented and packaged appropriately. Since Control very often involves easily demonstrable results it can facilitate the transition from the concrete to the abstract more than other activities. 3 Is all-pervasive. In developed nations everyday life is affected to some degree by computer Control, from the food we eat to our means of transportation. 4 Has a direct connection to other science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines. 5 Has a direct connection to the world of commerce and manufacturing. The CAS group (2012b), in their work on a computer science curriculum for schools, explicitly recommends the study of how digital computers are used to control other devices. Task 6.8 Advantages and limitations of Control Investigate the advantages, limitations and disadvantages of computer Control. How would you facilitate this discussion with your pupils? PROGRAMMING England is one of the few countries in the world to make Programming a compulsory part of the curriculum. This represents a great opportunity for those teaching Computing to promote the true integration of all aspects of this subject (as referred to in the section on Simulation). By the end of Key Stage Two pupils will be expected to design and write their own programs. In relationship to programming, the Key Stage Three Programmes of Study (PoS) states that pupils must be taught to: • Use two or more programming languages, at least one of which is textual, to solve a variety of computational problems; design and develop modular programs that use procedures or functions. • Understand simple Boolean logic and some of its uses in circuits and programming. The Key Stage Four PoS are less prescriptive. Making programming available to all pupils in schools is not a new idea. Seymour Papert, originally a Professor of Mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), developed (with others) an educational programming language in 1967, called Logo, expressly to teach programming concepts associated with a higher-level language called Lisp. His work with Jean Piaget had convinced him that it was possible to create a programming environment founded on constructivist learning principles. What emerged was a tool that, with the advent of cheap personal computing, was a transformative learning technology. Papert’s revolutionary use of a turtle avatar, which pupils could ‘control’ figuratively, made the principles of programming more accessible to all. Logo is still used today, but there are many new interactive and multimedia programs, such as Scratch, which employ a graphical interface that makes them equally, and perhaps more, accessible. 114

SIMULATION Task 6.9 Programming Identify other Open Source packages or Apps that you might employ to teach the principles of programming. Classify these as using graphical and textual-based languages. Evaluate their suitability for use with those with intermediate or advanced knowledge of programming. Others have continued to build on Papert’s legacy. A group including Eben Upton, Rob Mullins, Jack Lang and Alan Mycroft, who were based at the University of Cambridge’s Computer Laboratory, noticed over a number years that there appeared to be a decline in the programming skills of A-Level students applying to study Computer Science. This was in stark contrast to the situation in the 1990s, when pupils could readily develop their skills through access to BBC Micros, Spectrum ZX and Commodore 64 machines, (see Resources: Programming). In response, Upton and the others developed Raspberry Pi, a platform like the BBC Micro, which could provide ready access to a programming environment (see Resources: Programming). This device can also help pupils to understand computer architecture more readily, and how the parts of a system relate to each other. However, although physical resources are important, teaching strategies are paramount. In Programming, the use of examples or analogies, as in other aspects of Computing, is a very powerful teaching tool. For instance, you can explain algorithms by asking your pupils to consider the different ways to get home after attending a club at school. These might be identified as follows: 1 Algorithm of the Bus: a) Go to Bus Stop; b) Catch Number 30 to Tranmere Road; c) Transfer to bus 27; d) Get off at United Street; e) Walk for two minutes to my house. 2 Algorithm of the Taxi: a) Wait for taxi; b) Confirm it is booked for me; c) Get in taxi; d) At destination, pay fare; e) Get out and go to my house. 3 Algorithm of the phone call home: a) Ring home and ask for a lift; b) Wait for guardian/parent/friend of the family to arrive; c) Moan all the way home about what is for tea; d) Get out and go straight upstairs without talking to anybody. You might make the point to your pupils that all three algorithms have the same objective, but each achieves it differently. The variations between them in terms of cost, time and safety are worth discussing in depth. It is also important to establish which algorithm they favour and why (see Chapter 5, Computational Thinking and the curriculum, for more on algorithms). It is not a huge step to apply this learning to more abstract contexts when the tools used as a metaphor become more challenging; i.e. Boolean algebra and decision-making. Similarly, you may explore some aspect of programming languages by asking pupils to start with a sequence of commands and decipher what they mean given a set of clues: a sort of code-breaking exercise. For example, in Logo, the sequence forward 120: right 90: Repeat 4 can be ‘cracked’ to mean ‘draw a square’. The introduction of Pseudo Code, which allows pupils to bridge the gap between 115

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS everyday language, algorithms and programming code, can also be linked to this kind of activity. Task 6.10 Syntax Computer syntax, which determines how declarations, functions, commands and other statements should be arranged, is like the rules of grammar in a language. Identify similar statements for the following program-related terms, and plan a lesson based on at least two of them: Loops, Iteration, Selection, Conditional, Procedures and Functions. There are a plethora of computer languages used for programming. You can’t teach them all, but pupils must be made aware that they vary in relationship to the tasks they are designed to perform. For example, the various iterations of C are good for Gaming amongst other things, whilst HTML et al. are linked directly to web page development and the Internet. As with all things in Computing, context is all-important in devising strategies for teaching Programming. Task 6.11 Programming languages Review the list of program language identified on this site http://www. computerhope.com/jargon/p/proglang.htm. Create an imaginary (or employ a real) scenario on which a limited series of lessons can be used to teach at least one of these languages to Key Stage Three or Four pupils. Your scenario should have hidden twists and turns to test pupil ingenuity and inventiveness, as well as understanding. Papert’s vision was that children should be programming a computer rather than being programmed by it. He was very insistent that creativity should be allowed to emerge. To achieve this, pupils must be given the freedom to try things out and make mistakes. Fortunately, programming is an activity where the opportunities for experimentation and innovation are plentiful. However, this freedom comes at a price. It should be underpinned by a disciplined approach to both learning and teaching. Debugging programs effectively, at whatever level, requires tenacity and close attention to detail. This will not happen by accident for the majority of children. You must instil these habits by providing them with the right kind of tools and techniques when you teach Programming. At various stages you should get them to do debugging exercises, starting with algorithms, then pseudocode then for specific languages. REFERENCES Baker, J. and Sugden, S. J. (2007) Spreadsheets in Education: the first 25 Years, Spreadsheets in Education (eJSiE), 1(1), Article 2. Available at: http://epublications. bond.edu.au/ejsie/vol1/iss1/2. Accessed 03/04/2014. 116

SIMULATION CAS (2012a), Computer Science: a curriculum for schools, Computing at School Working Group, available at http://www.computingatschool.org.uk. Accessed 26/02/2014. CAS (2012b), A Curriculum Framework for Computer Science and Information Technology. Available at http://www.computingatschool.org.uk/data/uploads/Curriculum %20Framework%20for%20CS%20and%20IT.pdf Accessed 03/04/2014. Edwards, A. (2012), New Technology and Education, London: Bloomsbury. USEFUL WEBSITES AND RESOURCES Modelling Leaf Shrinkage. http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2013-05/high-school-students- scientific-paper-shows-how-climate-models-are-misleading#2vyDEJcDIpbqTPVw.03 Nuclear Fusion. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-26450494 Spreadsheets. http://serc.carleton.edu/sp/library/spreadsheets/why.html Theory of Modelling. http://www.igcseict.info/theory/7_1/model/ Control Arduino. http://www.arduino.cc/ BBC Micro. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-15969065 Input Sensors, Analogue to Digital. http://www.teach-ict.com/gcse_new/control/ control/miniweb/pg4.htm Kickstarter’s Kano. https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/alexklein/kano-a- computer-anyone-can-make Lego Mindstorms (NXT kits). http://www.lego.com/en-gb/mindstorms/?domainr edir=mindstorms.lego.com System. http://www.ictlounge.com/html/control_applications_examples.htm) Programming Alice. http://www.alice.org/index.php BBC Micro. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-15969065 Gamemaker. https://www.yoyogames.com/studio Gamestar Mechanic. https://gamestarmechanic.com/ Khan Academy. https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/cs/programming/ intro-to-programming/v/programming-intro Kodu. http://www.kodugamelab.com/ Live Code. http://livecode.com/ Logo. http://el.media.mit.edu/logo-foundation/logo/programming.html Minecraft. https://minecraft.net/ Program Language. http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/p/proglang.htm Raspberry Pi. http://www.raspberrypi.org/ Scratch (Speed Racer). http://scratched.media.mit.edu/resources/speed-racer-1- hour-scratch-introduction Yongpradit. http://patyongpradit.com/ 117

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS Relevant sections of Computing Programmes of Study The National Curriculum for Computing aims to ensure that all pupils: • Can understand and apply the fundamental principles and concepts of computer science, including abstraction, logic, algorithms and data representation. • Can evaluate and apply information technology, including new or unfamiliar technologies, analytically to solve problems. Key Stage Three Pupils should be taught to: • Design, use and evaluate computational abstractions that model the state and behaviour of real-world problems and physical systems. • Understand several key algorithms that reflect Computational Thinking [for example, ones for sorting and searching]; use logical reasoning to compare the utility of alternative algorithms for the same problem. • Use two or more programming languages, at least one of which is textual, to solve a variety of computational problems; make appropriate use of data structures [for example, lists, tables or arrays]; design and develop modular programs that use procedures or functions. • Understand simple Boolean logic [for example, AND, OR and NOT] and some of its uses in circuits and programming; understand how numbers can be represented in binary, and be able to carry out simple operations on binary numbers [for example, binary addition, and conversion between binary and decimal]. Key Stage Four All pupils must have the opportunity to study aspects of information technology and computer science at sufficient depth, to allow them to progress to higher levels of study or to a professional career. All pupils should be taught to: • Develop their capability, creativity and knowledge in computer science, digital media and information technology. • Develop and apply their analytic, problem-solving, design, and computational thinking skills. 118

Chapter 7 ICT and common misconceptions ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS INTRODUCTION Chapters 5 and 6 have raised a number of common misconceptions and ways to approach them in Computational Thinking and Simulation. This chapter looks at some of the common misconceptions associated with ICT. In this chapter we will examine: • What is meant by ICT in this context, and why is it important • Common misconceptions: what do we mean? • Word-processing, publishing and presentation skills, knowledge and understanding: key concepts, common misconceptions and how to avoid them • Spreadsheet skills, knowledge and understanding: key concepts, common misconceptions and how to avoid them • Database skills, knowledge and understanding: key concepts, common misconceptions and how to avoid them • Other common misconceptions and how to avoid them • Embedding ICT in the curriculum (contexts) • Real-world applications of ICT. By the end of this chapter you should be able to: • Explain why ICT is important • Explain key concepts for a range of ICT applications • Be able to anticipate and avoid common misconceptions pupils have about ICT • Teach ICT using cross-curricular contexts • Link your teaching to real-world applications of ICT. WHAT IS ICT AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? It is widely accepted that ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology. However, there is no universal agreement on what ICT actually is. Some believe there should be no ‘C’ at all, and in the curriculum in England, Information Technology (IT) only became ICT in 2000. The Qualifications and 119

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS Curriculum Agency guidelines for an ICT scheme of work stated that ‘Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) are the computing and communications facilities and features that variously support teaching, learning and a range of activities in education’ (Becta, 2007), whilst Information Technology (IT), they said, ‘comprises the knowledge, skills and understanding needed to employ information and communications technologies appropriately, securely and fruitfully in learning, employment and everyday life’ (Becta, 2007). In practice, whilst the content of subject from 2000 reflected IT, as described above, a decision to change the name to emphasise revisions, meant the subject and the facilities became known collectively, in schools in England, as ‘ICT’. In the Programmes of Study (PoS) for Computing, ICT and IT are mentioned, though not clearly defined. ICT, IT, Computer Science and Digital Literacy are seen as complementary and interlinked parts of Computing. Task 7.1 Definitions Research definitions of IT, ICT and Digital Literacy. Looking at the Computing PoS, which definitions do you think could best be applied to the new English curriculum? In the rest of this chapter, ICT is viewed as the use of existing hardware and software, to solve problems and support learning and teaching, in Computing and across the curriculum. Why does ICT matter? ICT gives pupils a range of knowledge, skills and understanding they need for life. Many activities, ranging from ordering a pizza to managing a bank account, to booking a holiday, require digital literacy. ICT can enhance the learning experience for pupils in schools, further education and higher education. The ICT sector is a major area of employment, and reports difficulties in recruiting people with the skills they want. According to E-Skills UK, the Sector Skills Council for Business and Information Technology in the UK, 1 in 20 UK workers is employed in the IT or Telecoms workforce, and there are 144,000 IT/Telecom workplaces (E-Skills UK, 2014). Many jobs in other sectors rely on digital literacy. ICT, therefore, is an important part of the Computing curriculum. Approaches to teaching ICT In teaching ICT, as with all aspects of Computing, it is important to give pupils contexts that are relevant to them and linked, as far as possible, to real-world uses. A range of ideas for real-world contexts are given throughout Part 2 of this book. You should encourage creative approaches and encourage pupils to employ Computational Thinking (see Chapter 5). Ofsted (Ofsted, 2011) identified that poor teaching in ICT was too teacher-led and focused too much on skills, to the detriment of knowledge and understanding. To prepare pupils to be digitally literate and meet the needs of employers and society, we want pupils to be confident, competent, autonomous users of ICT in a wide range of contexts, with the ability to transfer this to other contexts within and beyond school. We need them to understand why 120

ICT AND COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS particular ICT approaches are used, to make informed choices about their own use of ICT, to be able to evaluate the effectiveness and impact of ICT solutions, to be able to learn about new ICT in the future, and to be safe. Using cross-curricular and real-world approaches to content can support this, together with setting open- ended problems to solve, providing appropriate scaffolded support, and seeking to become a facilitator of pupil learning. WHAT DO WE MEAN BY COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS? Misconceptions are mistaken thoughts, ideas or views. Sometimes these are as a result of an incomplete or incorrect mental picture of a concept; sometimes they are because the person was taught incorrectly. Writing in 1998, David Longman made the point that the potential for misconception in ICT is huge, largely because, unlike in other subjects, there is no ‘unifying conception’ (Loveless and Longman, 1988). There was, he said, a lack of well-known research in this area, and this is still the case today. However, experience in learning and teaching has shown that, as we look at particular aspects of the subject, there are reoccurring misunderstandings and misconceptions amongst significant numbers of pupils. Educators refer to these as ‘common misconceptions’. If we can identify and anticipate these, we can plan to try to reduce or eliminate them (see Chapter 2). For example, in demonstrations we can emphasise where misconceptions could occur and help pupils to avoid them. As you become more experienced as a teacher, you will identify many common misconceptions yourself, but this chapter seeks to give you a starting point. Remember though, that by its very nature, the subject changes and new software and hardware will appear with new associated misconceptions. Audience and purpose A key concept that underpins much of ICT (and Computing) is that of meeting the needs of the end user. In seeking to produce a solution to any problem, the pupils need to constantly think about what the solution is required to do, and for whom. Forgetting to do this is a very common occurrence and the teacher regularly needs to get the pupils to refocus on audience and purpose. Ask them questions about these regularly, link criteria for self- and peer-assessment to them, and make them a key part of your formative feedback. WORD-PROCESSING, PUBLISHING AND PRESENTATION SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING: KEY CONCEPTS, COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS AND HOW TO AVOID THEM Some of the key concepts that need to be covered are: • The differences between word-processing and Desk Top Publishing (DTP) software, and when each should be used. Advanced word processors are able to do much that would have been the domain of DTP, so the boundaries are blurred, but do need discussing. Real-world uses of word processing and DTP, and how they can be used in other subjects. • Formatting of documents. This needs to be closely linked to audience and purpose. Pupils need to understand how and why you might use different fonts, different font sizes, highlighting (embolden, italicise, underline, colour). • Layout of documents, including margin settings and pagination settings. This should be linked to a discussion of different types of documents and their 121

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS conventions. Older pupils should know why and how to use Style sheets; add contents and index pages automatically, as appropriate; include endnotes and footnotes in research papers and reports. • Use of track changes, comments and other review settings for collaborative work. Use of collaborative tools such as Google docs should be discussed. • Use of mail merge, labelling and other data from other sources can be used in generating documents in a semi-automated way. • Enhancing documents with the use of appropriate images. • Different presentation software and when these might be used; e.g. PowerPoint slides and Prezi. • The need to plan presentations, including the text to be displayed and the information to be shared verbally. Teaching them about Storyboarding can help. • The need to think about body language when presenting. • Enhancing presentations through use of appropriate images, sound and transition effects. • Personal safety when publishing, especially if publishing online. • Use of reply all, cc, bcc, subject lines, signatures et al. in email. • Correct etiquette when using Web 2.0 software. ADVICE: When teaching pupils how to enter text into a word processor, do not get them to do a lot of text entry. If they can enter small amounts well, they can enter large amounts. Use the time to develop other skills, knowledge and understanding. Task 7.2 Real-world uses Research real-world uses of word processors, DTP and presentation software. How could you integrate these into your teaching and the wider curriculum? Common misconceptions include: • Thinking if the spellcheck and grammar check facilities are used the document must be correct. Teach your pupils to always proofread documents and to think about audience and purpose as they do. Tell them it is good practice to draft, edit and redraft work. • Thinking that more formatting is better. Pupils need help in getting the balance right. Model expectations and share exemplars with them. • Using caps lock to get capital letters, then forgetting to switch it off. Teach them to use ‘shift’. • Deleting all the way back to an error, instead of using the mouse/cursor keys to position the cursor. • Highlighting sections then accidentally hitting a key and panicking because it has gone. Warn them, so they can try to avoid the problem and show them how to use ‘undo’ straight away. • Centring text or spacing text using the space bar, which goes wrong later. Teach them the use of centre commands and tab keys for spacing. 122

ICT AND COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS • Using too many or inappropriate images, sounds and effects. Give pupils clear guidance on this. • Not thinking enough about the verbal element of presentations and the use of body language. Teach them that most of the presentation’s message is transmitted this way, make the verbal element and body language a significant part of the assessment criteria, and encourage pupils to rehearse presenting. • Creating slides, or other written elements for presentations that are too wordy. A slide should only summarise and support the verbal presentation. Make sure you model good practice. • Forgetting that anything published online is not private. Remind them regularly about e-safety. Task 7.3 Other related software Research-related software: social networks, wikis, blogs, forum, Twitter, video publishing, video-conferencing, email. How could they be used in the classroom? What are the likely misconceptions and how could these be avoided? SPREADSHEET SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING: KEY CONCEPTS, COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS AND HOW TO AVOID THEM Some of the key concepts that need to be covered are: • What a spreadsheet actually is and what it would be used for. They are often interested to know that a spreadsheet was originally a large sheet of paper that was spread out to show accounts or other data in rows and columns; a spreadsheet in ICT is a computer program that simulates a physical spreadsheet by capturing, displaying, and manipulating data arranged in rows and columns. They are unlikely to have come across them outside school, so explaining why they need to learn about them is very important. Give them a range of real-world examples and try to find ways they could use them in school or at home: e.g. managing simple accounts for a school trip; modelling a science experiment; recording players’ performances for a team. Spreadsheets are discussed further in the section on Modelling in Chapter 6. ADVICE: Include some complex and large examples of spreadsheets. The ones they tend to produce will be fairly small and they may think it would be easier to use a calculator, so show the power of a spreadsheet to handle complexity and test hypotheses. • Formula and Functions. Explain the difference and show them a range of functions. Remember to use correct terminology. For example, use the term ‘summation’ when showing them the formulae and/or button for adding up a row/column of figures. There is a lot of mathematical language common both to learning spreadsheets and mathematics in schools. 123

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS • Cell references: how to apply these and how to use them in formulae and functions. They need to know about absolute and relative references. • Use of spreadsheets for modelling and testing hypotheses. • Producing charts that are appropriate for audience and purpose. Common misconceptions include: • Putting the cell content, rather than the cell reference into a formula or function. Regular reminders are needed. • Referencing cells incorrectly. This is sometimes because pupils mix up rows and columns, so the use of analogies, activities and aide-memoire are useful in helping them. • Doing calculations separately, and entering the value into a cell rather than entering a formula or function. When values are changed the ‘answer’ is not updated automatically. Regularly stressing the reason we use formulae and functions will help. If there is an option to display formulae and functions, use this with pupils for checking purposes. Using incorrect syntax for formula and function; e.g. missing the = at the front of a formula in Microsoft Excel. Stress this in demonstrations and instructions and remind them often. • If buttons are used, explain the symbols to them to help them remember which does what; e.g. summation. • Highlighting incorrect cells when entering formula. Encourage them to look at the display of the formula before pressing enter/return. • Highlighting incorrect cells when producing charts and getting an incorrect display. Teach them that it is good practice not to have blank rows, columns or cells in the data. • Poorly labelled charts. Remind them of the correct way to label charts, as taught in Mathematics, including title, key, labelled axis. Show them how this is done in the spreadsheet package. • Poorly chosen charts. Discuss which charts are used for particular purposes. Ask them to justify their choice of charts when they do them. • Misunderstanding business terms. Do not assume they know what profit, cost, income, expenses et al. mean if doing financial models. You will need to teach them these. • The concept of a model is quite difficult and will need reinforcing. See Chapter 6. Task 7.4 Analogies, activities and aide-memoire What analogies, activities or aide-memoire could be used to help pupils remember what we mean by rows and columns? 124

ICT AND COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS DATABASE SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING: KEY CONCEPTS, COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS AND HOW TO AVOID THEM Some of the key concepts that need to be covered are: • What databases are and the purpose of them. As with spreadsheets, databases have been around longer than the computer programs we tend to associate with them now. Giving pupils some examples of non-computerised databases can help them with the concept of what a database is, and can lead usefully into discussions on why computerising them has advantages. • Real-world examples of computerised databases. Pupils may have used a range of computerised databases without realising it, in school and at home, so discussing these is helpful. Examples could be the school register system, medical records and the contacts list on their mobile phone. • Advantages and limitations of computerised databases. To illustrate the power of computerised databases have examples with very large amounts of data, so they can see the speed of sorting and searching with a computer database program. • Key terminology, including record, field, field heading, data types, sort, search, query, report, form. • Simple and complex searches, including use of Boolean operators. • Good design of databases and how to create one. • When to use and how to design forms and reports. • Validation and verification. Common misconceptions include: • Confusion between ‘data’ and ‘information’. People often interchange the two words, but they have different, specific meanings and these need to be understood by pupils. Insist they use the correct term. • Conceptualising how a computer organises and retrieves data can be difficult. Use of metaphors, such as a ‘filing cabinet’, can help. • Using wrong data types when creating a database. Deciding when to use alphanumeric rather than numeric, or date rather than numeric requires pupils to think carefully about the purpose of the database, and the data it will use. Encourage them to discuss this with peers. • Using wrong field headings when creating a database. This requires thought at the design stage. One common error is to use ‘age’ as a field heading on a database on people, when they should use ‘date of birth’. Discussing how this avoids the need to keep updating the database is worthwhile. • GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out). Pupils need to understand that if the data entered is incorrect, then the outputs will be incorrect too. They need to be taught to proofread the data on entry and in outputs. • Confusing ‘validation’ and ‘verification’ is a common misconception. Remembering the former is usually done by the computer and the latter by people may help. • Using the wrong fields and/or criteria when doing searches, sorts or queries. Pupils need guidance in interpreting questions so that they can construct sorts, searches and queries correctly. 125

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS Task 7.5 Validation and verification Can you think of a way to help pupils avoid the confusion between ‘validation’ and ‘verification’? OTHER COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS AND HOW TO AVOID THEM • Pupils can struggle to appreciate the differences of saving on the hard drive, the school network, external devices and the ‘cloud’. This needs to be taught to them, alongside the necessary skills. • Pupils lose work by not saving regularly, or saving to the wrong place. Teach them by explaining why it is necessary, and by reminding them frequently to save and where to. They need to appreciate that a file being edited at any given point is a copy of the file, which is in hard storage, but with certain exceptions that they also need to know about; e.g. database files. • Pupils sometimes do not understand the difference between cut and paste and copy and paste. They need to be shown the difference. It is important to also teach them that sometimes these are inappropriate; e.g. rules on copyright and plagiarism. • The word ‘print’ is a licence for the unrestrained production of paper-based material. You need to make pupils aware that being careful with resources is very important, particularly where the words ‘print’, ‘colour’ and ‘A3’ are used in the same sentence. Task 7.6 Misconceptions Discuss other misconceptions you have come across and add them to these lists. REFERENCES Becta (2007) What is ICT? Available at http://archive.teachfind.com/becta/schools. becta.org.uk/indexcb85.html?section=cu&catcode=ss_cu_skl_02&rid=1701. Accessed 30/03/2014. E-Skills UK (2014) available at https://www.e-skills.com/careers/labour-market- information/ Accessed 30/03/2014. Longman, D. (1998) Common Misconceptions in ICT, Mirandanet. Available at http:// www.mirandanet.ac.uk/profdev/misconceptions.htm. Accessed 31/03/2014. Loveless, A. and Longman, D. (1998) Information literacy: innuendo or insight? Education and Information Technologies, 3(1), 1st Quarter, 27–40. Ofsted (2011) ICT in Schools 2008–11, Ofsted. Available at http://www.ofsted.gov. uk/resources/ict-schools-2008-11. Accessed 30/03/2014. 126

ICT AND COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS USEFUL WEBSITES AND RESOURCES Word processing Microsoft Word. https://www.microsoft.com/en-gb/default.aspx Open Office. http://www.openoffice.us.com/ Presentations Microsoft PowerPoint. https://www.microsoft.com/en-gb/default.aspx Prezi. https://prezi.com Spreadsheets Microsoft Excel. https://www.microsoft.com/en-gb/default.aspx Databases Microsoft Access. https://www.microsoft.com/en-gb/default.aspx Video/photo software Media maker. https://www.microsoft.com/en-gb/default.aspx Photo story. https://www.microsoft.com/en-gb/default.aspx You-Tube. www.youtube.com Communication Blogs Email Twitter. https://twitter.com/ Relevant sections Computing Programmes of Study Computing also ensures that pupils become digitally literate – able to use, and express themselves and develop their ideas through, information and communication technology – at a level suitable for the future workplace and as active participants in a digital world. Aims Can evaluate and apply information technology analytically, including new or unfamiliar technologies, to solve problems. Key Stage Three Pupils should be taught to: • Understand simple Boolean logic [for example, AND, OR and NOT] • Undertake creative projects that involve selecting, using, and combining multiple applications, preferably across a range of devices, to achieve challenging goals, including collecting and analysing data and meeting the needs of known users. 127

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS Key Stage Four All pupils must have the opportunity to study aspects of information technology at sufficient depth to allow them to progress to higher levels of study or to a professional career. All pupils should be taught to: • Develop their capability, creativity and knowledge in Computer Science, Digital Media and Information Technology. • Develop and apply their analytic, problem-solving, design, and Computational Thinking skills. 128

Chapter 8 Computing and society ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS INTRODUCTION In this chapter we will examine: • The history of Computing • Computers and contemporary society • Computing and the future • Why context is important • Whether Computing is a force for good or bad. By the end of this chapter you should be able to identify: • Suitable contexts for studying Computing and society • The interconnecting themes between these contexts and teach accordingly • An appropriate framework for analysing the future of Computing that can be applied in a classroom context. Whilst the teaching of ‘what’ and ‘how’ is a primary concern of those training to teach Computing, it is equally crucial to ask about the implications of the use of this technology. Computers can be used in care of the premature baby as equally as for managing weapons of mass destruction. Your responsibility will be to help pupils to become informed and able to engage meaningfully in legitimate debate about ‘why’. This chapter helps to prepare you to do that. VIEW FROM THE PAST Pupils in school today may have little understanding of how the ubiquity of processing technology in one form or another is a relatively new phenomenon. It is important to help them understand how the rate of pace of change is increasing exponentially. To do this effectively, some exposure to the history of Computing is necessary. There is much debate about the true origins of the computer, but two individuals are linked directly to its evolution: Blaise Pascal, the seventeenth- century French mathematician, is purported to have invented the first digital calculator; and Charles Babbage, the nineteenth-century English gentleman scientist and irascible genius, who wrestled with creating a machine that could not 129

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS only calculate but ‘analyse’ as well. Whilst these two individuals are important and should not be ignored, it may be more profitable with your pupils to concentrate on developments in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. You could make use of more recent developments such as the computer that: • the British developed, called Colossus, for code-breaking during the 1940s. • the Americans developed at the same time, called the Electrical Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC), for various military purposes, including ballistics. What is significant about them both is their cost, size and computing capability. ENIAC covered 1,800 square feet (167 square metres) of floor space, weighed 30 tons, and consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power. You could park a school bus inside it (see Resources). It undertook 5,000 operations per second and would cost the equivalent of nearly £3 million today. Task 8.1 Colossus and ENIAC Colossus and ENIAC shared a technology called the ‘vacuum tube’, which early electronic devices, including radios and TVs, also contained. Devise a lesson(s) that highlights the significance of the change from the vacuum tube to the transistor in relationship to Computing. The Apple I in 1976, and Apple II a year later, heralded profound changes in the use of computers. The advent of the Desktop meant that computing was no longer the exclusive preserve of the State or business. This transformation is within living memory. Make use of the fact that pupils are likely to have heard adults (perhaps even in the classroom) of all ages claim that ‘it wasn’t like this when I was young’. Parents/guardians and grandparents are likely to be aware of the very early desktop computers, such as the Commodore 64 and the Sinclair ZX80, in the early 1980s (see Resources: Timeline). Cassette tapes (you may have to explain what these are) stored the data and TV screens were employed as a display unit. Unfortunately, the ZX80 was probably more use as a doorstop than as a serious computing tool, (see Resources). Some will have worked on the BBC Micro at school with its dedicated Visual Display Unit, using a Floppy Disc for storage. The most important point to establish, as Edwards (2012) suggests, is that there appears to be an inevitable process through which computers are becoming ever cheaper, ever faster and ever smaller. Even the processing power of a basic desktop calculator in the 1990s contained more processing power than the devices used to manage the moon landing in 1969 (see Resources). COMPUTERS TODAY The miniaturisation and increase in power of computers has continued apace since the turn of the century. The processor has migrated into phones and other portable devices, which have become an essential part of everyday life for many. The advent of the World Wide Web (www) has added a new dimension to how and where these devices can be used. Sir Timothy Berners Lee, an English computer scientist working at CERN (Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire), has been credited as 130

COMPUTING AND SOCIETY its inventor. In 1989, he developed a hypertext language database called ‘Enquire’, to facilitate research and the exchange of ideas between scientists. It went ‘live’ in 1991, and was the forerunner of what we know as the World Wide Web. His first public message on it was a call for other collaborators to participate. Little could he have realised just how many would do so (Edwards, 2012). Task 8.2 Internet and learning Make a list of the devices you have used today that involve some form of computing or the Internet, which impact on your study habits. How would you use this information with children in the classroom? Whilst the influence of computers appears to be all-pervasive there are still groups in society whose access to them is limited. The elderly, the poor and the disenfranchised, both in this country and abroad, are likely to fall into this category. Even within a school the number of pupils without a computer at home may be small, but it is still a significant disadvantage to everyone concerned. The Internet in particular carries knowledge and information, without which it may be impossible to function fully. The fact that the three primary languages, which dominate the Internet at the moment are Chinese, English and Spanish exacerbates the situation. The overall effect has been referred to as ‘digital poverty’, and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) regards it as a pernicious issue that needs addressing. There are attempts to deal with the imbalance through initiatives such as One LapTop Per Child (OLPC), but it is important in your teaching to point out that infrastructure is as significant as the devices themselves. Without an uninterrupted source of electricity or an accessible phone network they are almost useless. It may be useful, in conjunction with this global perspective, to explore the influence of computers and Computing in the home, by examining the impact they have had on entertainment. The advent of the iPlayer and other similar on-demand services means that films, music and TV can be accessed anytime or anyplace. Games of unheard-of sophistication, with multiple players in many locations, are similarly available. You could extend any discussion about this development with pupils to include: • Life before the PlayStation … • Changes in play behaviour of the young • How the young communicate with each other • E-safety, including bullying and grooming. Task 8.3 Social and commercial advantages By far the greatest majority of the one billion PCs available today are found in the developed countries, such as Japan and Germany (Gartner, 2010). What social and commercial advantages do these communities gain from this abundance of resources, and how would you stimulate debate with your pupils about fairness and equality in this context? 131

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS FUTURES STUDY It is easy to ask your pupils, given the changes that have occurred in their lifetime in computing and computers, to speculate about what is to come. As an exercise it will, after all, give them licence to apply their imagination freely. However, what they decide will lack legitimacy if it is not founded on some form of systematic analysis. The notion of systematic analysis is central to Computational Thinking (see Chapter 5). No less an expert than Ken Olson, founder and chairman of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), stated confidently, in 1967, that he could see no reason why anyone would want a computer at home (Goldsborough, 2002). For meaningful thinking to occur, some understanding of Futurology or Futures Study is required by pupils. Those who study the future as an academic discipline acknowledge that it is almost impossible to predict what will happen. They consign this form of speculation to soothsayers and clairvoyants. Futurologists recognise that there are alternative futures determined by a confluence of different economic, social and technological forces. They make use of skill sets and knowledge from fields such as biotechnology, engineering, information technology and physical and social sciences, amongst others. The frameworks they develop for their projections are based on observable trends over time, in a number of key areas or spheres of interests. One of these key areas is the nature of work. American and European working practices have changed radically as a result of various factors, including the dawn of the computer. Less manual and more technologically driven employment has emerged as the norm. In the past 60 years, the number of hours that people are expected to work has almost halved. A career for life is no longer a realistic expectation. People need to retrain more frequently. Earlier retirement and an aging population also mean a reliance on the young to provide the majority of the workforce (Frost, 2010). It raises questions about how people will fill their leisure hours, and what is required to prepare them for managing change in employment. Based on this evidence, Futurologists can legitimately assume that some developments in Computing will be driven by these factors. Task 8.4 Themes Other key areas with a possible influence on the future are: • Changing demographic • Shifts in the global economy • Movement of populations. Research all of these spheres of influence and develop your findings into a lesson designed to explore what may shape the future of Computing. The computer itself is a tool now used increasingly by those seeking to explore what may happen. Through Modelling and Simulation various futures can be explored, although the maxim of GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out) applies (see Chapter 6). There are those, the Determinists, who believe that we have no choice in how the future is shaped. Free will, for Libertarians, is the critical factor. It is important to expose pupils to the notion that there are opposing views on this issue. Facer (cited in Edwards, 2012) and a number of the Futurologists adopt the 132

COMPUTING AND SOCIETY common-sense viewpoint that events, some by accident and others by design, shape the future. CHANGES IN TECHNOLOGY One of the trends to which many people, including those involved in Futures thinking, pay particular attention, is the changes that are taking place in technology. In Computing there is clearly a race to reduce the size and interlink devices, giving rise to all sorts of new possibilities. It is worth asking pupils what computer technology they imagined, as young children, might be available today. It is perhaps of even more value to get them to ask their parents/guardians the same questions. There are a multitude of possibilities, but it is important to narrow the focus to things which are more likely to occur. Virtual or augmented reality is more than just a probability: it is here. Gaming, in particular, has brought this to the forefront as far as children are concerned. There are a number of opportunities the development of this form of technology offers, including: • Escaping from the mundaneness of daily life • Exploring alternative realities and personalities • Developing strategic thinking • Risk-taking without consequence • Entertainment. River City is typical of this genre (see Resources) It is a multi-user, virtual world platform that has been adopted by many educational institutions for, amongst other things, sharing knowledge. The threats might be listed as: • Damage because of the violent nature of some virtual games • Escape from daily life • Unhealthy merging of the real and the virtual • Presentation of a singular viewpoint. The World of Warcraft, Sims, and Second Life are accused of some of the above (see Resources: Damage). There are no definitive lists, but it is essential to explore these new virtual technologies. The advent of Google glasses, which provide the wearer with real-time information about their environment, brings augmented reality a step closer to the masses (see Resources: Glasses). The glasses have a small prism- like screen in the upper corner of the frame that gives access to emails, calls and other forms of notification. In the future, wearing them could enable you to see the latest offers and deals as you walk through a shopping precinct, or look at a monument or museum artefact, and ‘see’ additional information. Google regards it as ‘moonshot’ technology, which will allow users to enhance their experiences and even record them for posterity if they so wish. There was much interest when Google glasses first became available, but the critics soon raised their objections. You could use this polarisation of opinion to scaffold a discussion with pupils about the merits (or otherwise) of this form of Computing technology, (see Resources: Critics for more information). You might ask if it is: • of real social benefit; or • just another means of intrusive advertising. 133

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS Task 8.5 Technological trends Other technological trends might include the following: • The Superman/Superwoman syndrome: Enhancement technologies based on microprocessors that ‘improve’ some aspect of human activity. • The HAL 9000 (heuristically programmed algorithmic computer in the film 2001: A Space Odyssey) syndrome: are we a few chilling steps away from computers that pass the Turing test for thinking machines? Add your own trends and identify which elements of the Computing curriculum you would use to introduce them. Devise a series of parts of lessons to do so. CONTEXTS For teachers one of the many positive opportunities that Computing and society offers is that you can make good use of almost any context or issue as a focal point for study, such is the all-pervasive nature of the technology. You can explore the past, present or future with equal surety that meaningful learning will take place if it is framed appropriately. Consider the question of whether low-cost computers can make a difference to the lives of the rural poor in Africa, particularly farmers. On the surface this seems to be a really good idea. Advocates might suggest that computers will allow those involved in agriculture to have access to: 1 Information about farming practices and relevant data. 2 Financial management and planning tools. 3 Devices that make more mundane tasks, such as photocopying and emailing, less onerous. However, opponents could claim amongst other things that: 1 The costs of investing in computers will be at the expense of more pressing needs, such as clean drinking water systems or education for the young. 2 A suitable infrastructure to support and maintain the use of computers is necessary. 3 High levels of literacy is a prerequisite. Pupils might be asked, depending on their age and experience, to explore the viability of this idea. A report and/or a summary of their findings, in both a written form and as a presentation, could be the tangible outcome. However, your main objective should not only be to get pupils to develop research and presentation skills and their knowledge about Computing, but also to expose them to a range of views about the value of the technology in this context. Concerns about digital poverty and equality should be a focal point for lesson planning. All the features of Computational Thinking identified in Chapter 5 are present in activities of this type. There are opportunities for both individual and group work, and for directed and self-directed learning to take place, both within the confines of the school and beyond it. You could also use this context as a means of introducing some of the more technical aspects of Computing to your pupils. The Raspberry Pi has been 134

COMPUTING AND SOCIETY suggested as a viable solution to this problem. The Pi is a slot-together device that you can add to, in which the parts are clearly visible (see Chapter 6). The connection with computer architecture is not difficult to make (see Resources: Rural Farming). Another context which raises similar issues is the use of social media and web pages to strengthen cultural and linguistic bonds for speakers of a minority language which is in danger of dying out. Currently, the language of the tool to make these things possible will doubtless be English. Pupils might be encouraged amongst other things to explore whether Computing technology supports more or less inclusivity. What both of these contexts provide is a clear link to many subjects in the curriculum. Where possible you must make use of them and your colleagues from other areas to enrich your teaching. Task 8.6 Contexts Other contexts might include: • The revelations by Edward Snowden about the Computing tools used to undertake mass surveillance (see Resources: Snowden). • The dawn of the intelligent machine and what it means for us all (see Resources: Machine). • The struggles climate scientists have had, and continue to have, in trying to state with certainty that global warming is a result of human activity (see Resources: Climate). These are just a few of the myriad of ideas. Identify your own, some of which might relate to the world of work that could be used with Years 7, 9 and 11. Explain to a colleague how your approach will vary with each year. COMPUTERS: GOOD OR BAD? Woven throughout all the preceding discussion in this chapter is a central question: Are computers and Computing a positive or a negative force? It may seem odd if you live in a society reliant on sophisticated Computing to even contemplate discussing the virtues of this form of technology. We are entering (or already have entered) an era of profound change that fundamentally affects the way we relate to each other, and our relationship to the State. Globalisation of commerce and communication means it is very difficult to avoid the consequences of what is happening in places that might have appeared to be very remote in past times. Climate change is one obvious example of this. The populations of low- and middle- income countries might have a relatively low impact on global warming at the moment, but as they strive to improve this will change. The 2013 collapse of the Dhaka Rana Plaza in Dhaka, Bangladesh is a less obvious example. This eight- storey building, in which 1,300 people died when it collapsed, housed garment workers producing branded clothing for well-known retailers in the West. The conditions of work and rates of pay for these workers bore no relationship to those in equivalent jobs in more developed countries. The moral outrage that accompanied the news of this event raised a serious ethical issue about the treatment of these workers. The point about both examples is that Computing technology has made it possible to have almost instant access to information about them. 135

ANDREW CONNELL AND ANTHONY EDWARDS Task 8.7 Good and bad Make a list of the current benefits and disadvantages of computers and Computing. Use this list as a linking theme for a series of, or parts of lessons on Computing and Society. It is important that you use the advent and the advance of computers and Computing as a context in which to discuss major social issues. REFERENCES Edwards, A. (2012) New Technology and Education, London, Bloomsbury. Frost, A. (2010) Youth Dependency, in Bremner, J., Frost, A., Haub, C., Mather, M., Rimgheim, K. and Zuehlke, E. Population Bulletin, Population Reference Bureau, 65(2), 4–5, Available at www.prb.org/pdf10/65.2highlights.pdf, Accessed 31/03/2014. Gartner (2010) Gartner says more than 1 Billion PCs in use Worldwide by 2014, Available at www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=703807, Accessed 31/03/2014. Goldsborough, R. (2002) The perils of prophesying the future of digital technology, Community College Week, Available at www.thefreelibrary.com/The+perils+of+ prophesying+ the+future+of+digital+technology-a082260640, Accessed 31/03/2014. USEFUL WEBSITES AND RESOURCES Climate. http://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/04/16/us-climate-slowdown-idUSBRE 93F0AJ20130416 Critics. http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/mar/20/google-glass-myths- glassholes-critics Damage. http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/computer-gaming-when-virtual- violence-becomes-real ENIAC. http://technical.ly/philly/2011/02/15/eniac-10-things-you-should-know- about-the-original-modern-super-computer-65-years-later/ Future Studies. http://www.uh.edu/news-events/stories/2008articles/mar08/303_ future_studies.php Glasses. http://www.google.co.uk/glass/start/what-it-does/ Machine. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7575605.stm Moon Landings. http://www.computerweekly.com/feature/Apollo-11-The-computers- that-put-man-on-the-moon OLPC. http://newint.org/books/reference/world-development/case-studies/2013/ 03/14/computers-cellphones-in-developing-world/ River City. http://rivercity.activeworlds.com/ Rural Farming. http://ifad-un.blogspot.co.uk/2013/05/can-low-cost-computers-make- difference.html Snowden. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-echochambers-26519307 Timeline. http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/?category=cmptr ZX80. http://oldcomputers.net/zx81.html 136

COMPUTING AND SOCIETY Relevant section of Computing Programmes of Study Purpose of study A high-quality computing education equips pupils to use computational thinking and creativity to understand and change the world. Computing has deep links with mathematics, science, and design and technology, and provides insights into both natural and artificial systems. The core of computing is Computer Science, in which pupils are taught the principles of information and computation, how digital systems work, and how to put this knowledge to use through programming. Building on this knowledge and understanding, pupils are equipped to use information technology to create programs, systems and a range of content. Computing also ensures that pupils become digitally literate – able to use, and express themselves and develop their ideas through Information and Communication Technology – at a level suitable for the future workplace, and as active participants in a digital world. 137