world heritage

6 Carrying Capacity and Related Planning Issues Understanding the subject of carrying capacity is tions in visitor behaviour or the resistance and resilience of essential for planning and decision making. a given ecosystem. One destructive tourist can cause more Understanding the limitations of the concept and damage than 50 conscientious visitors. Some areas such knowledge of methodologies that have replaced it is as meadows can handle less use than areas with more essential not only for implementing practical man- resilient vegetation; just a handful of tourists in a commu- agement plans but also for evaluating suggested nity may be responsible for most of the litter; some com- projects. These methodologies generate impact indi- munities may accept larger groups of tourists while others cators and standards that are linked to site policy reject them, and so on. For some individuals, a single fel- goals and management objectives. They are essential low visitor at an archaeological site would be too many; for determining when undesirable change is taking for others, hundreds of fellow visitors would not diminish place at a site. the quality of the experience. 6.1 General carrying capacity issues Setting a specific carrying capacity figure may give the false impression that a protected area is safeguarded 6.1.1 The concept of carrying capacity addresses the when it is not. Visitors to a ruin site may be limited to 100 question of how many people can be permitted into at a time, while in an isolated corner some visitors may be an area without risk of degrading the site and the helping themselves to priceless souvenirs. The carrying visitors’ experience of it. It has generally been broken capacity of a nature trail may be set at 100, but that will down into three categories: physical, ecological and not prevent some visitors from disturbing a colony of nest- social. ing birds as they approach to take photographs. • Physical carrying capacity, called “facility carrying capac- All activities cause environmental and social impacts. Site ity” by the World Tourism Organisation, mostly has to do managers must set well defined and established goals for with available space the number of beds available to desired conditions that will serve as a baseline for deter- overnight guests, how many cars would fill a parking lot, mining an acceptable level of impact. For example, man- how many campers in a campground, seats in a theatre, agers need to know how much litter is dropped along an and so on. Concomitant to such considerations is the interpretive trail before launching a visitor education cam- question of fresh water and electricity supply. paign against littering, so that they can determine • Ecological carrying capacity is the degree to which an whether their efforts are succeeding. When visitors to a ecosystem is able to tolerate human interference while natural area desire an experience relatively free of fellow maintaining sustainable functioning. As noted in Chapter visitors, managers may establish a baseline number of 3 a curvilinear relationship may exist between use and people considered unsatisfactory. impact at a site, and wide variations in ecosystem resist- ance and resilience make ecological carrying capacity dif- Clearly, there is no magic number. Current models of visi- ficult to predict. tor management involve setting goals and objectives, for- • Social carrying capacity is psychological and socio-cul- mulating indicators and monitoring results. tural and refers to the limit beyond which the number of people in an available space would cause a decline in the 6.1.3 Planning for visitor management should be quality of the recreational experience and the users’ satis- based on the idea of limits to acceptable change. faction. Overcrowding is a prime example of a socio-cul- The new planning methodologies assume that all activities tural carrying capacity issue. Since different user groups cause impacts and that desired conditions should serve as have different social expectations and because of compli- the baseline for planning. Managers need to know not cated issues related to cultural resistance and resilience, only how many people are in an area, but also how these this factor is also difficult to assess. users are affecting the area’s natural and cultural resources. The new models set limits to impacts rather 6.1.2 The concept of carrying capacity has evolved than visitation. It is a matter of tracking ecological and completely with a better understanding of the rela- social indicators through field studies and user surveys. tionship between the number of visitors and the impacts they cause. During the 1960s and 1970s, the 6.1.4 The methodology known as Limits of main focus was on developing a system for setting limits Acceptable Change (LAC) sets standards and moni- to the number of visitors to parks, monuments and pro- toring indicators based on management and stake- tected areas as a means of safeguarding natural and cul- holder concerns. When the quantifiable standards are tural resources. The aim was to determine the point at not met, impacts have become so negative that the man- which adverse impacts were likely to begin. Experience agement is prepared to take actions such as reducing has shown that such a simple calculation is not feasible. access and restricting behaviours to avoid further degra- Several factors are involved: dation of resources, even if such actions would be unpop- ular. The idea is that environmental and social conditions The onset of environmental deterioration or adverse social water and air pollution, litter, crowding and so on each impacts may come sooner or later depending on varia- have quantifiable standards based on desired conditions. When conditions approach “limits of acceptable change”,56

Carrying Capacity and Related Planning Issues 6management takes specific mitigating actions. LAC pro- tical to monitor. Also, indicators should not be seen as agrammes may set numeric visitor limits, for example 100 full measure of an impact or problem, but more anpeople at a cultural site at any one time, but the overall attempt to describe it. Not all problem areas and concernsprocess provides a much more comprehensive and effec- are conducive to monitoring through indicators.tive system for protecting resources. The challenge is todefine how much and what kind of change is “accept- Agreement on indicators is the single most important partable” and set indicator limits or standards for any changes of a monitoring and evaluation exercise. Experience hasthat would degrade the conditions agreed upon. shown that animated and collaborative brainstorming ses- sions are useful for identifying and agreeing on indicators.LAC standards are established on the basis of stakeholderand management needs, and follow legal and Convention 6.1.6 An inventory of existing conditions providesguidelines. For instance, stakeholder concerns may centre the baseline data needed for indicators. Inventoryon a desire to limit certain impacts by maintaining a clean, information determines the degree to which existing con-safe, uncrowded environment in a particular area of a nat- ditions vary from desired conditions. Information on cur-ural site. In this case, reliable indicators may include the rent conditions is the baseline for establishing realisticnumber of people on a site’s interpretive trail at any one standards, a step needed for all the LAC-type methodolo-time, dangerous areas on the trail or the amount of litter. gies. So for example, if vandalism at a rock art site is an indicator, a count of all the graffiti found around the siteManagement objectives should lead to measurable will be necessary. Any inventory exercise should be carriedimpact standards reflecting the desired conditions. For out according to established, written procedures, insuringexample, one site indicator may be the number of unsta- consistent monitoring practices over the long term. Anble areas found on a tourist trail. In this case, the site man- inventory will test the basic data collection techniques andager should define what is meant by an unstable area and provide the information needed for a monitoring manual.quantify the unstable areas along the trail. With this infor- This involves the development of standardised monitoringmation, the manager, in consultation with an advisory surveys and evaluation forms, along with instructions forgroup, can set a standard for keeping the area safe for vis- making decisions on implementing actions to correctitors. If overcrowding is a concern, visitors can be regular- unacceptable conditions.ly asked to report the number of fellow visitors seen onthe trail, producing data which can serve as an indicator. Recommended Criteria for IndicatorsOther indicators may be social or economic, measuring forexample the revenue generated by a site and the response • Quantitative - The indicator can be measuredof the local community to visitors. quantitatively. • Easily measurable - It can be measured by field per-While the LAC methodology was the first of the new vis- sonnel using simple equipment and samplingitor management methodologies, all the newer planning techniques.methodologies such as the Visitor Experience and • Relevant to concerns - The indicator genuinely reflectsResource Protection Process (VERP) are applicable to both the concern being tracked.natural and cultural sites and follow these basic steps: • Significant - It can detect a change in conditions that would disrupt the functioning of an ecosystem or1. Determination of goals and objectives derived from the reduce the future desirability of an area to visitors. concerns of management and stakeholders and how to • Sensitive - The indicator allows easy detection of achieve them. changes in conditions that occur within a year. • Reliable over time - Monitoring of the indicator can2. Formulation of a set of performance indicators based be carried out in the same way during each monitoring on the goals and objectives. cycle. • Responsive to management actions - The indicator3. Monitoring to determine whether these standards are can detect a change in conditions resulting from being met. management actions. • Cheap to measure - It does not require excessive4. Deciding on actions to mitigate problems if the stan- expenditure on equipment or use of staff time. dards are not met. 6.1.7 Measurement standards for indicators provide6.1.5 Tourism impact indicators should reflect stake- targets for measuring tourism impacts to keep themholder concerns, policy or vision statements, man- within acceptable limits. The written descriptions ofagement objectives and the needs of stakeholders conditions favoured in a site’s management objectives canwho are utilizing the information. These elements, give direction to setting quantifiable standards. For exam-combined with field experience, should inform meetings ple, a trail managed to offer a more natural type ofwith the advisory group aimed at selecting indicators to exprience may be maintained at a width of two metres,track changes in the ecological, physical and social condi-tions. It is essential to inform those making decisions howthis information will be distributed. In general, it is notnecessary to monitor all indicators; some overlap withothers and some may be simply too expensive or imprac- 57

6 Carrying Capacity and Related Planning Issues while a trail in an established tourist area having to capacity can be reduced to a specific number indicating a accommodate larger groups may have a standard width clear point at which negative impacts will start to be seen. of three metres. For example, at Lake Baikal, Russia, consultants were asked to determine the number of visitors per hectare that Monitoring Indicators: Some Examples the terrain around the lake could support. Figures were derived primarily from formulas involving soil impact and • Abrasion of monuments slope. The study also made predictions of cultural impacts • Status of vegetation based on the number of tourists compared with the num- • Number of human encounters while travelling per day, by ber of local residents. While this methodology was easy to number of groups and their sizes implement within the allotted time for the project, it failed • Signs of pollution from humans, litter, food in streams to take into account variations in tourist behaviour, travel • Tourists’ complaints about conditions patterns and different stakeholder interests. Additional • Number of disturbances to an archaeological site dialogue with interest groups would have made the • Erosion report’s figures more relevant to the day-to-day work of • Disturbance of wildlife populations site managers. More important, such dialogue would • Graffiti or vandalism have started a process for setting tourism goals and objec- • Complaints from community members on deteriorating tives among the stakeholders within the limits of legisla- community values tion on the environment and protected areas. • Increase in the number of crime reports 6.1.9 Managers may still feel the need to set numeric Standards are usually set to prevent degradation of cur- limits to control people at their sites. Visitor numbers rent conditions. An example would be a standard for should be set in accordance with agreed upon standards. maintaining the population of a particular bird species or In the field, this is not an exact science, but a matter of water quality. In some cases, however, even while man- tracking impacts through monitoring programmes and agers would never desire degradation, they may set stan- arriving at an approximate judgement of when limits are dards permitting a deterioration of current conditions if reached. In practice, several strategies will help managers they believe that this would be a lesser evil than, for justify decisions to limit visitation. Data on numbers of vis- instance, having to restrict access or impose widely itors and their preferences make up the best justification unpopular rules. Meetings of the advisory group and/or for actions restraining the number of people permitted to stakeholders will be needed to reach consensus on setting enter an area. This is especially true if an expert study can standards. be shown to the stakeholders affected by the decision. Visitor surveys could demonstrate the negative effects of In large natural and mixed sites, the Recreation crowding and the desire for solitude at an archaeological Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) system can be used to set or sacred site. standards for different areas within the same site, depending on the needs of different user groups. The staff available to carry out protection efforts in rela- Experience in the field indicates that users may hold a tion to the number of visitors can also be used to justify wide range of opinions, and consequently managers restrictions. For example, the number of tourists admitted should consider setting wider ranges of standards. In nat- to an archaeological site may be a function of the number ural areas, priority should be assigned to users with the of guards available for patrolling the site to ensure its pro- greatest need for an unmodified environment. tection. Numbers may be controlled simply by reducing the size of a parking lot or visitor centre. However, such a Once standards are set, an inventory will determine the measure may detract from visitor satisfaction if it results in degree to which existing conditions vary from desired con- crowding. ditions. For example, if a significant amount of an area’s trails are found to be wider than the agreed standard, or A Case Study if abrasions or damage to a monument exceed a particu- lar standard, actions can be taken to improve conditions. A visitor management study was carried out using the This is an ongoing process in which indicators are moni- Visitor Experience and Resource Protection Process (VERP) tored on a regular basis to track trends and changes in at the Petra archaeological site in Jordan. Developed by conditions. the US National Park Service, VERP is a LAC-type system that does not necessarily set specific numbers as long as 6.1.8 Misunderstandings persist among internation- resources and social conditions can be measured and al organisations and government agencies regard- maintained. To this end, a monitoring programme deter- ing carrying capacity. Calls continue for studies to mines whether desired conditions are being met. The fol- provide policy-makers with a technical limit, a number or lowing table presents several of the indicators, standards range of numbers that will indicate negative change. Such and methods of measurement recommended by the studies can create the false impression that carrying58

Carrying Capacity and Related Planning Issues 6team. In this plan some standards have been replaced by itoring exercises. However, monitoring is effective only if itactions that would be implemented when an impact is is done regularly; if it cannot be sustained, its usefulnessidentified. is severely limited. well as their impacts, can help identify and justify needed actions in the changing tourist industry.Indicator Standard Method of Measurement 6.2.3 Many types of monitoring procedures are pos- sible depending on the level of accuracy desired andLoss of surface The tolerance for 2X2 meter moni- available resources. For example, soil erosion on aartefacts loss of surface toring plots are nature trail can be measured in several ways. One method artefacts is zero established at is to identify eroded sections by walking the trail and selected areas counting variations in width, perhaps caused when visi- tors seek to avoid muddy sections. Another is to establishActive erosion of Zero tolerance Aerial surveillance permanent checkpoints at problem areas along the trail toarchaeological sites techniques measure soil loss. Each approach has advantages and dis- advantages. Examining trail conditions in a general fash-Looting of archae- Zero tolerance Aerial surveillance ion does not give a precise measurement, but provides aological sites techniques used to good overview. On the other hand, while permanent mon- detect unautho- itoring plots will provide a more accurate measure of soil rised excavations loss, the method is more expensive and time-consuming.Visual intrusion by An action is taken Aerial surveillance The differences in approach can also be illustrated withmodern or incom- for any intrusion techniques bird population counts. One inexpensive method system-patible additions by an incompatible atically records the number of bird sightings by localto the landscape element guides. A more accurate but expensive method of track-element ing population changes involves catching specimens with nets or setting up a transect, or a fixed corridor alongNumbers of people Management Ticket sales which species are counted on a regular basis.per month and per actions are takenday and hour if visitation exceeds Fewer options exist for monitoring socio-economic condi- standards by 10 tions such as crowding and community attitudes. Most percent socio-economic information is obtained through ques- tionnaires or interviews, work that is labour-intensiveAmount of graffiti Damage caused by At vulnerable loca- and time-consuming. A survey of community attitudes vandalism will tions 2x2 meter towards tourism, for example, takes large amounts of prompt a monitoring squares time to develop, implement and analyse. A monitoring management on the facades of procedure should be selected on the basis of what ques- action monuments and tions need to be answered and how much time and fund- tombs ing is available to carry out the work.At the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, travel distances made monitoring eachVisitor satisfaction A drop in an estab- Visitor and local campsite in detail prohibitively expensive. Managers decided instead on the more cost-effective tactic of sam- lished index resident surveys pling a cross-section of camping areas. prompts a man- Finally, all monitoring programmes should be evaluated to determine how well they measure the indicators. This agement action evaluation should also determine how large a measured change must be for management to be confident that it6.2 Monitoring issues is the result of visitor impact and not errors in data collection.6.2.1 The shift to LAC-type methodologies has high-lighted the importance of monitoring. Managers need 6.2.4 Monitoring of historic monuments must taketo know when desired conditions are being threatened, into account values of integrity and authenticity.for example, with increasing water pollution in a stream Indicators of structural or engineering conditions cannotor when waiting lines become too long at an entrance. A translate into an overview of the complete health of a sitewell-developed and regular monitoring programme can since they do not reflect values of integrity or authentici-provide resource managers with data to justify sometimes ty. While it is important to monitor the use of a facility andcontroversial actions such as limiting the number of peo- visitor satisfaction, experts say more monitoring is neededple allowed into a site at a time. Monitoring visitors’ likes, to measure the effectiveness of communicating a site’sdislikes and travel patterns, as well as their impacts, can historic significance. The Canadian National Historichelp identify and justify needed actions in the changing Sites authorities set a policy to protect “commemorativetourist industry.6.2.2 The most difficult aspect of monitoring isensuring that it is carried out on a regular basis.Managers are faced with many pressing day-to-day prob-lems and often have little time or desire to carry out mon- 59

6 Carrying Capacity and Related Planning Issues integrity”, which is preserved when that which symbolis- es or represents a site’s importance is not impaired or Indicate a permanent checkpoint for determining soil loss. under threat; when the reasons for the site’s national his- Select points such as lookouts and those sensitive to visi- torical significance are effectively communicated to the tor usage. Insert a wooden peg on each side of the trail public; and when the site’s heritage values, including so that an imaginary line connecting the two pegs crosses those not related to national significance, are respected by the path. Measure the distance and note any prominent decisions and actions affecting the site. To implement the features, for example, undisturbed vegetation, bare policy, decision makers spell out the reasons for a site’s ground and waterlogged soils. Ideally, these notes should national significance before determining objectives and be supplemented with photographs. standards for the purpose of monitoring. Making a state- Collect all visible litter along the trail. ment of desired results and a list of those responsible is Record any incidents of vandalism on trail infrastructure, also part of the process. signs or furniture such as benches or tables. Tally the number of trail encounters with other groups or individuals per visit. Excerpts from a Monitoring Manual The following monitoring procedures from the US National Park Service for a nature trail point to the kinds 6.2.5 Simple monitoring systems with built-in incen- of issues that could arise. Similar programmes could be tives may be the most feasible and best approach adapted to other areas. As financial resources increase, for a sustainable programme. Given the many difficul- more advanced monitoring procedures can be introduced, ties in sustaining a monitoring programme, consideration after an evaluation of the pros and cons, including the for the practical needs of site managers, tourism officials costs of training staff in new procedures. and private operators will improve chances of success. Monitoring can be incorporated into maintenance activi- For a newly opened trail, regular surveys can be conduct- ties, or local guides can carry out monitoring functions. ed to gauge visitors’ views regarding crowding and other Tour operators interested in tracking visitors’ preferences problems. Questions can be modified according to cir- may be prepared to finance surveys. Government officials cumstances. may also want the information because it can directly affect national tourism initiatives. General instructions Experience has shown that a simple monitoring pro- Measure the distance from the beginning of a trail seg- gramme is better than none at all and can be more effec- ment to a given indicator. If possible, monitor the trail tive than costly ones. For example, with historic buildings every couple of months. Try to conduct the evaluation and other built cultural sites, a simple report with notes both before and after the high tourist season. and photos has been found to be far more useful than Record any necessary repairs or improvements, using the detailed, item-by-item reports on conditions. Short, simple “comments” section on the monitoring form to specify reports covering general problems and a few specific materials that will be needed and elaborate on problem problem areas allow staff to determine which properties areas. require the most attention and to offer guidance to their agencies. Specific instructions for sample indicators Site staff are given a checklist of items to monitor. The Note vegetation on the sides of the trails. The evaluator monitor notes any changes made to the property since should note whether the vegetation is being maintained the last visit, any problems related to general maintenance at the agreed standard. or repair, any potential problems, and any contemplated Record any impacts to trees up to two metres from each changes and repairs. Four categories are monitored: exte- side of the trail. Impacts can include broken branches and rior, interior, the area around the building and the rest of cuts in trees due to human actions. Describe the impacts the grounds. General photographs are taken as well as in the “comments” section. more specific problem areas. Wet soil sections are permanent areas more than two 6.3 Implications and recommendations metres in length. These areas force visitors to walk on the sides of trails, increasing their width and causing erosion. The evaluator should measure and record the beginning • The determination of carrying capacity is most realisti- and end of wet soil sections. cally viewed as an ongoing process. LAC methodologies Take note of any “social” trails -- unplanned secondary go far beyond the narrow purpose of setting a limit to the trails caused when visitors stray off the main trail or take number of visitors to a site. The methodology should be a shortcut. These can cause erosion and destruction of used to determine range and conditions that manage- vegetation. ment could treat as options for policy setting based on Note any general problems outside the listed categories in feedback provided by monitoring programmes. the “comments” section, for example, necessary repairs, dangerous areas and wildlife nesting areas. • Management goals and objectives for controlling impacts caused by tourism must be supported by60

Carrying Capacity and Related Planning Issues 6quantifiable measures and other means of comparing cur- • Present the selected indicators to the advisory grouprent conditions against desired conditions. These should for their reviewbe the basis of a monitoring programme with well-defined indicators. 2. Collect baseline data on the indicators selected• To identify monitoring indicators, planners should • Develop a monitoring programme and write a moni-review stakeholder concerns, the site’s policy/vision state- toring manualment and management objectives, then hold meetings • Train site staff in the agreed upon methods to collectwith the advisory group to agree on desired ecological the dataand social conditions. Written management objectives • Determine how stakeholder partners could behelp give direction to the development of measurable involved in the monitoringstandards. 3. Set standards for indicators• While managers will have the final decision, standardsshould be set on the basis of discussions with key stake- • Use the data from Step 2 to develop a preliminary setholders. Wherever possible, standards should not allow a of indicator standardsdowngrading of current conditions. For example, a stan- • If ROS opportunity classes are being used, set stan-dard for maintaining the population of a particular bird dards reflecting the different experiences desired in dif-species should not be set below current levels unless off- ferent areas of the siteset by overwhelming advantages. Standards should be set • In conjunction with the tourism advisory group, dis-whenever possible to reflect ideal conditions. cuss the proposed standards, reach consensus and develop a final agreement• Baseline data is essential to the establishment of realis-tic standards. An inventory will reveal the degree to which Suggested Readingexisting conditions vary from desired conditions.Standards must match goals and objectives and the Bennett, Gordon. “Commemorative Integritydesired conditions of stakeholders. So for example, if local Monitoring the State of Canada’s National Historiceducation is a management objective, a standard may be Sites,” in: ICOMOS Canada Bulletin, vol. 4, no. 3,set after determining the number of school visits carried p. 6. 1995out by staff during the past year. Coccossis H., and A. Parpairis. “Assessing the inter-• Inventories should be conducted according to estab- action between heritage, environment andlished and written procedures to insure consistent moni- tourism,” in: Harry Coccossis and Peter Nijkamptoring over the long term. The procedures could provide a (eds.), Mykonos, Sustainable Tourism Development,basic framework for a monitoring manual. pp. 107- 125, Hants (England): Avebury, 1995• To ensure a monitoring programme’s sustainability, indi- Comer, Douglas, and Lawrence Belli, Carryingcators should be selected in accordance with practical Capacity at Petra, Jordan; A Cultural Worldconsiderations. Local guides may be able to help with Heritage Site, by US/ICOMOS Management Team,monitoring, and private travel agencies interested in National Park Service, Everglades National Park,tracking visitor preferences could finance surveys. Tour George Wright Society, Hancock MI, 1997operators may be willing to invest in training for managersand contribute to monitoring. Cunliffe, Scott. “Monitoring and Evaluation as Practical Management Tools,” ICOMOS Canada• An understanding of the causes of changes in indicators Bulletin vol. 4, no.3, p. 29, 1995can point to management solutions. Problem analysisbegins with the monitoring process, during which solu- Eagles, Paul F.J., Stephen F. McCool and Christophertions are identified to bring about desired conditions or D. Haynes. “Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas,even surpass specified standards. Guidelines for Planning and Management”. World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), BestSuggested Activities Practice Protected Areas Guideline Series No. 8, IUCN The World Conservation Union, 20021. Identify indicators Elliott, Peter. “Easements are forever: The Ontario • Review the list of impacts and their causes Heritage Foundation’s experiences in monitoring • Develop a preliminary list of tourism indicators with heritage properties”, ICOMOS Canada Bulletin, vol. justifications for their selection, and estimate associated 4, no. 3, pp. 32-35, 1995 monitoring costs 61

6 Carrying Capacity and Related Planning Issues Graefe, A. R., F.R. Kuss, and J.J. Vaske. Visitor Impact Management: The planning framework (vol 2). Washington, D.C.: National Parks and Conservation Association, 1990 Stankey, George H. “The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum and the Limits of Acceptable Change Planning Systems: A Review of Experiences and Lessons,” in: Jennifer Aley, William R. Burch, Beth Conover and Donald Field (eds.), Ecosystem Management: Adaptive Strategies for Natural Resources Organizations in the Twenty-First Century, Taylor and Francis, Philadelphia, PA. 1999 Stankey, GH., D.N. Cole, R.C. Lucas, M.E. Peterson and S.S. Frisell. “The Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) System for Wilderness Planning,” General Technical Report INP-176. Ogden Utah: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, 1985 K.H. Twyford. “Assessment and Management of Beach Camping Impacts within Fraser Island World Heritage Area, South-East Queensland Australia,” The World Heritage Managers Workshop, Papers and Proceedings, pp. 24-28, April 1996 Van Hooff, Herman. “The reporting and monitoring of the state of properties inscribed on the World Heritage List,” ICOMOS Canada Bulletin vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 12-14, 199562

Strategies and Solutions 7to Tourism Management ProblemsAcropolis, Athens, Greece © UNESCO 63

7 Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems As long as a site meets established standards, a permits, regulations and enforcement actions aimed at manager’s responsibilities extend to routine mainte- concentrating recreation activities at resistant reefs. A nance and continuous monitoring. However, if eco- combination of methods is also recommended for con- logical, physical and/or social conditions approach or trolling vandalism, including physical protection of the reach unacceptable levels, action must be taken. resource as well as education, making a site inaccessible Knowledge of management strategies and solutions to vehicles, increasing admission fees and protecting sites will arm the manager with the options available for by not promoting them. restoring the desired conditions. Decision-making is also helped by an awareness of the consequences 7.1.3 Factors to consider when selecting manage- associated with these strategies and actions. ment actions include whether they meet objectives, their likelihood of success and difficulties of imple- 7.1 General issues mentation, particularly cost. Management strategies should be in line with objectives. For example, if a man- 7.1.1 Any management action must begin with iden- agement objective at a Himalayan site is to offer visitors tification of the likely causes of a defined problem. the freedom to explore, then a softer management A decline in conditions is not necessarily caused by approach may be appropriate. Here staff may wish to tourism. Coral may deteriorate naturally; litter at an emphasise educating trekkers on low-impact expedition archaeological site may be caused by locals, not tourists, behaviour. On the other hand, if a site’s objective is to pro- and so on. Once the cause is clearly identified, corrective tect a priceless mosaic at an ancient monument, a more actions can be taken. Well-focused actions, attacking the direct approach may be appropriate such as the deploy- cause of the problem, save time and money. For example, ment of guards to protect the site from looters or vandals an ongoing campaign may maintain an area affected by and to regulate tourism activity near the work of art. litter, but it can be expensive and does not attack the cause of the problem. It may be more cost- effective to Actions should have a high probability of achieving the identify the source of the litter and combine a mainte- desired outcome. Before taking actions that may face resist- nance programme with an education campaign that ance, it is important to ensure that norms and regulations attempts to affect people’s behaviour. give managers the legal mandate to act, and that appropri- ate enforcement systems will support its application. 7.1.2 Management actions can be direct or indirect. Awareness of the visitor profile helps to ensure success. Direct management actions confront problems of human For example, a large group of foreign visitors may be behaviour through regulations that may entail enforce- strongly motivated towards the protection of an endan- ment, restricting activities or rationing use. Indirect meth- gered species but unaware that they are disturbing the ods seek to affect behaviour through education, animal during feeding times. In this case, educational information and persuasion. Visitors can be informed materials explaining low-impact viewing techniques may about the impacts connected with a certain activity, or be the best method for minimising impacts. given information that encourages the use of certain areas over threatened areas. Other indirect actions include Actions should be relatively easy and inexpensive to imple- physical alterations, such as the redirection of a trail to a ment. In general, direct methods are considered more more resilient area of a forest, that influence the move- time-consuming and costly, while indirect actions are ment of visitors. thought to be cheaper in the long run. In general, indirect actions are more successful in remote 7.1.4 Experts suggest limiting regulation to the min- areas, where visitors’ freedom to explore is usually a pri- imum necessary to effectively accomplish manage- mary goal. Direct approaches are often used to prohibit ment objectives. The most effective but least restrictive visitors from entering fragile or dangerous areas, for management actions should be implemented first. The example at an archaeological site where they might dam- results should be monitored, and more restrictive actions age a priceless fresco. Experts say regulations succeed may be implemented if necessary until conditions when they have strong public support, are carefully improve. For example, to deal with uncontrolled dumping explained, and when visitors have some say in how they of garbage, an educational campaign may be launched are implemented. Visitors must understand why a behav- describing the problem and inviting voluntary compliance iour change is desirable. Once implemented, of course, with a regulation against dumping at the site. If voluntary regulations must be enforced. methods fail, a fine can be imposed. If this doesn’t work, the area may have to be closed. In practice, a combination of methods is generally used. For example, both direct and indirect actions can be used At some sites, human and financial resource limitations to minimise visitors’ impact on a coral reef. Site staff can may necessitate more direct approaches in the short term. design an extensive public information campaign that can Experts in both the North and the South stress the need include printed materials, direct advertising and school to develop visitor education programmes and other indi- programmes. Tour operators can be managed through rect methods. However, managers often opt for direct64

Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems 7methods when faced with problems such as proximity to Options for dispersing or concentrating people tohigh population centres and limited staff and finances. In reduce use in a particular area can include:these situations, the cost and time involved in implement-ing indirect methods is weighed against immediate prob- • restricting the number of people who can enter thelems, such as the need to prevent the rapid degradation threatened area;of an archaeological site by visitors buying objects stolenfrom the site. • limiting the permissible length of stay in the threat- ened area;7.2 Reducing the number of people who enter anarea Reducing visitation in high use areas is a justifiable • raising the entrance fee for the threatened area only;means of avoiding social impacts such as crowding, but • not providing facilities in the threatened area;may not by itself substantially reduce some ecological • zoning an area for a particular activity and not per-impacts. Reducing the number of people in an area caneffectively reduce crowding or congestion, for example at mitting the activity in the threatened area;a historical monument. However, since some environmen- • directing tourists to more resilient areas through zon-tal impacts follow the curvilinear trend discussed inChapter 3, in natural areas such measures may not solve ing, visitor education and offering more facilities orenvironmental problems unless visitors are also directed to fewer facilities;more resistant areas. • charging different entrance fees on certain days of the week; and An Overview of Management Strategies • using a promotion and interpretation campaign to influence the use of one area over another. Management strategies affecting the level and nature of exploitation of a site and its physical and socio-economic Visitors’ behaviour can be changed through: environment seek to minimise or reduce the impact of each visitor. Factors, or variables that can be affected or • education programmes teaching low-impact ways to controlled, include the number of visitors, the types of visit a site, e.g., techniques for observing wildlife activity, visitors’ behaviour and the environment’s physical without disturbing it; and social resistance and resilience. A number of strate- gies address these variables: • interpretation programmes teaching respect for a site’s resources and protection issues. Visitor levels may be controlled by reducing the total number of people allowed at a site or reducing the num- Site managers may encourage visitors to practise ber of people allowed in one or several areas of a site by particular activities by: dispersing them or by concentrating them in a specific area. • raising or lowering prices for certain types of visitors; • restricting opening hours, e.g. opening a site early for Types of activities can be changed or influenced by addressing the ways in which the activity is practised, bird-watchers or closing it early to discourage other offering incentives for people to practise particular activi- clientele; ties or imposing direct actions to restrict certain activities. • offering or not offering infrastructure; • prohibiting certain activities through regulation and A site’s physical environment may be altered to make enforcement. it more resistant to impacts through the use of infrastructure. A site’s physical environment can be made more resistant to impacts by: A site’s social environment can be affected by reducing conflicts between visitors and between visitors and the • using infrastructure to “harden” a site, e.g., harden- local community. ing a trail with a wooden boardwalk or installing per- manent moorings; Management options for reducing the number of visitors to a site can include: • relocating infrastructure to more resilient areas, e.g., moving a mountain refuge to an area less prone to • restricting entry or closing an area; erosion. • limiting group sizes; • implementing a quota or permit system; Actions for reducing conflicts between visitors • increasing fees; or include: • not providing facilities. • zoning an area for compatible activities; • influencing the types of tourism activities practised at a site by providing or not providing facilities. 65

7 Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems Options for reducing conflict between local people 7.2.3 Closing an area can be an effective way to pro- and the communities include: tect or restore environmental quality. The measure encourages the recovery of vegetation and reduces • channelling economic benefits to local populations; wildlife impacts. For example, visitors to Big Bend National • incorporating socio-cultural values into the site’s man- Park in Texas, USA, are excluded during the breeding season of peregrine falcons to protect their nesting sites. agement planning and development by increasing Closure of an area, however, is a direct action that can be community participation. controversial and have economic and social ramifications. Any closure should be explained to the local community, Also, where light use causes considerable environmental not just to would-be visitors. damage, decreases in traffic in the area may not have cor- respondingly positive effects. In such cases reducing visi- 7.2.4 Reducing numbers by limiting the size of par- tor traffic may do little to boost recovery rates for soil and ties can also help control ecological and social vegetation and an area may need to be closed for recov- impacts. Large parties can cause overcrowding as well as ery to occur. visitor conflicts. In more popular areas, limits on party size and an educational campaign may be needed to reduce On sites that have already suffered degradation to vege- impacts and to ensure more privacy for each group of vis- tation, practically all use may have to be curtailed before itors. In such cases educational programmes should stress recovery can occur. Impacts to water and wildlife the importance of using existing areas and keeping them resources are more varied and in some cases can respond pleasant for the next visitors. to a reduction in use levels. For example, bears in the Yellowstone National Park World Heritage site pose a Big groups are likely to create wider disturbed areas than greater problem in high-use areas, and reducing visitation smaller groups because they tend to spread out over a may reduce incidents between bears and campers. larger area. They can also disturb an area more rapidly than a small party. However in an area that is already 7.2.1 In some areas, even if limits are imposed, meas- heavily affected, it makes little difference if a group size is ures to concentrate and control visitors are needed 10 or 50. to reduce ecological impacts. People have a tendency to go to the same places and follow the same routes. 7.2.5 Quotas can be used to reduce visitor levels but However, once people arrive at an established site such as raise several issues. A point to consider is the finan- a camping ground, they tend to disperse within the limits cial cost of implementing and administering the of the camping area. Limiting use -- for example by reduc- quota system. If staffing is insufficient, a quota system ing the number of campsites around a lake -- would probably cannot be maintained over the long term. Also, reduce the number of visitors but not necessarily reduce quotas favour people who can book in advance, exclud- their ecological impact as they spread out over all the ing other categories of potential visitors. campsites. Actions would be needed to both reduce the number of people and ensure the permanent closing of Any sort of limitation may annoy visitors who cherish their selected campsites. On the other hand, in lightly used freedom. Quota systems may especially irk those who areas, visitor reductions can minimise ecological impacts consider themselves traditional users of a site. As a result as long as use levels are kept low, visitors are instructed in they may choose to go elsewhere, and other sites may not low-impact techniques and they avoid fragile areas. Even be able to cope with increased use. Thus, for a quota sys- one uneducated party of visitors can inflict serious tem to be successful, access should be limited to alterna- damage. tive sites and user groups need to understand and accept the rationing technique being implemented. 7.2.2 Limiting the length of stay at a site can reduce numbers and alleviate crowding problems but may 7.2.6 Increasing visitor fees and other charges can not necessarily reduce environmental impacts. Limits reduce visitor numbers. The laws of supply and demand can be placed on time spent anywhere at the site or at dictate that higher fees at a site will reduce visitation. A specific areas, a measure that helps reduce crowding. factor to consider when raising fees is the elasticity of Length-of-stay limits at heavily used natural areas are demand, or how sensitive visitors are to a change in the unlikely to have any effect on ecological impacts unless cost of entering an area. This information can be gleaned the limits are very restrictive and targeted to reduce meas- from surveys. Another factor to consider is that visitors urable indicators. Ecological impacts are best reduced by want pricing schemes to be easy and straightforward. imposing length-of-stay limits in lightly used areas; in They tend to prefer an all-inclusive fee over a main fee fragile areas, a long stay in any one place could cause plus separate charges such as for parking or taking pho- unacceptable impacts. tographs. Setting visitor fees may also involve setting dif- ferent entrance fees for local people and foreigners.66

Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems 7 Reducing Demand with Higher Visitor Fees control and protection for sensitive resources. By limiting Higher entrance fees can lower demand, reducing the use to a few selected areas within a site, particularly areas number of visitors, without necessarily reducing overall that are resistant to impacts or at least not as sensitive to revenue. An increase in the park entry fee at Keoladeo impacts, the policy confines disturbance to a smaller area. National Park in India, for example, resulted in an 11 per So at sites with sensitive resources, a concentration strat- cent decrease in tourism (down from 126,539 in 1996-97 egy can be used to direct visitors to areas where resources to 113,004 in 1997- 98). Overall, revenue more than are more resilient and resistant. For example, some corals doubled over the period with the number of foreign are more resistant to impacts than others, so visitors may tourists climbing by four percent, from 40,894 in 1996-97 be concentrated at more resistant areas. At Stonehenge, to 42,532 in 1997-1998. except for certain religious groups who are free to enter at certain times, visitors are not permitted to cross the7.2.7 Not providing facilities can reduce visitor num- site’s outer perimeter.bers. Limiting infrastructure such as camping areas orparking spaces can reduce visitor numbers just as adding Besides limiting impacts to certain areas, concentratinginfrastructure can increase numbers. Simply making use may open up new opportunities. For example, theaccess more difficult, for instance, by locating parking far- policy may provide a rare opportunity to experience anther away from entrances, can also slow visitation. In area in relative isolation, perhaps at an archaeological site.Costa Rica, community pressure to limit tourism at a The chance to be part of a small group visiting an isolat-Reserve put a stop to a plan to pave the access road to the ed, highly protected site may be unique, and one thatcommunity and the reserve. On the other hand, increas- people may also be willing to pay more for.ing infrastructure such as adding signs and informationalplaques can increase the popularity of a site and its A policy of concentrating may help avert possible impactsresources, for example, an underwater shipwreck. on naturally fragile areas resulting from the tendency of tourism enterprises such as hotel chains and theme parksThis strategy raises several issues including safety con- to grow and expand. In sites that are already heavilycerns. At a rain forest park, for example, management impacted, there may be no other alternative but tomay want to provide a system of signs, boardwalks and encourage or restrict visitors to existing use patterns.bridges to direct visitors safely back to the entrance rather Since people tend to use the same areas and the samethan run the risk of having to carry out expensive search- routes, implementing this measure is usually not difficultand-rescue operations. and can be accomplished through regulation or through indirect methods such as persuading visitors to use a cer-The elasticity of demand related to infrastructure develop- tain area or providing infrastructure in specific areas.ment may vary from one site to another. Many WorldHeritage sites, because they are unique, can attract signif- Concentrating tourists may produce a positive social out-icant numbers of people even if infrastructure develop- come by allowing local people to escape the pressuresment is limited. For example, Mount Everest would associated with tourism. For example, in community ruralprobably continue to attract substantial numbers of expe- village encampments developed for tourists in Senegal,ditions with or without infrastructure and facilities. The tourist accommodations are situated well away from theInca archaeological site at Machu Picchu would continue village centre. In Ujung Kulon National Park in West Javato attract large numbers of tourists without the addition in Indonesia, tourism activities are restricted to a zone thatof a cable car. is managed by a private company that provides accom- modation and services.This type of policy requires managers to keep a record ofvisitor demand to track changes with different levels of A possible disadvantage of concentrating use is that itinfrastructure. Even more important are on-site interviews changes the social climate of an environment for the visi-with tourists and tour operators to help staff to determine tors. At many sites, when tourists are clustered together,the effects of infrastructure policy. By maintaining ongo- for example in an enclave of small hotels, they lose theing dialogue with stakeholders such as tour operators feeling of solitude. This may be contrary to the visitorwho are members of the site’s tourism advisory board and experience that was originally planned and/or what origi-who have an intimate knowledge of visitor preferences nally attracted people to the site.and movements, site managers can obtain practical adviceon the effects of these policies. 7.3.2 Dispersing visitors is seldom simple and may not mitigate impacts. Limiting environmental impacts in7.3 Weighing whether to disperse or con- natural areas by dispersing use to different areas can becentrate visitors effective in areas where use levels are low and visitors are conscientious about their behaviour. A dispersal policy7.3.1 Concentrating people can limit social and envi- should be supported with programmes designed to con-ronmental impacts. The strategy offers a high level of trol where people go and how they engage in recreation- al activities. The policy may not be feasible at natural sites with limited resources for educating or controlling visitors. 67

7 Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems In addition, careful monitoring of a dispersal programme walls. To address the traffic problems, management is needed because of the high potential for spreading implemented a one-way road system. A ventilation system problems. was installed to reduce the humidity and the temperature in the burial chamber. Another way to avoid impacts is Dispersing visitors by extending the tourist season is an simply to move infrastructure away from sensitive areas. option that may have ecological consequences. For exam- ple, using quotas and visitor permits can reduce crowding 7.4.2 Hardening has both costs and benefits because but may concentrate use in a season during which vege- it changes the nature of the visitors’ experience. tation and wildlife are more fragile. Wildlife is especially Hardening can lead to a change in visitor profile. The vulnerable during the reproductive months and when ani- Milford track in New Zealand and the Overland track in mals feed for winter. During periods of higher rainfall and Tasmania, both popular backpacking routes, saw an snowmelt, the ground may be more susceptible to com- increase in use during the 1980s. Management respond- paction and breaking. Plants are more vulnerable during ed to the resulting impacts by rationing use and harden- growth seasons. ing the tracks surfaces. Consequently, some visitors considered the tracks too easy and stopped using them. At cultural sites, such as monuments with well-developed and protective infrastructure where there is little risk of Making experiences easier by hardening a site can also environmental impacts, dispersing visitors is an effective increase the level of crowding. In Tasmania, a boardwalk way to relieve crowding. Dispersing visitors to different was built to restrict access to parts of the Gorden River. areas of a site can be accomplished through regulations or For business reasons, tour group sizes were not reduced, through information and persuasion. It can also be and groups could number more than 50. Crowding onto accomplished through the strategic placement of infra- the boardwalk, the visitors had difficulty photographing structure. If staffing levels allow, direct actions such as one of the site’s star attractions, a famous 2,000-year-old issuing permits may also be effective. A permit system Huon pine tree. increases the distance between parties and supports a management objective of providing an experience in Another effect of site hardening is that added materials which human encounters are infrequent. may not blend in with the surrounding environment, compromising the original values of the site. One solution 7.3.3 The decision to concentrate or disperse tourism is to use natural materials instead of intrusive man-made should reflect policy goals and management materials. For example, fast-growing plants can be used objectives. A frequent policy goal is to assure that the to block a trail leading to a fragile or restricted area, or an benefits of tourism flow to the communities around a site. entrance may be filled in with natural debris and rocks. This may lead to pressure to open up new areas of a site to visitors. Tourism has a tendency to spread, and can lead 7.5 Changing visitor behaviour in turn to the spread of social and ecological impacts. If on the other hand local economic development is a key goal, 7.5.1 Interpretation and education programmes and there is sufficient revenue-generating potential to can mitigate environmental and social impacts. replace current economic activities in a given area, then Educational programmes instruct people on how best to expanding tourism to the area may be appropriate. behave at a site. Interpretation programmes inform and explain the site’s resources and significance to the visitor. But if the main policy goal is protection of an endangered species and promoting visits by biologists, expanding Visitors can be taught low-impact techniques at both cul- tourism within a park may limit opportunities for research tural and natural sites. In the United States, a “Save the because of increased tourism impacts in sensitive areas. Manatee Campaign” involved distributing guidelines to tourists and resulted in a decline in manatee mortality and 7.4 Changing the physical environment to injury. At the Luxor site, in Egypt, authorities reported that resist impacts by explaining management problems to visitors they suc- ceeded in distributing visitor movements more evenly. 7.4.1 Increasing a site’s resistance to visitor impacts Interpretation and education programmes, although they by installing or modifying infrastructure is generally may take time to succeed, may be preferable to infra- referred to as site-hardening. Adding infrastructure, or structure development because they are less likely to “hardening” a site, strengthens its physical durability. This change the visitor experience and displace original target may involve surfacing access routes and trails, or building groups. shelters for trekkers, or barriers to prevent people from touching priceless mosaics such as at the Taj Mahal. An Certain impacts can be almost eliminated by teaching vis- example of extensive hardening of a cultural site is at the itors minimum-impact techniques. In Tasmania, on the Great Temple of Abu Simbel, in Egypt, where the daily Overland track in the Cradle Mountain-Lake St. Clair influx of 2,000 tourists was causing traffic jams. Inside the National Park, trekkers came down with gastroenteritis temple, their respiration increased the humidity and car- because they were burying their waste too close to camp- bon dioxide in the air, causing salt deposits to form on the ing huts, contaminating water and food supplies. At one68

Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems 7point up to half of the users were reporting falling ill. To indicated that educational materials are more effective forcorrect the situation, park management mailed materials visitors with limited experience of a site or advanceto walking clubs, environmental groups and camping information about it. Special care must be taken with thestores outlining the problem and the solution that walkers content and delivery of interpretation materials for repeatbury their waste at least 100 metres from huts, campsites visitors. Experts recommend that if two versions of theand streams. The following summer, only eight to 10 per- materials are not feasible it may be better to ignore thecent of the users reported contracting gastroenteritis. more experienced audience.Similar results have been achieved with education cam-paigns promoting low-impact wildlife viewing and other Visitors must believe that a given issue is real and serious,ecologically sound practices such as using stoves instead that a given action is necessary, and that they can make aof fires, packing out garbage and not feeding animals. difference. Materials should present an issue along withMost experts in the protection of monuments also advo- information on how to address it, linking visitors’ experi-cate visitor education as part of the strategy for combat- ence with future actions. The materials could includeting problems such as vandalism. information on environmentalists’ clubs, other places to visit and learn about a subject, or other additional infor-7.5.2 Interpretation and education campaigns need mation.not be overly costly. Goals should be critically evaluatedto determine whether they could be met just as effective- A person has to believe that he or she is capable of con-ly through modest means. Instead of allocating huge tributing to a solution, such as by planting a seedling in asums to large infrastructure projects such as sophisticated reforestation project or helping out at an archaeologicalvisitor centres, cheaper approaches may be more effec- dig. Individual rewards can be financial but “psychictive, for example, a programme involving personal contact rewards” the gratification deriving from altruistic motivesbetween visitors and management staff. In some situa- are often more meaningful.tions a team could travel from site to site to update andimprove interpretation facilities and materials, and to train 7.5.4 Several other factors figure in the effectivelocal managers and rangers. Educational and interpreta- presentation of interpretation and educational pro-tion campaigns are possible at minimal expense. For grammes. Clear goals and objectives are needed toexample on a short nature walk, small signs giving the determine what is to be interpreted, for whom and how,common and scientific names of the flora can suffice, and who will develop interpretation strategies. The crucialwhile larger signs can be made on more general themes. step of identifying fundamental messages and target audiences is reportedly the weakest link in the process of7.5.3 Changing visitor behaviour is not a simple developing interpretation concepts and themes.process. Interpretation and education campaigns stemfrom a desire to change visitor behaviour, a simple princi- Materials should focus on the type of visitor whose behav-ple in theory but complex in practice. Many factors have iour is considered most in need of change. The messagebeen found to influence visitor behaviour, including the should clearly describe the critical problems and recom-following: mended behaviours.Visitors want to know why they should do something. A The most effective educational campaigns use a combina-simple statement that an area is a low-use area does not tion of methods tailored for particular user groups andprovide enough information. messages. They are based on specific visitor profiles cata- loguing age, background, interests, origin (foreign orThe interpretation programme must match the current local), degree of skill in the activities the site offers, specialreality, or confusion will result. For example, photographs needs, form of access to the site (road or waterway, pub-and descriptions in promotional publications may not cor- lic or private). Profiles also take into account whether vis-respond to the visitor experience. A case in point was itors are on their own, in couples or families, or part of anwhen the Tasmanian Forestry Commission, in educational organised group.and promotional materials, emphasised the recreationalattractions of its forests. Feedback from visitors revealed Interpretation criteria may change with societal changesthat they had not expected to be able to see clearcutting such as shifts in ethnicity or local education levels. Suchfrom trails and picnic areas. One solution was to include shifts may necessitate new messages, perhaps in differentimages of forest production activities in the promotional languages. An exhibit should satisfy the expectations ofliterature. occasional tourists as well as those of local residents and repeat visitors. “Layered” signs offer detailed informationThe behaviour of staff including maintenance personnel in smaller print intended to pique the interest of repeatmust uphold the values reflected in educational and inter- visitors.pretation materials. Studies show the need for careful analysis of visitor inter-A visitor’s experience and prior knowledge may influence ests. Many people visit World Heritage sites out of a gen-the effectiveness of educational materials. Research has eral interest in heritage. Most visitors to World Heritage 69

7 Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems sites have little specialist knowledge or interest; the Comic posters, audio-visual materials and multimedia pre- particulars of a castle or other historical site are of sec- sentations have also proven effective. ondary importance. Once materials raise visitors’ attention, the most effective Interpretative programmes should be evaluated in terms method for changing behaviours is to add personal con- of whether they are meeting management goals and tact. For example, walkers are more readily convinced not objectives. If not, they are a poor investment of scarce to use stoves when rangers inform them face to face resources, at the expense of other programmes and the about regulations, reinforcing a strong educational cam- management’s reputation. Experts warn against a tenden- paign. Simply erecting signs saying “fuel stoves only” is cy to produce new programmes rather than re-examine far less effective. existing ones, leaving no arguments in favour of one or the other. In the absence of rangers, guides can be trained to pres- ent interpretation information. Workshops for commercial The easiest and most common way to evaluate the effec- tour guides could cover low-impact techniques and other tiveness of an interpretation programme such as an exhib- management issues. Local guides at Nan Madol, a South it is to assess its ability to attract and hold visitors’ Pacific island with an important archaeological site, are attention. In this case an exhibit is judged on how many crucial in educating tourists and controlling graffiti and people stop and how much time they spend looking other forms of vandalism. and/or reading the exhibit material. Staff intuition con- cerning attitude change is generally reliable and can con- Interactive interpretive programmes show great promise. tribute to assessment studies. Participatory exhibits are more popular than static displays and are highly effective in changing visitor behaviour. The target audience may be reached in various ways, Active participation seems to foster a positive attitude, depending on the type of materials used. In general, visi- especially when combined with a rewarding experience. tors who must rely on public transport or a service pro- Interactive techniques giving opportunities for feedback vided by the site management for access to an area is a include despatching roving staff or placing them at fixed captive audience. Staff can inform visitors of park regula- points to provide information; holding conferences or dis- tions and provide safety advice and orientation pointers. cussions; offering entertainment events such as puppet shows, plays or musicals, or organising activities such as To encourage return visits, exhibits should be changed making and measuring things, games and re-enactments regularly, or special exhibitions should be staged on occa- of historical events. Publications, signs, self-guided activi- sion. The Royal British Columbia Museum in Vancouver ties, visitor centres, audio-visual devices, indoor and out- saw a decline in annual visitation because the exhibits door exhibitions such as walks, drives and snorkelling remained unchanged through lack of funds. Revenues trails in marine parks are less interactive -- but less time- declined as a result, compounding the problem. consuming for staff. Guides can be invaluable in imparting educational infor- Hands-on workshops may be coupled with field trips and mation to visitors. In large tropical rain forests, for exam- observational tours. One scientist-teacher from Puerto ple, tourists unaccompanied by an excellent guide may Rico recommended that coastal ecosystems are best spend long periods without seeing any wildlife. Eighty to understood through field trips during which participants 95 percent of travellers to rain forest lodges in one region can question and interact with the expert. The Tropen of Peru reported being unsatisfied with wildlife viewing. Museum in Amsterdam offers a programme in which peo- ple can seek advice from experienced travellers about cur- Involving guides in the planning stages when developing rent events in a particular country and various cultural do’s educational and interpretation programmes helps to and don’ts. ensure consistency in visitor information. Guides and site staff should liaise closely so that guides do not compete Authentic displays based on economic activities using real with the aims of the site, and so that their information is artefacts and materials are increasingly popular. At the correct and consistent. National Fishing Centre in Grimsby, England, for example, former trawler hands recount their experiences to the 7.5.5 Methods of presentation vary in their ability to public and encourage participation by instructing visitors attract visitors and change behaviour. The following in knotting fishing line. Heritage centres increasingly offer materials have been found to be effective: authentic experiences through imaginative interpretations of local history. Since the 1980s, old established muse- The Tasmania Parks Department found that the most ums, thanks to new technologies, have been offering effective presentation materials were fun as well as easy entertainment as well as education, blurring the distinc- and quick to read. Videos were the most popular and the tion between the theme park and museum experience. most effective. Because videos bring information to life and show how techniques work in practice, they are pop- Oral history is a particularly useful research asset and an ular for use in schools and with inexperienced groups. important source of interpretative material. The process70

Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems 7gets local people involved and makes them feel repre- wildlife. To address this problem, culverts can be dugsented, which may be especially important if it turns out alongside roads to prevent vehicles from leaving them.that the local interpretation is at variance with that of sitematerials. Including the voices of local people in interpre- 7.8 Changing the site’s social environmenttative programmes gives them a central role, encouraging by reducing visitor conflictspopular support. 7.8.1 Separating conflicting activities reduces con-7.6 Offering incentives for practising flict. Allocating specific activities to certain areas helpscertain activities reduce conflict between different types of visitors. For example, groups such as snorkellers and sports fishermen7.6.1 Visitors may be redirected through scheduling. would conflict if they tried to use the same areas. TheFor example, a site may be opened early for bird-watchers concept of separating user groups is related to theor closed early to limit other types of visitors. The Recreational Opportunity Spectrum. A key issue whenMonteverde Cloud Forest Reserve in Costa Rica opens using this technique is to ensure that the different areasearly so that bird-watchers can enjoy their activity in rela- for different activities remain in good environmental con-tive calm. Extending a site’s opening hours may depend dition for the long term. Visitors and tour operators couldon whether resources are sufficient to pay staff for the be informed that if an area allocated to them is damaged,extra time. The extra expense could be offset through they won’t be offered an alternative area.higher visitor fees or increased publicity. 7.8.2 Developing interpretation and education pro-7.6.2 Providing or not providing infrastructure for grammes in close cooperation with the communitycertain activities can influence the type of activity can help to avoid alienating local people who maypractised. Strategic construction and siting of infrastruc- otherwise feel their cultural identity is being mis-ture can encourage the use of certain areas over others. represented. The feeling of sense of place and the strongSigns can promote one site over another, while removing spirituality and identity which traditional people have forsigns can discourage use. In areas where there may be their land is not easily conveyed to visitors. For the localconflict between different user groups or where separat- community, memory, attachment and symbolism areing the groups could enhance the visitor experience, low- often of primary importance. In contrast, visitors maycost infrastructure development could encourage seem to diminish local values by being attracted to theseparation. For example, signs could direct campers away unfamiliar, exotic and picturesque. Interpretation and edu-from areas used by day visitors. cation programmes, when developed in close cooperation with the community, can help prevent a devaluation of7.7 Changing types of activity through traditional local values.regulation 7.9 Distributing benefits to communities7.7.1 Regulations limiting activities and/or the way affected by the sitethey are practised can radically affect ecological andsocial impacts. Some recreation activities produce 7.9.1 Locals are more likely to participate in conser-more impacts than others. The types of visitor activities vation when it is associated with an improvement incan be limited. For example, banning off-road vehicles their standard of living. Managers at Ujung Kulonand motorcycles reduces soil erosion, as does the use of National Park in West Java in Indonesia report that localhorses. To limit traffic and pollution problems, Bermuda income-generating activities in tourism, resource manage-has adopted a policy of not recognising foreign drivers’ ment and protection encourage local support for parklicences, making car rental impossible. Similarly, non-resi- protection and conservation efforts. Environmental con-dent cars have been banned on the Italian islands of servation and education programmes alone will notCapri, Ischia and Procida. achieve results. In Gambia, West Africa, the local commu- nity’s acceptance of the new Kiang West National ParkTo minimise negative impacts due to encounters between was based entirely on the expectation that they wouldtourists and whales at Glacier Bay, Alaska, authorities receive a portion of the economic benefits of tourism.have set limits on the number of cruise ships entering thebay and issued regulations for maintaining a minimum However, increasing local benefits -- for example, by pro-distance of 400 metres between ships and whales. Whale- viding training for local guides -- does not necessarilywatching regulations are also in place for local guides at draw people into conservation and protection activities.Viscaino Bay in Baja, California. Experience has shown that conservation and economic development should be linked. Thus guides should beOnce again, such regulatory measures require sufficient recruited who have an ongoing interest in conservation orresources to implement. Complementary indirect actions community participation. Evaluations of local guide train-can provide support to direct actions. For example, at ing in Costa Rica indicated a need for a comprehensivesome game parks in Africa, drivers often fail to observe selection process, in search of both talent and environ-regulations for maintaining acceptable distances from the mental and community consciousness. 71

7 Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems 7.9.2 Experience has determined that community Directing Benefits to Local People tourism projects are sustainable when people invest Through Employment Opportunities their labour and savings in them. Projects succeed when people have a stake in them. When people can see When India’s Keoladeo bird sanctuary became a national the project’s benefits they willingly contribute their labour park, new regulations prohibited wood collecting and or money. In Nepal’s Annapurna Conservation Area grazing, severely affecting local people who depended on Project, people are expected to contribute cash or labour the park’s natural resources for their livelihood. To offset to community development projects. Lodge owners who some of these impacts, tourism is being encouraged as an upgrade their facilities are provided with technical assis- alternative source of income. Keoladeo, located within tance and training including help in the development of the “Golden Triangle” tourist route joining New Delhi, their standards. Agra and Jaipur, is one of Asia’s most popular natural sites, with 125,000 visitors per year, 70 percent from 7.9.3 Community tourism programmes may be more within India. effective if introduced gradually and in conjunction with other economic development programmes. With its large population of migratory and resident birds Gradual introduction is recommended in view of potential including Siberian cranes, Keoladeo is on the list of attrac- negative social and economic impacts. Communities may tions of many specialised tour operators. To take advan- need time to adapt to the realities of the industry, to man- tage of the tourism opportunities, the park’s deputy chief age problems stemming from the influx of visitors, and to warden has devised a creative strategy to generate local plan efficient ways to capture and retain economic bene- benefits. Transportation and interpretation are provided fits from tourism. by 108 rickshaw drivers and 98 naturalist guides. Motor- less boats are also maintained and driven by a permanent A community’s expectations of economic benefits are staff recruited from adjoining areas, providing another often disappointed because of inadequate local condi- local employment option. In addition, 60 percent of the tions. For example, foreign tourists may demand stan- park staff is drawn from villages adjoining the protected dards of accommodations and food beyond what the area. The park advertises for rickshaw drivers in the local local community can immediately provide. Thus, locals newspaper. Drivers are given three months of training in may not begin to see direct economic benefits until cer- the park’s natural and cultural history as well as that of tain basic problems are addressed. Gradual implementa- the local communities and tourist areas. Authorised rick- tion can exacerbate the problem, as people become shaws bear a yellow metal permit. They are allowed to impatient for the economic benefits. work both inside and outside the park area. A lottery sys- tem of rotating turns is used to avoid arguments between Such problems may be mitigated when other income- the drivers taking tourists into the park. generating programmes are carried out concurrently and the community is not oriented solely towards tourism. For Local guides are also trained in natural history, interpreta- example, many projects at protected areas include agro- tive skills, visitor management and languages. Guide forestry and other resource development programmes licences are renewed every July after the successful com- that can produce economic benefits such as crops and pletion of a refresher course. Recent years have seen a wood lots for firewood. Such options can lessen the need shift to recruiting from unemployed low-income groups, for more rapid tourism development. particularly young people from rural areas. About one- third of the guides are from the surrounding communi- 7.9.4 Tourism’s potential for benefiting locals is a ties. Initially guides were required to be English-speaking function of the existing resources and skills that can school graduates, but Hindi-speaking guides have been be used to generate income. Community tourism pro- accepted given that 70 percent of the visitors are domes- grammes should start with an evaluation of local tic tourists. resources and skills with which activities can be matched. For example, in many instances local transportation sup- Seasonal financial problems port is needed for tourism activities, or local knowledge is in demand because of difficult terrain, such as at Although daily revenues for rickshaw drivers can be sub- Corcovado National Park in Costa Rica, where ground stantial during the peak season at Keoladeo, when visita- transportation to the park is difficult, and flying is more tion drops in line with birds’ migratory patterns only a expensive. Other activities that may need local guiding few of the drivers can continue to work. While many and transportation skills include mountaineering, have work in the area during the low season, some are trekking, sport fishing, skin diving, and horseback riding. hired to remove water hyacinth (a weed) from the park’s More specialised activities such as bird-watching and river wetland areas. rafting usually require more education and training. Opportunities for these activities often depend on the existence of government or NGO training programmes, and tour operators who are interested in involving local people.72

Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems 7 An eco-surcharge fits and applicability on the ground. In some countries where unemployment is already high, these measures can Tour operators and tourists can make direct contributions put even more people out of work. It may be advisable to Keoladeo park and its development schemes. Seventy- and just as effective, for example, to use local labour to five percent of the fees and donations go to a special build and maintain palm thatch roofs to protect stone project fund administered by the Keoladeo National Park artefacts from deterioration instead of using chemical Development Society grouping park authorities, district compounds. By the same token, power lawnmowers are administration and village community representatives, obviously more efficient than manual labour for cutting local NGOs and representatives from the agriculture, ani grass, but lawnmowers need spare parts that may have to mal husbandry, education, irrigation, tourism, and water be imported. works departments. The success of the scheme depends on transparency, with the different players having well- Visitor fees can generate benefits for both protected areas defined roles. and local communities. Most studies on protected area management recommend government policies authoris-7.9.5 Labour costs should be realistically evaluated ing the collection of fees to offset costs. Fees can bewhen analysing community potential. If little or no cap- charged for admission to parks or monuments, and forital is required to develop a guesthouse, for example, where different activities such as diving and trekking, and forrooms formerly occupied by children are converted into accommodation and rescue services.rooms for guests, the project may be attractive. Also, if thetime spent on tourism enterprises could not be better spent User fees are equitable because the people who use theon other pursuits, for example, if few work opportunities site pay for it. Fees for public areas such as parks or muse-exist other than in tourism, then a community tourism proj- ums are kept low to permit access to a greater cross-sec-ect may be worthwhile even if the pay is low. tion of the population. To capture more foreign exchange and increase revenues, some sites charge a higher rate for7.9.6 Experience has shown that tourism often fails foreign tourists than for nationals (e.g., $5.25 for foreignto generate local economic benefits when local visitors and 60 cents for nationals at the Copan Mayaguides are under-utilised. Tour companies and hotels Ruins in Honduras). In countries where such a two-tier sys-tend not to use local guides. In some countries and in spe- tem is illegal, donations can be solicited from foreigncific protected areas, they are required to use under-skilled tourists and tour companies. It should be noted that alocal guides, which they often see as a financial drain. chronic problem for many sites that collect fees is that the money is returned to a central treasury and does not goThis problem may be mitigated through intensive training to site operations.of local guides in language and interpretation skills.Guides with better skills are more readily accepted by Experts report that the tourism industry may resist visitortourist businesses. As tour operators and governments charges even though visitors may be willing to pay morerealise that site protection and the health of the tourist for entrance fees. Visitors tend to accept fee increases iftrade depend on local support, they begin to see that it is they know the funds will go to site protection and con-in their interests to support the hiring and training of local servation. They want to know where the money goes.people. Visitor preference data could be collected in support of a fee increase that may be opposed by certain stakeholders.7.9.7 Raising site revenue to produce local benefits.The costs and benefits of infrastructure and high-tech Concession fees charged to individuals or groups licensedsolutions should be reviewed in light of the goal of pro- to provide services to visitors can also generate revenuesducing local benefits. Planners at the Copan Maya Ruins both for sites and local communities. Common conces-in the Honduras realised that luxury hotels tend to be sions include food, lodging, transport, guide and retaillocated away from population centres, limiting opportuni- services. Concession fees and royalties can generate sig-ties for locals. Noting that most domestic visitors have nificant income at highly visited sites. Since concessionmodest financial resources and prefer local accommoda- fees are generally low relative to overall profit levels, busi-tions, they recommended upgrading existing infrastruc- nesses may be willing to pay higher fees.ture and related services. They also deemed thatconcentrated, modest, but good quality tourist facilities Longer stays may raise revenue and still keep visitor num-could provide many more benefits to local communities bers manageable. The availability of an array of visitorthan high-class, high-cost hotels, restaurants and guide services can increase the average length of stay at a site.services. Such services often use outside labour, are con- At Copan, setting up an interpretation programme,trolled by outside capital, and are intentionally located installing new trails and a visitor centre, developing pri-outside local communities. vate guide services, and offering after-dark audio-visual programmes in the nearby town all helped increase aver-High-tech solutions to management problems should not age visitor stays. At cultural sites with excellent naturalbe adopted without a serious review of their costs, bene- resources, interpretation programmes could emphasise the natural attractions. 73

7 Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems Tour operators may be willing to expand their itineraries to • Management actions should not be taken without a include other attractions and services and thereby raise thorough analysis and understanding of the socio-cultural local benefits. A base of operations such as a resort can and individual importance of a site to the people of the have add-on attractions that tourists can visit within a day. community, for example, when building infrastructure at Secondary attractions should offer visitors new experiences. a sacred site. Hiring of local staff can improve site management and • A positive atmosphere for introducing management bring local benefits. Experiences in Australia have shown actions can be created by involving stakeholder partners the importance of providing employment and training to in planning. Stakeholder partnerships foster dialogue indigenous people who work as wardens, policy advisers either with a group causing a problem or with groups and liaison officers. affected by a problem. These groups can be shown the needs of the site and the reasons behind certain policies. Permitting local people to sell products can help a com- The tourism advisory board is an effective mechanism for munity’s economy, but may be problematic. Tourists may involving a wide range of stakeholder partners in visitor feel threatened by aggressive hawkers, or locals who can- management issues. Also, future regulations need public not afford to pay for concession privileges may use unau- support if they are to be implemented successfully. thorised areas at a site. At Grand Canyon National Park in the United States, Native Americans formerly sold handi- • In general, at natural sites with limited resources, strate- crafts near the entrance and at other strategic places; an gies that concentrate visitors should be encouraged. Native American marketplace was set up as an alternative. Dispersal strategies should be avoided unless sufficient resources are available for educational campaigns and 7.10 Implications and recommendations regulatory controls. If there is a need to open an area for a new user group, for example, a new trail for mountain • In problem solving for management solutions, the first bike riders, then at the very least, a friendly, non-con- step is to analyse all indicators and determine why stan- frontational dialogue with the new visitors should be dards are not being met. Amassing information on user started. groups causing problems (e.g., day users as opposed to tourists staying for longer periods, etc.) will help to focus • At cultural sites, dispersal may be effective with enough efforts. staff to ensure the protection of resources. • When evaluating possible actions, considering the various • Involving stakeholders in management actions can aid indirect and direct methods available can be a useful the implementation process. Hotel owners may be willing process. Valuable input can be obtained by reviewing the to help implement certain educational programmes, dis- site’s goals and objectives during discussions with staff and tributing information on low-impact practices to users. advisory body members while considering the scenarios that School groups may contribute manual labour. Staff may could result from different strategies and actions. Begin by have contacts with the media and launch education cam- discussing indirect strategies such as education and inter- paigns with the assistance of this stakeholder partner, dis- pretation campaigns. Then go progressively to direct actions seminating news of site management polices and such as enforcement, fines, permits, and so on. activities. • Indirect actions may be adequate initially for addressing • Partnership relations can also contribute to enforcement problems that are not immediate, for example, when a efforts. Partners in local communities who are sympathet- potentially dangerous area need not be closed, or visita- ic to protection and preservation programmes are the best tion is not increasing too rapidly. The effects of the meas- defence against illegal activities. Enforcement officers ures can be evaluated before more restrictive measures such as rangers or security patrols at archaeological sites are imposed. A site with limited staff and financial can be expensive. Local people allied with the site may resources may be unable to afford anything other than instead be counted on to signal illegal activities. Educating indirect actions. local residents about the site’s efforts to control illegal activities, while certainly not a panacea, can win friends • Actions should be combined for best results. For exam- and encourage cooperation in efforts to locate offenders. ple, an information campaign can be combined with a recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) plan that separates • Identifying local skills will help determine which activities users. An education campaign can encourage disparate are feasible. Note that not everyone need benefit directly; user groups to practise their activities in separate areas. revenue from a project may provide support for commu- For example, mountain bikers can be recommended good nity development activities. The link between a tourism trails and asked to avoid areas used by bird-watchers. project, its benefits and conservation activities should be obvious. • Costing out different actions on the basis of available staff and other resources will also provide an idea of which actions will be effective.74

Strategies and Solutions to Tourism Management Problems 7Suggested Activities Hammitt, William E., and David N. Cole. Wildland Recreation, Ecology and Management (rev. ed.),1. If standards are not being met, determine why not. John Wiley & Sons Inc., January 1999 • Review the list of indicators and related cause-and- Leave No Trace Programme Publications, c/o The effect factors. National Outdoor Leadership School, Lander • If the impact is caused by tourists, identify the Wyoming USA group(s) involved. • Open a dialogue with the group and determine man- Leclerc, Antoine. “User Fees in Natural Parks: Issues agement actions. and Management,” in: Parks, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 2-12, • Evaluate the effects of various indirect and direct June 1994 methods on an impact, including local social, cultural and economic factors; start with indirect actions and Murphy, Peter E. (ed.). Quality Management in move progressively to direct strategies. Urban Tourism, John Wiley & Sons, 1997 • Discuss with staff and advisory group members the scenarios that would result from the different actions. Swarbrook, John. The Development and • Estimate the costs of different actions, taking into Management of Visitor Attractions, Butterworth- consideration staffing needs, and determine whether Heinemann Ltd., 1995 some actions can be combined. Wells, Michael, Scott Guggenheim, Asmeen Khan,2. Inform stakeholders of the actions taken. Wahjudi Wardojo and Paul Jepson. Investing in Biodiversity: A Review of Indonesia’s Integrated • Use the tourism advisory board as a platform for dis- Conservation and Development Projects, World cussing the proposed actions. Bank East Asia Region, World Bank, 1999 • Dialogue with those who may be affected to demon- strate the needs of the site and explain why certain actions are necessary and how they will be implemented. • Attempt to create partnership agreements and involve stakeholders in carrying out management actions.Suggested ReadingChase-Harrell, Pauline. “The Use of InterpretiveTechniques to Increase Visitor Understanding andReduce Pressure on Fragile Resources: The WestBank of the Nile at Luxor,” in: InternationalPerspectives on Cultural Parks: Proceedings of theFirst World Conference, Mesa Verde National Park,Colorado, 1984Cole, David N., Margaret E. Petersen and Robert C.Lucas. Managing Wilderness Recreation Use:Common Problems and Potential Solutions, GeneralTechnical Report INT-230, U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain ResearchStation, Ogden, Utah, 1987Fielden, Bernard M., and Jukka Jokilehto.Management Guidelines for World HeritageCultural Sites. Rome: ICCROM, 1993Glasson, John, Kerry Godfrey and Brian Goodrey,with Helen Absalom and Jan Van der Borg.Towards Visitor Impact Management: VisitorImpacts, Carrying Capacity and ManagementResponses in Europe’s Historic Towns and Cities,Avebury, Aldershot, England, 1995 75

8Promoting a SiteTaj Mahal, India © UNESCO 77

8 Promoting a Site Promotion can play an important role in meeting To be selected for management action, a market segment educational and financial goals and objectives. If a must have three characteristics: site can accommodate greater numbers, and has a mechanism for retaining tourism earnings, it can be • it must be measurable, promoted to draw in additional visitors and generate • it should be easy to reach through promotional distri- increased revenue for sustaining operations, solving management problems and meeting goals and objec- bution systems, and tives. Many simple and low-cost promotional actions • it should promise increased earnings sufficient to are possible; the manager can select those that are within the site’s capacity to carry out. In addition, more than repay the costs of targeting it with promo- many of the skills and materials involved overlap tional materials. with those used in interpretation programmes. 8.1.4 Knowing how tourists inform themselves on a 8.1 Promoting a site to help finance man- site they wish to visit will help identify where to agement operations focus promotional efforts. For example, since most “eco-tourists” wishing to see polar bears in Manitoba, 8.1.1 A portion of visitor fees should be set aside to Canada, seek information from travel agents, the site’s help finance promotional activities. This will start the managers are wise to send their promotional materials to cycle of attracting additional visitors, thereby generating travel agencies. However, since few travel agencies are increased revenue for operations. A mechanism should be able or willing to stock the full range of available set up for retaining a portion of the earnings. This will cre- brochures and are ill-prepared to deal with specialised ate the necessary incentive to promote increased visita- inquiries, a more efficient approach may be to send tion. Even with such a mechanism in place, some sites agents a brochure and then contact them personally to may need outside funding to begin developing promo- brief them on the site’s attractions and the logistics of tional materials; international organisations can be reaching it. approached for such assistance. 8.1.5 Developing a theme using a site’s central 8.1.2 The site manager should decide which type of message for the park’s promotion helps develop visitors to target in a promotional campaign on the marketing and promotional materials. Combining a basis of the site’s policy and management objec- site’s most attractive elements to develop slogans or tives. Certain types of tourism fit a site’s goals and objec- “soundbites”, will facilitate the design and creation of tives better than others. As with any management action, brochures and interpretation displays. For instance, a park promotional campaigns should reflect the site’s stated pol- could be “the best kept secret in the Caribbean”, or the icy vision statement and objectives. For example, at natu- place where “billions of years of nature meet thousands ral sites, if local economic development is an objective, of years of history”. managers may wish to promote bird-watching or trekking where local people may be hired as guides or drivers. At 8.1.6 An analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportu- an archaeological site affected by theft of objects destined nities and threats (SWOT) can be used to identify for trafficking in stolen art, a promotional programme gaps between a site’s promotion strategy and may be designed to attract better-off visitors who are will- tourism trends. A SWOT analysis is a marketing tool ing to pay an extra fee to support an artisan cooperative used to evaluate a site’s promotional abilities by examin- making high-quality replicas of objects at the site. These ing the strengths and weaknesses of its promotional can then be sold to satisfy a portion of the demand fed by organisation, financial and staff resources, and existing trafficking. promotional strategy. Strengths and weaknesses are con- sidered factors over which the site has some control; 8.1.3 Dividing visitors into groups according to their opportunities and threats are external. The analysis results characteristics, referred to as market segmentation, in a matrix comparing the results. permits managers to set up well-directed promo- tional links between different consumers and organ- Strengths and weaknesses include: isations. The segmentation process requires research into • the ways in which the site is being marketed, the size the characteristics and preferences of visitors who may of the marketing budget, performance measures and want to come to a site. Distinct segments of consumers the degree and nature of the staff’s involvement in might include those belonging to museum associations or marketing efforts organisations for the protection of wildlife. Identifying • the site’s tourism products, including the quality of people with similar motivations and needs enables the service, image and reputation manager to pinpoint the types of promotional materials • a profile of current visitors needed. A simple example is an elderly target audience, • suppliers and the quality of goods and services they for whom promotional materials can be in larger print and provide may list special services for senior citizens. • the people who handle any marketing for the site and the image they promote, for example, the way it is presented by tour operators compared with the site’s own promotional materials78

Promoting a Site 8Opportunities and threats include: Sample “Fact Sheet” • political factors, including government legislation to be Sent to Editors of Guidebooks, • economic factors Magazines and Newspapers • social factors • competition, identifying competitors and analysing The _________ Project is a new tourism initiative at the their strengths and weaknesses ______________ World Heritage site involving local com- munity members and non-governmental organisations.A known drawback of this analysis is that it is carried out The idea of the project is to develop a historic route run-at one point in time but may guide policy over several ning through _____________ (name of community),years during which both internal and external changes are which will attract tourists and generate employment andlikely that would necessitate modifications to the strategic income for local people. The economic benefits derivedplan. from the development are expected to provide an incen- tive for local people to preserve the area’s rich cultural8.1.7 Managers without sufficient time or staff to heritage.carry out promotional tasks may consider seekingoutside assistance. Tasks such as writing to guidebook The community is located only _______ kilometres frompublishers, magazines and newspapers to publicise attrac- ____________. The route itself starts at the main gate andtions and present management issues are time-consuming winds its way through the ancient streets and plazas ofand vie for a manager’s attention. An independent pro- _____________ (name of community), giving tourists themotional organisation representing the different interest opportunity to visit an array of historic homes andgroups may provide a solution. Such a group can analyse Buddhist temples. High-quality handicrafts are sold ata site’s tourism market and management realities. It has local markets along the way.the further virtue of being independent, so that it canbridge gaps between competing interest groups. AccessA group such as an NGO with ties to the site and that Access to _____________ (name of community) is relative-knows the tourism business, or a government group with ly easy. It is only half an hour from (name of nearby town,a mandate to coordinate all the stakeholders could play city) ______ and can be reached easily in a rented car orthis role. An independent organisation set up to facilitate taxi. In (name of town, city) _________ , taxis can betourism and park promotion at Lake Baikal, Russia, pro- hired at the ________ hotel for $ ___________ .For trav-duced a guidebook giving the names of local tour opera- ellers willing to take public transport, bus #s _____ andtors and guides, and distributed it in North America, _____ leave regularly from the main square.Europe and Japan. AccommodationsIf an outside organisation is solicited, it must be givenclear direction so that its output reflects the site’s goals For tourists wishing to spend the night, there are twoand objectives. For example, if a goal is to support local locally owned pensions, the ___________________ andentrepreneurs, such as ground operators, the organisation the _________________. Accommodations are simple butmust ensure that it promotes both smaller local operators clean. Prices are _____for single rooms and _____ foras well as larger or regional and national companies. double rooms. Reservations can be made by calling or faxing the number listed below. Two immaculately kept8.1.8 Developing a site’s “tourism identity” is an restaurants serving clean, healthy food are also located inessential element of a promotional strategy. This the community and open for business.identity, which is based on the site’s goals, objectives andmarket potential, becomes associated with the site in the Preservation Effortsminds of potential visitors. It could centre on a famousfresco or an endangered animal, for example, and be used Because of the project’s focus on preservation and pro-to develop a logo for future promotional activities. tection, the community members who manage the route are concerned with the impacts of tourism on the historic8.2 Strategies for promoting a site buildings as well as the local culture. Visitors are encour- aged to respect and be sensitive to local cultural values8.2.1 International tourist guidebooks can be a free and to follow simple rules when visiting the monumentssource of promotion. Guidebooks are a popular source and temples. Smaller groups are preferred in line with aof information for trip planning and are available for management goal of offering a peaceful and unhurriedalmost every country and region of the world. Because experience. The project is also actively monitoringguidebook information is constantly changing, new edi- (impacts to historic buildings, local culture etc.) to ensuretions are regularly updated, and editors are usually willing that the attractions are protected. A visitor fee ofto publish information free of charge. This presents anopportunity to have information on a site and local attrac-tions and services distributed to a wide audience. 79

8 Promoting a Site(e.g. US$5) is collected at the start of the route by local The historic route runs through the centre of this cultural-staff. The fee covers a brochure of the route and a guide ly rich community. Sections of the route pass ancientto the community. The proceeds go directly to preserva-tion and protection efforts. Currently fees are also being Buddhist monuments made of delicately carved hard-used to fund cultural education at the local school. (Give woods and painted in gold. It also passes several speciallyany concrete examples of projects carried out from the restored houses, many of them adjacent to the mostfunding earned.) beautiful of the temples.Arrangements for local guides can be made by calling A visitor fee of (e.g. US$ 5) is collected at the start of the(name) _________________________________________ route, which is located at the main entrance to the town.at tel. ________________ Visitation fees go directly to community preservation and protection efforts. Currently the fees help finance ongo-For other information contact: ing restoration efforts and cultural education at local schools. To complement the project, several residentsName ______________________________________ have developed simple, clean accommodations in some ofTelephone ______________________________________ the restored traditional homes. A brochure tracing theFax ______________________________________ route is available in English, French, German ande-mail ______________________________________ Japanese. Local guides who speak English, French, German or Japanese are available to accompany visitors.8.2.2 Supplying information to travel magazines, ____________ (name of community) is only half an hournewspapers, radio and the internet is another cost- from the main tourist area at ___________ and can beeffective way to promote a site. Travel magazines and reached in a rented car or taxi. Advance arrangementsnewspapers publish information on tourism attractions can be made through the ________________ office infree of charge and local radio and television stations ________________. Contact __________________ (name),broadcast such information as a public service. These can telephone _____________, fax _____________, e-mailall be useful sources of free publicity for the site. In-flight _______________. Additional information and brochuresairline magazines reach a large public, and because they can be obtained at the _______________ Tourist Board inare published quarterly or bimonthly, articles remain in cir- (e.g., New York, Paris -- give address, telephone etc.).culation for considerable periods. Most publications canbe accessed by the internet and the information trans- 8.2.3 Brochures can be used to distribute site infor-ferred in this manner. mation to a wide range of audiences. They can be mailed to national tourism offices, included in promotion- Sample Press Release al information sent to tour operators, newspapers, maga- zines, radio and television stations and distributed to (Project Name) ________________________________ hotels. However, unlike other types of promotional mate- (World Heritage Site Address, City, State, Postal rial, brochures are costly to produce, and should be Code, Country) designed to remain valid over a long period of time. Most people who receive brochures read them. However, FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE research has found that brochures are likely to exert more Contact: _______________________________________ influence on people who have not visited a site before and Phone: ________________________________________ less likely to attract repeat visitors. Fax : __________________________________________(Headline) Compiling a Brochure(City, Country, Date) 1.The size and layout of a brochure will depend on its purpose. For example, if the brochure is to be distributedThe community of ________ (City, State, Postal Code, internationally it should be formatted to the internationalCountry), a part of the _______________ World Heritage mailing standard of 21x10 cm and be produced on light-Site, is inviting interested visitors to see for themselves the weight paper to save on postage costs. If the brochure iscultural attractions of this ancient religious centre. Under to be displayed on racks at travel agencies in the Uniteda new preservation initiative, the _____________ (project States, the standard size for a brochure is 4“x9”. If it con-name), a guided route through the community has been tains a map or other practical information for the touristset up as a means of generating funding and an econom- visiting the site, it should fit into the pocket or handbag.ic incentive to preserve and protect the area’s rich cultural Larger formats may be used if the brochure is not forheritage. mailing but, for example, handed out at the site. A verti- cal design with three outside panels opening to three inside panels is the most common.80

Promoting a Site 82. All artwork, photography and titles should be designed 8.2.4 Contacting tour operators directly is a usefulto catch and keep the reader’s attention. Use short, means of interesting them in a site. Tour operators arecolour ful but honest phrases to describe the community always on the lookout for new attractions to sell to theirand its attractions. Emphasise main points, for example, clients. Operators, particularly companies that specialise in“the best preserved remains of Moghul inlaid ornamenta- activities offered at the site, will appreciate receiving ation,” or “12 kilometres of beautiful, well-developed and brochure and any information about the local community.easily walked forest trail”. Direct contact with tour operators bypasses travel agen- cies and improves the chances of a positive response.3. The brochure should briefly describe the site’s attractionsand points of interest. If nearby attractions can enhance A Sample Visitor’s Guidevisitation to the site, they should also be described. A pocketsize visitor’s guide to Indian sites in Alberta and4. If the brochure is to be displayed on a rack, the head- British Columbia, Canada, describes businesses run bying should be at the top of the front cover. If there are no native communities and entrepreneurs, as well as partner-photographs on the front cover, a subheading will induce ships between native people and non-natives. The guidethe potential visitor to read other panels of the brochure. also contains information about related attractions thatFor example, a brochure could be entitled “Royal Chitwan are not necessarily Indian-run, such as museums. It givesNational Park” with the subheading, “A Wildlife practical advice on where and how visitors can enjoy posi-Paradise”. All headings, subheadings and text must be tive encounters with Canada’s aboriginal culture.carefully written to produce an effective brochure. Theway in which blank spaces, photos and drawings are 8.2.5 Producing an information package to areaincorporated is very important. It is useful to solicit several attractions and services can help direct benefits toopinions before deciding on a final format. The back local residents. If one of the goals of a site’s tourism pro-panel of a brochure usually contains detailed information gramme is to benefit local communities, a multi-lingualsuch as the names and addresses of local hotels as well as community guide sheet may be a valuable promotionalother tourism services. tool. It can direct visitors to neighbouring destinations and attractions, providing a detailed picture of what the area5. The front panel should catch the attention of the target offers, including dining, shopping and accommodations.audience, projecting a favourable image of the destination The information is especially useful for attracting the inde-and stimulating a second glance. Unsuccessful brochures pendent traveller. Such a package should be distributed tosimply list attractions. Instead, a destination’s unique sell- key points such as hotels in major cities and at nationaling points should be highlighted, with particular market tourism offices or embassies abroad. If a site has internet,segments in mind. Photographers, designers and text writ- it can be distributed electronically. A guide can also beers as well as managers should coordinate their efforts so used as a management tool for bringing about desired vis-that the text complements and accentuates the photos. itor behaviour, by for example discussing cultural rulesThe brochure should be truthful about conditions and sea- and taboos and good conservation practices. Such a guidesonal changes, as tourists may be disappointed if they visit can be produced by the community with the help of siteduring the off-season on the basis of photos showing a management. A local NGO may provide free computersite in the most favourable conditions. time and translating services. Selling the guide even if it is very simple may help pay for future copying expenses.6. A brochure need not be exhaustive; a collage of smallphotos usually will not help the reader grasp important Outside Financing Programmesfeatures of a site. A formal, authoritative tone is also tobe avoided. Destination advertising is not usually read The tourism industry has shown growing interest infrom cover to cover like a novel. People usually scan the financing site management activities, through pro-headings, glance at the pictures and read the captions grammes such as the new UNEP-WTO-UNESCO Tourbefore deciding to read the text. Operators’ Initiative. Increasing opportunities are likely to arise to involve tour operators in financing World Heritage7. Key guidelines: site management efforts. • Always use international standard sizes. As a result, site managers are encouraged to suggest to • One good front-panel picture is preferable barring a the World Heritage Centre initiatives for visitor manage- ment and tourism; a record of these could be presented compelling reason for a multi-picture approach to tour operators seeking opportunities to fund World • The brochure should include a map showing land- Heritage projects. marks, cities or other tourist destinations near the site. • Contact addresses and telephone numbers should include international dialling codes and include over- seas offices, if applicable. 831

8 Promoting a SiteA 10-page guide which can be easily and cheaply copied guides/interpreters speaking English, German, French andmay be all that is needed initially. The copy should be Japanesestored on a computer, so that the guide booklet can beeasily updated whenever necessary. If and when the How visitors can contribute to the site’s preserva-attraction becomes more popular, a more sophisticated tion and protection effortsguide could be written and sold to cover the costs of pub-lication.Outline for a Guidebook 8.2.6 National tourism offices or embassies can be a free and effective means of distributing promotion-Introduction al materials. Tour operators are always on the lookoutState the purpose of the guidebook, mentioning concerns for new attractions to sell to their clients. Operators, par-for conservation and historic preservation of World ticularly companies that specialise in activities offered atHeritage sites, and the importance of tourism to local the site, will appreciate receiving a brochure and anycommunity development. information about the local community. Direct contact with tour operators bypasses travel agencies and improvesBackground the chances of a positive response.• a brief historical, cultural and natural history of the site,using eye-catching facts 8.2.7 Holding a press day can be an effective way to• a list of potential activities such as hiking, boating, river introduce a site to the media. The day can be sched-rafting, birding, wildlife photography, visiting historic uled to coincide with a cultural celebration at the site, orbuildings and archaeological sites it could be a yearly event held to mark the beginning of• information on the best time to visit, describing seasons the tourist season. Tour operators, hotel owners and gov-and rainfall patterns, and giving temperatures in Celsius ernment officials who belong to the site’s advisory groupand Fahrenheit can be recruited to play a role. These stakeholders usually have press contacts and may be interested in obtainingAccess media coverage of their activities or businesses.• routes, modes and frequency of available transport tothe site and local communities, including honest assess- National tourist offices sometimes organise familiarisationments of safety and reliability tours for travel writers whose expenses paid by the gov-• where to obtain maps of the area in the capital city ernment or large tourist enterprises. To get a site included on a familiarisation tour is not easy, but the manager mayDetails of the site approach the tourism ministry or perhaps a hotel chain• what it has to offer: cultural/historical with promotional materials. If no outside funding is avail-attractions,wildlife, bird-watching, photography, archaeol- able stakeholders may be able to offer or raise financialogy, etc. support. If foreign press are invited, local business people• fees and why they are charged are more likely to contribute time and resources to the• desired behaviour at the site event.• visitor safety• local guides, transport Familiarisation visits for the international media are most• a simple map of the route successful if the journalists invited have special interests• recommended clothing and equipment for the different that match the activities of a site, such as the theatre oractivities marine protection. One method of identifying appropriate• outstanding fauna and flora journalists is to find their by-lines in the international• rules for viewing wildlife, ruins and historical buildings, press.including suggestions on low-impact techniques 8.3 Implications and recommendationsDetails of the local community • A review of policy goals and objectives will give direction• local customs, traditions and courtesies to a promotional campaign. Questions posed during the• regional/local festivals development of the promotional programme should echo• places to stay, with current prices, quality of services, those posed during the drafting of the vision policy state-number of rooms and beds available ment and management objectives.• restaurants, snack bars, etc., including advice on whatto eat and what to avoid • Knowing how a particular market segment or group• sanitary conditions (be honest), health precautions for seeks out tourism destinations will help the managervisitors decide where to focus promotional efforts. Discussions• available medical carewhere to buy food for hiking and with the advisory group and other tourism contactsother activities, equipment and other necessities should provide guidance for determining the best ways to• where to shop for local products and crafts develop a promotional campaign for these markets and where the materials need to be sent.82

Promoting a Site 8 Sample Letter to Tour Operators more general tourism market? Could the site serve as a day attraction that could be included in a general tour of (Use Letterhead) the region, in which case firms interested in this type of (Date) add-on attraction should be contacted? Next, to deter- mine the types of promotional materials needed, existing (Tour operator’s address) or newly commissioned visitor data might be analysed for a better idea of market segments. If the steps in this man- City, state, post code Country) ual have been followed, most such information will be readily available. A review of segmentation data and a Dear Sir or Madam: SWOT analysis will help managers make decisions and I wish to invite you to visit a new tourism initiative recent- devise strategies for entering these markets. ly launched at the _________ World Heritage site. The ________ (cultural heritage route) initiative is an economic • If a site has few current visitors and limited funds, pro- development project endorsed by the regional and munic- motional efforts might begin by targeting the independ- ipal governments and partially funded by ________ (e.g. ent traveller, notably by seeking listings in guidebooks. UNESCO). The project aims to provide local residents with Independent travellers are a valuable source of word-of- an economic incentive to preserve and retain the area’s mouth recommendations that will be picked up by spe- rich cultural heritage. ciality operators. A mailing list of guidebook editors should be kept up to date so that they can be sent a new The ________________ (name of route) runs through the package of materials each year. historic community of __________, which is located with- in the area of the World Heritage site and is well known • A fact sheet should give a brief history of the site and by archaeologists as containing some of the best pre- describe surrounding communities, any interesting flora served Buddhist temples representative of the __________ and fauna or archaeological or geological features, as well period. The route starts at __________ and runs through as the activities available to the tourist. It should provide a the community for a total of 2.5 kilometres (1.5 miles), concise overview of attractions and services, including with signposts indicating historic sites and temples. A means of transport to the site, accommodations, local small brochure on the route is available in English, French, restaurants or cafes, and details such as the driving time German and Japanese. Local guides who speak these lan- from the nearest population centres. Local services should guages are also available. The route offers opportunities be described realistically and honestly if accommodations to explore as well as to shop for handicrafts along the are rustic and the guides speak no foreign languages, the way. In addition, several community members can provide fact sheet should say so. Ideally, a multilingual contact accommodation in (e.g., small hotels, guesthouses). person in the target country should also be listed, since potential visitors are often reluctant to call abroad for Enclosed is a ____________ (“fact sheet”, brochure, and information. regional guide) outlining the available attractions. I will be pleased to provide any further information about the site, • Promotional efforts can focus on developing an identity the community or the region. In addition, we will accom- for a site, to be reflected in promotional materials in the modate you free of charge if you wish to visit the site and form of a logo, mascot or slogan that help to give the site sample the route. an image. Tourism professionals such as tour operators familiar with international markets can be a source of Please feel free to contact me at the above address or call advice when developing this identity. me on __________________ (telephone). I look forward to hearing from you and hope you can support our efforts to • Tour operators can be sent a fact sheet, brochure and balance conservation and economic development. guide, along with a covering letter, to provide a good overview of what is available at the site and the sur- Sincerely, rounding area. The mailing should target operators that match the site’s attractions, for example, firms specialising ____________________, Director in bird-watching. Restaurant and guesthouse owners in ____________________ World Heritage site nearby communities may be prepared to offer visiting tour operators complimentary accommodations and meals to• An analysis of market potential should begin with a add to the attractiveness of visiting a site. A tour operatorfresh examination of the site’s attractions and resources. may be willing to help by handling inquiries or providingDoes the site first need to increase visitation by targeting information about the site on their website.the independent market, or is it ready to reach out to touroperators geared towards a single specialised activity such • A brochure can be a useful promotional tool both foras bird-watching? Do the site and the surrounding areas the site and the surrounding communities. The brochurehave enough attractions and infrastructure to appeal to a should be mailed or e-mailed to the national tourism board or commission, tour operators and newspaper and magazine editors. It can also be displayed in hotels and 833

8 Promoting a Site guesthouses of tourism centres, as well as in neighbour- interest stories, such as an article profiling a local guide, or ing towns and cities as well as foreign capitals. If the site a site staff member. has many repeat visitors, the brochure should be updated frequently, or new inserts can be printed to feature new A press trip should be arranged by formal invitation. One attractions. If local economic development is a priority the of the sample letters shown in the boxes can be easily brochure should highlight the unique features of both the modified for this purpose. Local operators from the advi- site and the surrounding communities. sory group might be willing to follow up with phone calls. A lunch or cocktail party possibly underwritten by a local • A tourist guide to a community should be geared to the restaurant owner would give the travel writers a chance to appropriate market segment, be it independent, speciali- debrief and talk among themselves. ty or general travel. The guide’s style will vary accordingly. For example, a guide to a Nepalese mountain community Suggested Activities may highlight services available for adventure travellers. Copies of the guide should be sent free or e-mailed to the 1. Outline the promotional campaign editors of guidebooks, magazines and newspapers as well as to tour operators. Selling the guide elsewhere may help • Review policy goals and management objectives and pay for copying expenses. determine how a particular.market segment or group selects destinations and makes travel bookings. • Direct contact with tour operators may prompt them to • Re-examine the site’s tourism potential and carry out visit the site to evaluate its tourism potential, and can a SWOT analysis. Discuss with the advisory group and effectively increase name recognition. Ground operators other contacts how best to develop promotional mate- in the capital city should also be informed of a site’s activ- rials for these markets and where they should be sent. ities, as they are in contact with tour operators abroad. Scientists carrying out research at or near the site can also 2. Contact the editors of tourist guidebooks be approached with the aim of attracting other spe- cialised visitors. • Use the sample letter contained in this manual as a guide. • Mailings to the editors of travel magazines and news- • Enclose a separate fact sheet with the letter or e-mail. paper travel sections, and to the broadcast media if feasi- • Maintain a mailing list and send or e-mail a new pack- ble, should include a covering letter and press release, age of materials each year. preferably in the target language. Faxing or e-mailing the materials, if possible, is often more reliable. 3. Create a brochure • A press release should be no more than four paragraphs • Describe community services and attractions. long to be user friendly. Short sentences and bullet lists • Include a copy in all mailings. are preferable to lengthy narratives. If high-quality pic- • Display brochures in hotels and guesthouses. tures commissioned from a professional photographer can be included, so much the better. 4. Write a community tourism guide • A mailing list of local newspapers, radio and television • Outline the services the community can provide for stations can be compiled from the Yellow Pages under each travel market segment. headings such as the following: • Provide accurate and honest information. • Send and e-mail a copy to guidebook, magazine and News services newspaper editors as well as tour operators. Newspapers and magazines Radio stations 5. Contact tour operators Television Satellite and cable systems • Send and e-mail a promotional package including a Broadcasting stations - radio covering letter, fact sheet, brochure and guide to spe- Broadcasting stations -television ciality tour operators. Cable television • Contact ground operators in the capital and scientists Publishers books and magazines carrying out research in or near the site to inform them Publishers directories and guides of available activities. • Approach restaurant and guesthouse owners in near- The addresses of in-flight airline magazines can be by communities for offers of complimentary meals or obtained by calling their local offices. Airlines to be tar- accommodations for visiting tour operators. geted should link the site to route points in the United States and Europe, for example China Airlines and Thai Airways. Newspaper and magazine editors like human-84

Promoting a Site 86. Contact travel magazine, newspaper, TV and radio editors. • Write a press release and covering letter using the samples in this manual. • Fax or e-mail, and mail the material.7. Submit an article to an in-flight airline magazine.• Contact the airline’s local offices.• Concentrate on airlines with route points in North America and Europe.• Offer human-interest stories.• Arrange a press trip, identifying members of the press who should have a special interest in the site.• Modify the sample letter shown on page 120 and send out a formal invitation.• Convince local operators from the advisory group to fol- low up with phone calls.Suggested ReadingHall, C. Michael, and Simon McArthur. “HeritageManagement: An Introductory Framework,” in: C.Michael Hall and Simon McArthur (eds.), HeritageManagement in New Zealand and Australia, VisitorManagement, Interpretation and Marketing,pp. 1-17. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1993Jefferson, Alan and Lickorish, Leonard. MarketingTourism, A Practical Guide (2nd ed.). Essex:Longman UK Ltd., 1991Seaton, A.V., and M.M. Bennett. The Marketing ofTourism Products: Concepts, Issues and Cases.London: International Thomson Business Press, 1996Weber, Sanda, and Blajnka Vrdoljak. “The Need forQuality Evaluation of Destination Brochures,” in:Proceedings from the Twenty-Fifth AnnualConference, Travel Tourism Research Association,October 1994Zhou Zongqing. “A Different Approach toMeasuring the Effectiveness of Brochures,\" in:Destination Marketing, It’s Showtime for Tourism:New Products, Markers and Technologies: Twenty-Seventh Annual Conference, June 16-19, 1996,Nevada, pp. 351-358. Kentucky: Travel and TourismResearch Association, 1996 835

Appendix 3Guidebook, Magazine and Newspaper Publishers Upper Middle Rhine Valley, Germany © UNESCO/Straeter 97

Guidebook, Magazine and Newspaper Publishers Note: Changes in names and addresses may have Ⅵ In Canada: occurred since this list was made. (address correspondence to the Managing Editor) (specialities noted in parentheses) Blue Guides 10 Alcorn Avenue GUIDEBOOKS Toronto Ontario, M4V 3B2 Ⅵ IN AUSTRALIA: Canada (address correspondence to the Managing Editor) (address correspondence to the Rédacteur en chef) Lonely Planet Publications Ulysse, Editeur du voyage A.C.N. 055 607 983 Rigole PO Box 617 4176, rue Saint-Denis Hawthorn, Victoria 3122 Montreal, Quebec, H2W 2M5 Australia Canada e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] website: www.lonelyplanet.com website: guidesulysse.com Ⅵ IN BRITAIN: Ⅵ IN FRANCE: (address correspondence to the Managing Editor) (address correspondence to the Rédacteur en chef) (for backpackers) Guides Autrement Bradt Publishing Editions Autrement 41 Nortoft Rd. 17 rue du Louvre Bucks, SL9 OLA 75001 Paris France UK (for independent travellers) Insight Guides Guides Bleus Evasion P.O. Box 7910 Courrier des lecteurs London SE1 8ZB 43, quai de Grenelle UK 75905 Paris Cedex 15 e-mail: [email protected] France website : www.insightguides.com Guides Michelin Lonely Planet Publications 46, av de Breteuil Spring House 75324 Paris Cedex 07 10A Spring Place France London NW5 3BH UK website: www.michelin-travel.com e-mail: [email protected] website: www.lonelyplanet.com Guides du Routard 5 rue de l’Arrivée (for independent travellers) 92190 Meudon Mexico and Central American Handbook France Trade and Travel Publications Ltd. e-mail: [email protected] 6 Riverside Court Internet: www.routard.com Riverside Road Bath BA2 3DZ Le Petit Futé Country Guide UK 18 rue des Volontaires 75015 Paris Moorland Publishing Co. France Moor Farm Road, e-mail: [email protected] Airfield Estate website: www.petitfute.com Ashbourne DE6 1HD UK Lonely Planet Publications 1 rue du Dahomey (for independent travellers) 75011 Paris Rough Guides UK France 62-70 Shorts Gardens e-mail: [email protected] London WC2H 9AB UK website: www.lonelyplanet.com website: www.roughguides.com Objective Terre 211 bis, av Charles de Gaulle 92200 Neuilly-sur-Seine France98

Guidebook, Magazine and Newspaper PublishersSyros Let’s Go Publications9 bis rue Abel Harvard Student AgenciesLovellacque 75013 Paris Harvard UniversityFrance Thayer Hall-B Cambridge, MA 02138Ⅵ IN GERMANY: USA(address correspondence to the Chefredakteur) website: www.letsgo.comVerlag Karl Baedeker GmbH Lonely Planet PublicationsPostfach: 3162 150 Linden StreetD-73751 Oakland CA 94607Ostfildern USAGermany e-mail: [email protected]: [email protected] website: www.lonelyplanet.comwebsite: www.baedeker.com MacmillanTravel GuidesPolyglot Press 1633 BroadwayNeusser Strasse Str. #3 New York, NY 1001980807 Munich USAGermany (for independent travellers)Reise Handbook Moon PublicationsVelbinges 722 Wall StreetVerlag Martin Bahnhofstr 106 8032 Chico, CA 95928Grafelfing, Munich USAGermany e-mail: [email protected] website: www.moon.comReise Know HowProfit Buchvertrieb Penguin Books USA Inc.Post Fach9 375 Hudson Street35463 Fernwald, Annevel New York, NY 10014Germany USA website: www.penguin.comⅥ IN SINGAPORE:(address correspondence to the Managing Editor) Rough Guides USA 345 Hudson StreetInsight Guide New York, NY 10014Hofer Media (Pte) Ltd. USAOrchard Point website: www.roughguides.comPO Box 219Singapore 9123 The Real Guide Series Prentice Hall PressⅥ IN UNITED STATES: 15 Columbus Circle(address correspondence to the Managing Editor) New York, NY 10023 USABerkeley Guide505 Eshleman Hall, MAGAZINESUniversity of CaliforniaBerkeley, CA 94720 Ⅵ IN FRANCE:USA (address correspondence to the Rédacteur en chef)Blue Guides (world travel)WW Norton & Co. Inc. Geo France500 Fifth Ave. 6 rue DaruNew York, NY 10110 75379 Paris Cedex 08 FranceUSA (general French travel market)Fodor’s Travel, specialty markets Grands Reportages201 East 50th Street 6, rue IvoryNew York, NY 10022 38027 Grenoble Cedex 1 FranceUSA e-mail: [email protected]: [email protected] website: grands-reportages.comwebsite: www.fodors.com 99

Guidebook, Magazine and Newspaper Publishers (for walkers/trekkers) Reise & Preise SRLA La Marche Postfach 1342 21 bis, av Sainte-Marie Germany 21603 Saint-Mande 94160 website: www.reise-preise.de France (adventure travel) (emphasises wildlife conservation) Safari Touristic Aktwel Nature Magazine Martin Berharm Str. #12 15 rue Cassette Nevisenburg, 63263 Paris 75006 Germany France Ⅵ IN SPAIN: (wildlife conservation issues) Randonnée Magazine (outdoor adventure) 26 rue des Amandiers Nanterre, Aire Libre Paris 92000 P. Marques de Monistrol 7 France 28011 Madrid 479 86 61 Spain (nature issues) Terre Sauvage Ⅵ IN THE UNITED STATES: 3, rue Bayard (address correspondence to the Managing Editor) 75393 Paris Cedex 08 France Backpacker Magazine Rondale Press, Inc. (general French travel market) 33 E. Minor L’art de Voyager Emmaus, PA 18098 175, rue d’Aguesseau USA 92643 Boulogne-Billancourt France Birder’s World website: www.voyager.fr 21027 Crossroads Circle P.O. Box 1612 Ⅵ IN GERMANY: Waukesha, WI 53187-1612 (address correspondence to the Chefredaktur) USA website: www.birdersworld.com (adventure travel) Abenteur & Reisen Birdwatchers Digest Lange Strabe 13 P.O. Box 110 Frankfurt 60055 Marietta, OH 4875 Germany USA e-mail: [email protected] (general travel) website: www.birdwatchersdigest.com Freizeit & Reisen OeverseestraBe 24-26 (general travel) Hamburg 22769 Conde Nast Traveler Germany 360 Madison Ave. New York, NY 10017 (world travel) USA Geo Germany http://condenet.com/mags/trav/ PostFach 110011 Hamburg 11, 2000 (outdoor adventure, general ecotourism) Germany EcoTraveler Magazine website: www.geo.de 9560 S.W. Nimbus Beaverton, OR 97008 (adventure travel) USA Globo Ring 212 (outdoor adventure, general ecotourism) Munich Escape Magazine Germany 81739 PO Box 5159 Santa Monica, CA 90409-5159 (walking, trekking, camping) USA Outdoor Postfach 2160 Weinstadt-Benzach 71371 Germany100

Guidebook, Magazine and Newspaper PublishersFancy Publications, Inc. The Vancouver SunWildBird 200 Granville Street3 Boroughs Vancouver, BC V6C 3N3Irvine, CA 92718 USA Canadawebsite: www.wildbirdmagazine.com website: www.vancouversun.com(outdoor adventure, general ecotourism) Ⅵ IN FRANCE:Outside Magazine (address correspondence to the Rédacteur en chef)400 Market St.Sante Fe, NM 87501 Le FigaroUSA 37 rue du Louvrewebsite: www.outsidemagazine.com 75081 Paris cedex 02 France(general travel) website: www.lefigaro.frTravel Holiday28 West 23rd St. Le MondeNew York, NY 10010 21 bis rue Claude-BernardUSA 75242 Paris, cedex 05website: www.travelholiday.com France website: www.lemonde.fr(general travel)Travel & Leisure Ⅵ IN GERMANY:1120 Ave. of the Americas (address correspondence to the Chefredaktur)New York, NY 10036USA Frankfurter Algemeine Zeitung GmbH 60267 Frankfurt am Main(wildlife conservation issues) Hellerhofstr 2-4Wildlife Conversation Frankfurt GermanyBronx Zoo Conservation ParkBronx, NY 10460 Frankfurter RundschawUSA Frankfurt am Mainwebsite: www.wildlifeconservation.com Germany 60266NEWSPAPERS Frankfurt-Verl Bild an Sonntag (Travel Department)Ⅵ IN CANADA: Emil-Von-Behring Str. #6(address correspondence to the Managing Editor or the Frum Germany 60439Rédacteur en chef) Herausgeber und ChefredakteurLa Presse Abenteuer & Reisen7 rue St. Jacques Lange Strabe 13Montreal, Quebec H2Y 1K9 Frankfurt Germany 60311Canada Der TagesspiegelThe Gazette Berlin250 rue St. Antoine W. Germany 10785Montreal, Quebec H2Y 3R7Canada Die Weltwebsite: www.gazette.com Kochstr. 50 BerlinThe Globe & Mail Germany 10888444 Front St. West website: www.diewelt.deToronto, ON M5V 2S9Canada Ⅵ IN UNITED STATES:e-mail: [email protected] (address correspondence to the Managing Editor)website: www.globeandmail.ca The New York TimesThe Toronto Star 229 W. 43rd St.One Younge St. New York, NY 10036Toronto, ON M5E 1E6 USACanada website: www.newyorktimes.come-mail: [email protected]@thestar.cawebsite: www.torontostar.ca 101

Guidebook, Magazine and Newspaper Publishers The Washington Post The Boston Globe 1150 15th St. N.W., 135 Morrisey Blvd. Washington, DC 20071 P.O. Box 2378 USA Boston, MA 02109 USA website: www.washingtonpost.com website: www.bostonglobe.com Chicago Tribune The Dallas Morning News 435 N. Michigan Ave. Communications Center Chicago, IL 60611 PO Box 655237 USA Dallas, TX 75265 website: www.chicagotribune.com USA website: www.dallasnews.com Houston Chronicle PO Box 4260 The Miami Herald Houston, TX 77210 One Herald Plaza USA Miami, FL 33132-1693 USA Los Angeles Times website: www.miamiherald.com Times Mirror Square Los Angeles, CA 90053 The Oregonian USA 1320 S.W. Broadway website: www.latimes.com Portland, OR 97201 USA Seattle Times website: www.oregonian.com Fairview Ave. N. & John PO Box 70 The Philadelphia Inquirer Seattle, WA 98111 400 N. Broad St. USA PO Box 8263 website: www.seattletimes.com Philadelphia, PA 19101 USA website: http://inq.philly.com The Arizona Republic 200 E. Van Buren St. Phoenix, AZ 85004 USA website: www.arizonarepublic.com102

Appendix Tourist Surveys:Techniques and Samples Venice and its Lagoon, Italy © Patrick Werquin 87

Tourist Surveys: Techniques and Samples TIMING AND LOGISTICS SURVEY DESIGN The timing of surveys or interviews depends on seasonal, Questions used in interviews or self-completing surveys weekly and daily visitor patterns. Bias will be avoided by may be open or closed. studying visitor patterns over an entire year, then carrying out proportionally more surveys during busy periods than Closed questions offer a fixed set of possible answers. during quiet periods. If this is not possible, results may The responses to closed questions are easily coded, and have to be weighted statistically. the questionnaire format is faster and cheaper than other survey methods. With questionnaires, the respondent is The survey or interview environment should be relaxed, asked to tick a box, and in face-to-face interviews the var- with limited stress and outside pressure such as by local ious options are read aloud or shown on a prompt card. vendors. The location, whether for filling in a question- Closed questions are especially appropriate for concrete naire or giving a face-to-face interview, should also assure information about visitor characteristics such as age, sex, a reliable sample and a sufficiently high response rate. education, mode of transport, accommodation etc. They can be a discreet way of gathering income statistics. Even • Interviews aimed at collecting information on visitor char- with issues that would normally elicit more than a simple acteristics can be conducted before or after the site visit. yes or no response, closed questions can offer a set list of • Interviews soliciting opinions should be conducted after opinions. However, such questions may irritate respon- the visit. dents because of the loss of spontaneity. Details can be • Interviews aimed at determining why the visitors decid- lost as the set options limit responses. ed to come to the site will yield more accurate informa- tion if conducted before the visit. Open-ended questions have no fixed choices and allow • Questionnaires seeking visitors’ evaluation of the site respondents to express a wide array of points of view. should be distributed at the exit. If the site has no official They are useful for assessing visitors’ feelings and views exit, its “natural” exits should be identified through and solving mysteries such as why visitors do not visit a observation. particular area of a World Heritage site. A key advantage • Questionnaires may be distributed either with the of open questions is that respondents can be spontaneous entrance ticket or by an attendant. Clear instructions and provide in-depth answers. These can inform an should indicate where to return the form. exploratory phase leading to the design of a closed-ques- tion survey. A disadvantage of open questions is that they THE SAMPLING FRAME are more difficult to code and analyse. They are also more time-consuming to record, and the risk of interviewer bias The target sample of a survey depends on the objectives is greater. of the exercise. To compile an overall visitor profile, a cross-section of people coming to the site should be sur- Wording of questions can minimise bias and maximise veyed. For more specific questions, the survey can be lim- response rates. Questionnaires should be attractive, user- ited to specific groups, for example, men carrying friendly and require a minimum amount of time to com- cameras. The sampling frame is determined by specific plete. The simpler the questions, the less room for characteristics of a visitor, and a sampling unit is an indi- misunderstanding. However, the survey questions should vidual who displays those characteristics, such as some- not be too general. For example, questions such as “how one who has come to the site from Germany, or a female often”, “how much” and “how far” can yield results that member of a tour group. Interviews or questionnaires may cannot be compared. Leading questions and those that be given to every nth person crossing the gate. However, make assumptions should also be avoided. A pilot ques- in order to avoid bias, guidelines on whom to interview tionnaire can uncover potential problems with the word- are essential. Surveying every 10th person may not be ing or content of questions and gauge the visitor’s overall valid for large groups. Interviews with visitors who volun- reaction to the survey. Interviews can distinguish indiffer- teer may not be representative. ence from indecision and help fine-tune the wording of questions in a survey. When translating the questionnaire A sample size may be decided on the basis of a number into the local language, it is worth consulting with the of factors: translator to ensure that the translation does not skew the result. • the level of accuracy desired • the requirements of the statistical methods Question sequencing should be designed to maximise • available resources the rate of response. Any interview or survey should begin • the anticipated response rate with an explanation of the objective as well as an assur- ance of confidentiality. The first questions should capture The margin of error depends on the size and representa- the attention of the respondent, while sensitive questions tiveness of the sample. should be asked at the end. Personal details should also be left for the end and the respondent should be assured88

Tourist Surveys: Techniques and Samplesthat the answers to these are confidential. Important □ Accessibility □ Historical interest □ Peace andquestions are best asked in the middle of the survey/inter- quiet □ Entertainment & recreation □ Quality ofview, and sudden jumps from one topic to another should accommodation □ Scenery and countrysidebe avoided. □ Particular activities □ Friendliness/hospitality □ Visiting friends and relativesSAMPLE QUESTIONS □ Just passing through □ Specific attractions □ Other __________Establishing the individual visitor profile Sample questions on transportation Which of the following groups would you place your- self in? How did you get to (name of country)__________? □ Local resident By air □ Tourist on independent holiday □ Scheduled flight □ Charter □ Other □ Tourist on inclusive/package tour □ Visiting friends/relatives By waterway □ Business □ Passenger line or ferry □ Cruise □ Other □ Other ____________ Overland If on holiday, since the beginning of the year, is this □ Railway □ Organised bus □ Public motor trip your -- coach, bus or other road transport □ Private vehicle (up to 8 persons) □ Rental car □ only holiday? □ Other means of land transport □ one of two main holidays? □ a minor/secondary holiday? Sample questions on activities and attractions visit- ed at the site What is the main purpose of your visit? In an interview, the respondent can point to a map to □ Leisure, recreation and holiday show parts of the site visited, and the interviewer can □ Visiting friends and relatives record the answers. A self-completing questionnaire □ Business and professional would ask the respondent to list the features visited, or □ Health treatment present a list of all attractions with boxes to tick. If the □ Religion/pilgrimages questionnaire can be completed before or after the visit, □ Other ___________ the question should offer the choices of “intend to visit” and “already visited” to avoid bias. A third choice could Are you in an all-inclusive tour? □ Yes □ No be “heard of”. The following sample format could be used: How many nights do you intend to stay in the area? heard of already visited intend □ 0 (day visitor) □ 1-3 □ 4-7 □ 8-28 to visit □ 29-91 □ 92-365 Attraction A Is this your first visit? □ Yes □ No Attraction B Attraction C How many people aged 15 and over, including your- Attraction D self, are in your immediate party? etc. □ 1 □ 2 □ 3 □ 4 □ 5 □ more _____ Participation in events at a cultural site can be recorded using a question such as: How many children aged 15 or under are in your party? During your stay at the _____________World Heritage site, did you attend any of these events? □ 1 □ 2 □ 3 □ 4 □ 5 □ more _____ □ Theatre □ Dance □ Festival etc.Establishing the visitor’s motivation for coming At a natural site, the range of available activities can be What are the main characteristics of the site that presented in a question such as: made you decide to visit (rank the top three)? During your stay at the _____________World Heritage site, which of the following activities did you engage in? □ Climbing/mountaineering □ Walking 89

Tourist Surveys: Techniques and Samples □ Fishing □ Sailing c Water-skiing etc. Sample questions on visitors’ expenditures □ None of these □ Other (specify) __________ Ask about expenditures only in exit surveys. The respon- Sample questions on accommodation dent should specify the number of people in his or her party. Provide clear instructions on which expenses to Where are you staying for your visit to the __________ include, for example, advance payments, payments made World Heritage site? on your behalf (for example by your employer), cost of booking, credit card payments. □ Hotel/motel/inn/lodge □ Guesthouse □ Bed & breakfast/farm accommodation Thinking about your visit to the site, how much have □ Rented self-catering □ Caravan □ Camping you spent for yourself and other members of your □ Timeshare □ Youth hostel party up to this point? □ Home of friends/relatives □ Second home □ Other Accommodation (if not already included) ___________ Food and drink ___________ Where did you make your booking? Transport ___________ Recreation, culture and sporting events ___________ □ Tourist information centre or tourist office Shopping ___________ □ Directly with the accommodation establishment □ Travel agent What did you buy in the way of local goods and serv- □ Central reservation service ices during your visit? □ Other _______________________________________________ ____________________________________ When did you make your booking? □ Before departure (when?) __________ In a face-to-face interview, the question could be phrased, □ On arrival “What is your best guess as to how much you spent for certain items?” At the end of the interview add up all the Sample questions for evaluating promotional items and have the respondent approve the total. materials Sample questions for evaluating the visit Which of the following, if any, influenced your deci- sion to visit this site? Closed questions can be used to obtain a visitor’s evalua- tion of the site, commonly with a consistent five-level □ A previous visit c Advice from friends/relatives □ scale, from 1 (very good) to 5 (very poor). Open questions Advice from a Tourist Information Centre c Brochure may complement closed questions to collect explanations □ Tourist guidebooks □ Newspaper/magazine arti- for poor ratings, as follows: cles back home □ Newspaper/magazine advertise- ment back home □ Newspaper/magazine articles in If you used any of the following facilities and visited (name of country) ________ □ Newspaper/maga- any of the following attractions at the site, how would zine advertisement in (name of country) _________ you rate them? □ Radio programme (where?) ___________ □ TV programme (where?) ___________ 1 Very good 2 Good 3 Average 4 Poor □ Other: _______________ 5 Very poor If you obtained information (leaflets, brochures) about Facility A ____ this site prior to this visit, where from? ___________ Facility B ____ ____________________________ Facility C ____ etc. □ Travel agent at home □ Travel agent in (name of Attraction 1 ____ country) _____ □ Tour operator prior to departure Attraction 2 ____ etc. □ Friends/relatives □ Holiday/tourism exhibition □ On the plane □ Tourist Information Centre else- If you answered Poor or Very Poor to any of the where in the country above, please explain further in this space: _______________________________________________ When (what month) did you start seriously thinking _______________________________________________ about coming to (name of country)? ____________ _______________________________________________ When (what month) did you start requesting _______________________________________________ information? ____________ When did you make your booking? ____________90

Tourist Surveys: Techniques and Samples Any other comments? This section should come last with a restatement of how _______________________________________________ the information will be used. An introduction could be _______________________________________________ phrased: _______________________________________________ _____________________________________________ We would appreciate it if you could answer the fol- lowing short questions about yourself. This informa- How likely are you to come back to the site in the tion will enable us to compare the views and future? experiences of different groups of people who visit this site. All information you provide will be held in the □ Very likely strictest confidence. □ Likely □ Unlikely Are you: □ Very unlikely □ Female □ Male □ Don’t know What is your age range? If you answered Unlikely or Very Unlikely, please □ 15-24 □ 25-34 □ 35-44 □ 45-54 explain why in this space: □ 55-64 □ ≥65 _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ What is your marital status? _______________________________________________ □ Single □ Married/cohabitant □ Widowed _______________________________________________ □ Divorced/separatedOther open questions could include: Please indicate which of the following categories applies to you: Are there any specific ways in which we could improve this site to make the visit more enjoyable? □ full-time employee (≥ 30 hours a week) _______________________________________________ □ part-time employee (< 30 hours a week) _______________________________________________ □ student _______________________________________________ □ unemployed __________________________ □ pensioner What would you say was the most enjoyable part of □ homemaker your visit to (name of the site)? □ other (please specify) _____________ _______________________________________________ __________________________ Questions on income levels can offer ranges, as with age. And what have you enjoyed least? The US dollar is the currency used most often in the trav- _______________________________________________ el and tourism industry, but some respondents may prefer __________________________ to answer in their own currency. Would you recommend this site to someone else? Yes _____ No _____ Assorted tips for survey work and interviewing If you answered No, please explain further in this space: Self-completing questionnaires tend to be completed by _______________________________________________ visitors who are not satisfied. _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ Interviewers should be trained to guarantee consistency. _______________________________________________ Questions should be reviewed carefully to avoid any mis- understandings, and interviewers should be familiar with How likely you are to recommend (name of the site) to the survey objectives and methodology, particularly the someone else? guidelines for determining whom to survey. □ Very likely Interviewers should avoid: □ Likely □ Unlikely Chatting about other subjects □ Very unlikely Misleading respondents about the length and/or content □ Don’t know of the questionnaire Giving opinions about the respondent’s answersPersonal questions Allowing the respondent to see the questionnaire Interviewing children without appropriate permission.Some respondents who may have been fearful of givingoffence in earlier more direct questions may be more hon-est in this section. 91

Tourist Surveys: Techniques and Samples Common sources of interview bias include: Cheating -- the interviewer may falsify the data by making up the responses. Influencing the interviewee, especially on sensitive questions; the interviewer’s appearance may also influ- ence the respondent Errors when asking questions Errors when recording the answers -- carelessness in ticking boxes and/or inaccurate or incomplete recording of responses to open questions Analysing the data Processing the data need not be complicated. Simple per- centage calculations can provide extremely useful infor- mation on the situation at the site. As with monitoring, data processing should be consistent over the long term so that patterns can be observed. A benchmark should be set before the exercise begins stating a minimum percentage of completed question- naires needed to consider the survey valid. Statistics Statistics are the result of specific calculations of quantita- tive data. Many computer software packages can perform statistical analyses, but require knowledge of the main analytical principles and techniques.92

Appendix 2International Cultural Tourism Charter Paris, Banks of the Seine, France © Art Pedersen 93

International Cultural Tourism Charter Principle 1 cultural diversity and social development. The long- term protection and conservation of living cultures, Since domestic and international tourism is among heritage places, collections, their physical and ecological the foremost vehicles for cultural exchange, integrity and their environmental context should be an conservation should provide responsible and well essential component of social, economic, political, legisla- managed opportunities for members of the host tive, cultural and tourism development policies. community and visitors to experience and under- stand that community’s heritage and culture at first 2.2 The interaction between heritage resources or hand. values and tourism is dynamic and ever changing, generating both opportunities and challenges, as 1.1 The natural and cultural heritage is a material well as potential conflicts. Tourism projects, activities and spiritual resource, providing a narrative of his- and developments should achieve positive outcomes and torical development. It has an important role in modern minimise adverse impacts on the heritage and lifestyles of life and should be made physically, intellectually and/or the host community, while responding to the needs and emotively accessible to the general public. Programmes aspirations of the visitor. for the protection and conservation of the physical attrib- utes, intangible aspects, contemporary cultural expres- 2.3 Conservation, interpretation and tourism devel- sions and broad context should facilitate an understanding opment programmes should be based on a compre- and appreciation of the heritage significance by the host hensive understanding of the specific but often community and the visitor in an equitable and affordable complex or conflicting aspects of heritage signifi- manner. cance of the particular place. Continuing research and consultation are important to furthering the evolving 1.2 Individual aspects of natural and cultural understanding and appreciation of that significance. heritage have differing levels of significance, some with universal values, others of national, regional or 2.4 The maintenance of the authenticity of heritage local importance. Interpretation programmes should places and collections is important. It is an essential present that significance in a relevant and accessible man- element of their cultural significance, as expressed in the ner to the host community and the visitor, with appropri- physical material, collected memory and intangible tradi- ate, stimulating and contemporary forms of education, tions that remain from the past. Programmes should pres- media, technology and personal explanation of historical, ent and interpret the authenticity of places and cultural environmental and cultural information. experiences to enhance the appreciation and understand- ing of that cultural heritage. 1.3 Interpretation and presentation programmes should facilitate and encourage the high level of 2.5 Tourism development and infrastructure projects public awareness and support necessary for the should take account of the aesthetic, social and cul- long-term survival of the natural and cultural tural dimensions, natural and cultural landscapes, heritage. bio-diversity characteristics and the broader visual context of heritage places. Preference should be given 1.4 Interpretation programmes should present the to using local materials and take account of local archi- significance of heritage places, traditions and cultur- tectural styles or vernacular traditions. al practices within the past experience and present diversities of the area and the host community, 2.6 Before heritage places are promoted or devel- including that of minority cultural or linguistic oped for increased tourism, management plans groups. The visitor should always be informed of the dif- should assess the natural and cultural values of the fering cultural values that may be ascribed to a particular resource. They should then establish appropriate limits of heritage resource. acceptable change, particularly in relation to the impact of visitor numbers on the physical characteristics, integrity, Principle 2 ecology and bio-diversity of the place, local access and transportation systems and the social, economic and cul- The relationship between heritage places and tural wellbeing of the host community. If the likely level of tourism is dynamic and may involve conflicting val- change is unacceptable the development proposal should ues. It should be managed in a sustainable way for be modified. present and future generations. 2.7 There should be ongoing programmes of evalua- 2.1 Places of heritage significance have an intrinsic tion to assess the progressive impacts of tourism value for all people as an important basis for activities and development on the particular place or community.94

International Cultural Tourism CharterPrinciple 3 wishes of some communities or indigenous peoples to restrict or manage physical, spiritual or intellectu-Conservation and Tourism Planning for Heritage al access to certain cultural practices, knowledge,Places should ensure that the Visitor Experience beliefs, activities, artefacts or sites should bewould be worthwhile, satisfying and enjoyable. respected.3.1 Conservation and tourism programmes should Principle 5present high-quality information to optimise the vis-itor’s understanding of the significant heritage char- Tourism and conservation activities should benefitacteristics and of the need for their protection, the host community.enabling the visitor to enjoy the place in an appro-priate manner. 5.1 Policy makers should promote measures for the equitable distribution of the benefits of tourism to3.2 Visitors should be able to experience the her- be shared across countries or regions, improving theitage place at their own pace, if they so choose. levels of socio-economic development and con-Specific circulation routes may be necessary to minimise tributing where necessary to poverty alleviation.impacts on the integrity and physical fabric of a place, itsnatural and cultural characteristics. 5.2 Conservation management and tourism activi- ties should provide equitable economic, social and3.3 Respect for the sanctity of spiritual places, prac- cultural benefits to the men and women of the hosttices and traditions is an important consideration for or local community at all levels, through education,site managers, visitors, policy makers, planners and training and the creation of full-time employmenttourism operators. Visitors should be encouraged to opportunities.behave as welcome guests, respecting the values andlifestyles of the host community, rejecting possible theft or 5.3 A significant proportion of the revenue specifi-illicit trade in cultural property and conducting themselves cally derived from tourism programmes to heritagein a responsible manner which would generate a renewed places should be allotted to the protection, conser-welcome, should they return. vation and presentation of those places, including their natural and cultural contexts. Where possible,3.4 Planning for tourism activities should provide visitors should be advised of this revenue allocation.appropriate facilities for the comfort, safety andwellbeing of the visitor that enhance the enjoyment 5.4 Tourism programmes should encourage theof the visit but do not adversely impact on the sig- training and employment of guides and site inter-nificant features or ecological characteristics. preters from the host community to enhance the skills of local people in the presentation and inter-Principle 4 pretation of their cultural values.Host communities and indigenous peoples should 5.5 Heritage interpretation and education pro-be involved in planning for conservation and grammes among the people of the host communitytourism. should encourage the involvement of local site inter- preters. The programmes should promote a knowledge4.1 The rights and interests of the host community, and respect for their heritage, encouraging the local peo-at regional and local levels, property owners and rel- ple to take a direct interest in its care and conservation.evant indigenous peoples who may exercise tradi-tional rights or responsibilities over their own land 5.6 Conservation management and tourism pro-and its significant sites, should be respected. grammes should include education and trainingThey should be involved in establishing goals, strategies, opportunities for policy makers, planners,policies and protocols for the identification, conservation, researchers, designers, architects, interpreters, con-management, presentation and interpretation of their servators and tourism operators. Participants shouldheritage resources, cultural practices and contemporary be encouraged to understand and help resolve at timescultural expressions, in the tourism context. conflicting issues, opportunities and problems encoun- tered by their colleagues.4.2 While the heritage of any specific place or regionmay have a universal dimension, the needs and 95

International Cultural Tourism Charter Principle 6 Tourism promotion programmes should protect and enhance Natural and Cultural Heritage characteristics. 6.1 Tourism promotion programmes should create realistic expectations and responsibly inform poten- tial visitors of the specific heritage characteristics of a place or host community, thereby encouraging them to behave appropriately. 6.2 Places and collections of heritage significance should be promoted and managed in ways which protect their authenticity and enhance the visitor experience by minimising fluctuations in arrivals and avoiding excessive numbers of visitors at any one time. 6.3 Tourism promotion programmes should provide a wider distribution of benefits and relieve the pres- sures on more popular places by encouraging visi- tors to experience the wider cultural and natural heritage characteristics of the region or locality. 6.4 The promotion, distribution and sale of local crafts and other products should provide a reason- able social and economic return to the host commu- nity, while ensuring that their cultural integrity is not degraded.96

manualsWorld Heritage Designed by RectoVersoFor more information contact: For more information contact: Cover printed on chlorine free paper; interior printed on recycled paperUnited Nations Environment Programme UNESCO World Heritage CentreDivision of Technology, Industry and Economics Cover photo: © UNESCO/N.Saunier 7, place de FontenoyTour Mirabeau, 39-43 Quai André Citroën 75352 Paris 07 SP France75739 Paris - Cedex 15, France Tel : 33 (0)1 45 68 18 76Tel. : 33 (0)1 44 37 14 50 Fax : 33 (0)1 45 68 55 70Fax : 33 (0)1 44 37 14 74 E-mail : [email protected]: [email protected] http://whc.unesco.orghttp://www.uneptie.org/tourism/home.html