Innovations: Graphic Design 400AD-1900AD

NSINNOVATIONSGRAPHIC DESIGN 400AD-1900AD 1

The need to communicate is a natural human instinct. This need ultimately led to innovations throughout history that made graphic communication possible. 2

From Scrolls to Codex 1 The Art of Illumination 3 Visions of China 5 7 TIMELINE ThePaperChase 9 Gutenberg [A Man With a Vision] 11 13 By Jacine Arias Printing: A Watershed Moment 19 21 The Type Boom 23 25 Th Age of Industry: An Overview 27 29 Posters and The Rebirth of Wood Type 31 33 What the Font 37 39 The Rise of Machines 41 Say Cheese! Color Me Beautiful Victor! Victorian! Postermania Design Goes Full Circle & Takes a Giant Leap Japonisme et L’art Nouveau In Retrospect 3

CODEXFROM SCROLLS TO 1-500 A.D. 1

THE CODEX was introduced in the first century, but it was 425 AD Vatican Vergil not until the fourth century that it became widely accepted. The codex book was a major improvement over the scroll for several 2 reasons. “It could be opened flat at any page, allowing easier reading; the pages could be written on both recto and verso; and the codex, protected within its durable covers, was more compact and easier to transport.” (“Codex”, 2006). THE VATICAN VERGIL is an example of codex and it is the “earliest surviving manuscript from the late antique early Christian era.”(Meggs, 2006, 43.) The illustrations rich in color, resemble Roman wall frescoes.

TIHLEALRTUOFM[ ILLIUMNINATAIONT] ION 3

There are several styles of illuminated manuscripts. Celtic book design as seen Berry”, 2006). The advent of printing ended the age of illuminated manuscripts. in The Book of Durrow and The Books of Kells have distinct features including Moveable type made production faster and brought books to the masses that carpet pages, geometric patterns, lacertines and half uncials for legibility. The demanded them. Carolinian style is characterized by the Caroline minuscule, the precursor of our lower case alphabet as seen in The Alcuin Bible (Meggs, 50). The Book of Hours, Les Tres Illuminated manuscripts have had a lasting effect on modern day graphic design. Riches Heures du Duc du Berry, demonstrate the height of illuminated manuscripts The attention to page layout, use of lower case letters and space between words (Meggs, 58). These were small prayer books for private devotion, which contained and design techniques including; gold foil, type treatments and illustrations are prayers, calendars and luxurious illuminations (“Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc du still in use today. The Book of Durrow The Book of Kells Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc du Berry 4 680 AD 800 AD 1413-1416 AD

Visions of China The Chinese were great innovators and had a profound impact on both the eastern and western world through their magnificent inventions which included paper and printing. 5

EARLY PAPERMAKING IN CHINA. Papermaking was thought to Long before the Gutenberg press, the Chinese had already have been invented in 105 AD but recent archeological discoveries invented printing. Relief printing, “inked rubbings from inscriptions place it about 200 years earlier. carved in stone,” (Meggs, 35) and woodblocks for printing, were all developed and widely used in China. In 1045, Pi Sheng developed the concept of moveable type because cutting away “the wood around each calligraphic character [was painstakingly slow].” (Meggs, 30). The Chinese contribution to graphic design was vast, slowly moving westward, reaching Europe just as the Renaissance was beginning. 6

The Paper Chase Several things contributed to the invention of class people became literate and universities decorative initialing, proofing and binding. printing with movable type in 15th century expanded, the demand for books increased. By Although this increased the speed of book Europe including the availability of paper, the 1424, the library at Cambridge had only 122 production it was not enough to meet demand. emergence of a literate middle class and the manuscripts. Up to this point book printing was Movable type was a welcome revolution in need to increase the speed of book production. a long, arduous, and expensive process. It could printing, making the process faster more In the 12th century, the Moors, who occupied take a scribe four to five months and twenty-five accurate, efficient and consistent. Spain, introduced paper production to Europe. By sheepskins to produce one 200-page book. The the fourteenth century, there were paper mills in increase in book demand led to the growth of ItalyandinFrancemakingpaperreadilyavailable in independent publishers who created an assembly Europe. Books and those who had access to them line of laborers that included specialists in all were few and far between but as more middle parts of production; lettering, gold ornamentation, 7

WOODBLOCK The crusades and trade routes opened Europe up to many influences from the east. Relief printing from wood blocks came from China and became popular shortly after the arrival of paper to Europe in the 12th century. The popularity of card playing, outlawed by church, gave rise to an underground woodblock printing industry. Since playing cards were very popular among the working class, their production was very lucrative. Woodblock printing was also used to produce saint cards (devotional cards with images of Christian saints). These later evolved into religious books. The dominant graphic element was the illustration but also contained some text. These books were used for religious instruction of illiterate people. They often contained thirty to fifty leaves. In some cases, the prints were hand-colored. 8

Gutenberg [A MAN WITH A VISION] JOHANN GUTENBERG (1398-1468) [visionary] Johann Gutenberg was a man with a vision. It took twenty years before he printed his first typographic book, known as the forty-two-line Bible, in 1450. He invented a special type mold used for casting individual letters, which was the key to his press. The two-part mold was adjustable and allowed for wide or narrow characters. He developed a special alloy for making the type pieces. The metal was soft enough to cast, hard enough to withstand thousands of impressions and did not expand or contract when melted, poured and cooled. This process made the production of type letters fast, accurate and economical. He also invented a thick tacky ink made of boiled linseed oil colored with lampblack that could be applied smoothly to type. Finally, Gutenberg developed a press with the capability of applying just the right amount of pressure to the type, transferring the ink to the paper. His machine revolutionized the world, bringing speed, quality and consistency to printing. It remained in use for four hundred years with only a few modifications. 9

A page from The Gutenberg Bible. Printing began on February 23, 10 1455. It is believed that about 180 copies of the Bible were produced, 45 on vellum and 135 on paper. (“Gutenberg Bible”, 2006).

PRINTING15THCENTURY A Watershed Moment The first century after the invention of of production, early printers used conventions printing was a watershed in the evolution of of the scribal culture as they produced graphic design. In the early days of printing, books.” (Odin, 1997). So in the beginning, the manuscripts played a very central role in printing process was seen merely as a more the production of typographic books. “Even efficient way to produce books rather than though printing involved a different mode a new medium. 11

THE NUREMBERG CHRONICLE (1493), one of the masterpieces of graphic design of the incunabula period, provide some incite of the design and production process. They contain editorial notes in the margin that show where the typesetting for the page was supposed to end as well as sketches for woodblocks. (Meggs, 79). Scribes and artists who once worked in scriptoriums producing books now found a new occupation making exemplars (layouts) for illustrated books and broadsides (one sheet flyers-precursor of newspaper). In essence, manuscript books served as mock-ups for typographic books. INCUNABULAINCUNABULA, is the term used to refer to books printed using moveable type during the fifteenth century. pg1pg2THE VENETIAN CONTRIBUTION: Venetian printers introduced several innovations to book layout. The use of page numbers emerged with the first printing of Augustine’s De civitate Dei (City of God) printed by Johannes and Vindelinus de Spira (1470). Nicholas Jenson–Trademark TYPEMOVABLE 12 Other innovations included the use of the printer’s trademark (ex libris) as a visual identifier (Meggs, 79).

THE TYPE BOOM The Enlightenment, the age of science, LATE 17TH-18TH CENTURY order, logic and mathematical preciseness contributed immensely to innovations in typography, layout, ink, papermaking, and led to industry wide standardizations. OLD STYLE TRANSITIONAL ROMAN MODERN STYLE 13

ROMAIN DU ROI Romain du Roi— construction of the letter G. 14 In 1692, Louis XIV appointed a committee of scholars to develop new type styles for the Impremerie Royale. Led by Nicolas Jaugeon, a mathematician, they created a new type- face called Romain du Roi.The letters on a grid diagram“were engraved, made by incising a copper plate with a tool called a graver. The lead typefaces derived from these large-scale diagrams reflect the linear character of engraving as well as the scientific attitude of the king’s committee.” (Lupton, 2005). The romain du roi, was characterized by “increased contrast between thick and thin strokes, sharp horizontal serifs, and an even balance to each letterform.” (Meggs, 117). Since the new typeface was for the exclusive use of the Impremerie Royale, it was not long before French type founders began to design typefaces with similar character- istics. The Romain du Roi marked a “shift from the Venetian tradition of ‘old style’ roman type design [with its] calligraphic qualities, bracketed serifs and relatively even strokes”(Meggs, 117), and inspired a new category of typefaces known as transitional roman.The book, Médailles, printed in 1702, was the first to use the new types.

THE TYPE BOOM Example of Fournier’s decorative types (left) and a page from Manuel Typographique. Fournier’s point system from Manuel Typographique. PIERRE SIMONE FOURNIER LE JEUNE (1712-1768) [printer & type founder] Pierre Simone Fournier le Jeune was responsible for many typographic innovations and had a huge impact on graphic design, “more than any other person of his era.” (Meggs, 118). With little uniformity of type sizes and poor compatibility between foundries, Fournier le Jeune saw the need for standardization. In Modeles des characteres de l’imprimerie, he displayed 4,600 characters made up of a variety of widths and weights, which could be easily mixed and were visually compatible. (Meggs, 117). This introduced the idea of type families for the first time. In 1764, he published Manuel Typographique in which he “discussed sizes and styles of types, showed numerous European sources and gave accounts of the type foundries themselves.” (Kohnke, 2003). In volume 1, Type, It’s Cutting and Founding, he “introduced an improved measurement system based on the point instead of the line and point.” (Meggs, 118). 15

THE TYPE BOOM Title page from Bucolica, Georgica, et Aeneis. The Works printed by John Baskerville. 16 JOHN BASKERVILLE (1706-1775) [writer, stonecutter, letter designer, type founder & printer] John Baskerville is considered one of the great innovators of typography, printing and graphic design. He experimented with printing, paper, ink, and produced his own types. His quest to “achieve graphic perfection” (Meggs, 122), led to very clean layouts, evident in the title page for Bucolica, Georgica, et Aeneis. The letters are arranged symmetrically with generous space between letters and lines. He also decreased the size of the publishing information. Baskerville significantly improved his presses by building a sturdier bed and also developed a blacker ink. (Meggs, 123). His use of smooth glossy paper for his books was a first. He printed on hot-pressed wove paper, which gave his books the elegance and perfection he desired. He published fifty-six books in his career including a folio Bible (1763), his most ambitious undertaking.

THE TYPE BOOM Manuale Tipografico title page. The two-volume set work contains 142 roman alphabets (with corresponding italics), script and exotic typefaces, GIAMBATTISTA BODINI (1740-1813) [printer & type founder] and a collection of flowers and ornaments. Giambattista Bodini was at the forefront of the modern style of type. He led the way by “redesigning roman letterforms to give them a more mathematical, geometric and mechanical appearance [and believed they should be created by combining minimal identical units.]” (Meggs, 127). The fact that his type could be easily measured and constructed was one more step towards standardization. Bodoni devoted forty years to the art of typography. He designed approximately three hundred type fonts which were published in the monumental two-volume work Manuale tipografico. 17

THE TYPE BOOM THE DIDOT DYNASTY (1713-1836) [printers, publishers & type founders] Three generations of Didot’s made significant contributions to the advancement of graphic design. In addition to introducing smooth paper similar to Baskerville’s and developing maigre (thin) and gras (fat) fonts, Francois-Ambroise Didot revised Fournier le Jeuene’s measuring system to a 72 point system. His son Fermin invented stereotyping. The process created a duplicate metal plate allowing for longer press runs. The Didot Foundry produced the first modern typeface and used it to print Gerusalemme Liberata. Didot font 18

THE AGE OF INDU1770-1900 19

AN OVERVIEWThe Industrial Revolution was a time of extraordinary social, economic, political and technological change. Innovations in typography and the printing press, the growth of advertising, the invention of photography and chromolithography profoundly impacted visual communication. Mechanization and the growth of factories dramatically changed the economic and social landscape first in England (1770s-1830s) and then in America. People left the farm for factory jobs in cities. Mass production and assembly lines replaced individual artisans. “In effect, this period gave birth to the modern USTRYidea of a designer as a profession, as the design and execution phases of creative work became divided into many distinct jobs.” (“The Industrial Revolution: A Potpourri of Design”, 2006). 20

WoodtypePosters & The Rebirth of 1828 The use of wood for printing was not a new manufacturers imported type designs from idea. “With the expansion of the commercial Europe and exported their wood types but printing industry in America in the first years the technique soon caught on and European of the nineteenth century, it was inevitable that type foundries began to produce their own. someone would perfect a process for cheaply Soon after, American printing firms began to producing the large letters so in demand for create their own decorative alphabets. In 1834, broadside.” (“About Wood Type”, 2002). William Leavenworth “combined the panto- graph with the router” making it quite easy to In 1828, American printer Darius Wells invented mass-produce wood types. (Meggs, 139). They a lateral router, which made the production became so popular that people were invited to of wood types economically feasible. Wood submit designs and entire font families would type was lighter and more durable than metal be created based on their submissions. The type. Though initially not accepted, eventually possibilities of page designs were limitless as wood type was extensively used for handbills, a result of the availability of a wide variety of posters and broadsheets. At first, wood-type fonts with different weights, sizes and styles. 21

This advertising poster circa 1875, demonstrates the use of a variety fonts of different sizes, widths and styles. “The need to lock all the elements tightly on the press enforced a horizontal and vertical stress on the design; this became the basic organizing principle [of posters].” (Meggs, 135). 22

THEFONT?WHAT19TH CENTURY TYPOGRAPHIC INNOVATIONS 23

Clarendon In the Industrial Age, typography became an important component of creating a strong visual impact. The demand for posters to promote circuses, vaudeville shows, the railroads and even retail created the need for bold and expressive fonts. Larger types and styles emerged including fat face, antique (Egyptian) and san serifs. The design possibilities were countless with the availability of fonts in a variety of widths, heights, shapes and sizes. Type designers included Robert Thorne (fat face), Vincent Figgins (Antique/Egyptian, three-dimensional & Tuscan), Henry Caslon (ionic), William Thorowgood (Clarendon) and William Caslon IV (san serif). [San serif type debuted in 1816 in a book by William Caslon.] [A sampling of specimens including three dimensional types from Figgins (1836) and Caslon & Livermore (1837).] 24

TMhaecRhiisneeosf The Industrial Revolution saw many technological advances that directly impacted visual communication. The steam powered printing press and the Linotype machine for example, revolutionized printing by increasing production speed. Friedrich Koenig’s steam-powered printing press (1810) printed 400 sheets an hour as opposed to 250 sheets by the hand press. The Linotype machine (1886) invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler mechanized typesetting. This invention catapulted printing to a new level. Newspapers could print more pages, book publishing expanded and “periodicals, and illustrated weeklies, including the Saturday Evening Post and Colliers, [reached millions].” (Meggs, 142). 25

steampowerepdress “line o’type”OttmarMergenthaler The invention of the LINOTYPE MACHINE was perfected such a machine that could set a “line o’ probably the single most important technological type” hence the name. (Meggs, 141). The revo- improvement since the invention of the actual lutionary invention was composed of ninety press by Gutenberg. It is significant because up to typewriter keys that controlled a matrix of letters, this point, every letter was set entirely by hand numbers and characters. As the type operator making typesetting a long, arduous and expensive pressed a key, that character was released through process. “The high cost and slow pace of composition a chute and would line up with other characters in limited even the largest newspapers to eight pages, that line. Lead was poured over the letter molds and books remained fairly precious.” (Meggs, 141). to create the raised line of type. Speed led to Many attempts were made to create a machine lower production cost and greater possibilities. that could typeset. In 1886, Ottmar Mergenthaler, Publishing jumped into a new era. 26

SAY CHEESEAbriefhistoryofphotography [1826-1900] Is a picture worth a thousand words? Undoubtedly it is. The ability to produce permanent images, photography, took the world by storm in the 19th Century. Photography sparked the imagination of scientists, innovators and artists alike who sought to improve the process and define the medium. On March 4, 1880, The New York Daily Graphic became the first newspaper to print a photo reproduction. With the invention of the halftone screen, photographs would become a permanent feature in newspapers. Print and graphic design were forever changed, as photography became a new element of design. 27

The first successful permanent photographic image taken by Joseph Daguerreotype Niépce in 1826. DAGUERREOTYPE portraiture was popularized by Louis Jacques Daguerre in 1839. The process he perfected produced surprisingly clear and detailed images. “It was a single-image process, how- ever—each exposure produced only one picture, incapable of reproduction.” (“History—What is Photography?”, 2006). In one year “a half-million daguerreotypes were made in Paris.” (Meggs, 144). In the same year, the technology reached America. Robert Cornelius was the first American to produce a daguerreotype self-portrait in 1839. Robert Cornelius-Self portrait (1839) First daguerrotype in America JOSEPH NIÉPCE, an early pioneer of photography, WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT a contemporary of Daguerre invented invented a process called heliogravure (engraving by the sun). Niépce produced the first successful photogenic drawings, a method of creating an image on photosensitive paper permanent photographic image in 1826. He Calotypewithoutacamera.Heappliedanobjectdirectlyonlight-sensitivepaperandexposedit placed a pewter sheet coated with light-sensitive producing a reversed image. Sir John Herschel called these images a negative. material, called bitmen of Judea, in the back of a camera obscura and exposed it. It took about 1888eight hours of sun exposure to produce an image so only buildings and inanimate objects could George Eastmabe photographed. (“Nicéphore Niépce”, 2006). Photography as the world would come to know You press the button, we do the rest. [Kodak slogan, 1888] it was born. In 1888, George Eastman introduced the Kodak “brownie” camera putting photography in the hands of the general public. Civil War photographer MATTHEW BRADY could be called the first photojournalist. His stark images of dead soldiers and the aftermath of battles scenes “had a profound impact upon the public’s romantic ideal of the war.” (Meggs, 150). A WAR IN P I C T UMRATETHSEW BRADY 28

  Victorian popular graphics came to life in color with the invention and popularization of a process called chromolithograpy. In 1837, Godefroy Englemann patented the process by which, “the printer separated [the colors within the original image] into a series of printing plates and printed these component colors, one by one.”( Meggs, 153). Chromolithography made printing in color for the first time possible. Color printing was all the rage. Chromolithography soon hit the shores of America beginning in Boston. With the invention of the“lightning press,” which made color printing economical and innovators such as John H. Buford and Louis Prang, who perfected the technique, chromolithography dominated color printing from 1860-1900. 29

In 1846, RICHARD M. HOE invented the rotary lithographic press, also known as the lightning press because of its speed, creating competition with letterpress. (“Richard March Hoe”, 2006). Color print- ing was relatively inexpensive. Jobs ranged from advertising graphics to reproductions of works of art resulting in the medium’s popularity. LOUIS PRANG opened a chromolithography firm with Julius Mayer in 1856. Prang’s colorful work was very popular. He was the first to create holiday graphics and as a result is called the father of the American Christmas card. JOHN H. BUFFORD greatly influenced chromolithography through his “crayon-style images [which], achieved a remark- able realism.”(Meggs, 154). He specialized in“art prints, posters, covers and book and magazine illustrations [and] often used five or more colors.” (Meggs, 154). He is most noted for his “ meticulous andconvincing tonal drawing and integration of image and lettering into a unified design.”(Meggs, 154). 30

VicVtoicrt!orian! The Victorian era was a potpourri of design. From typography to ornate motifs, Victorian graphic design expressed the“spirit, culture and moral standards [of the era].” (Meggs, 153). This period saw the birth of advertising design, a new approach to children’s literature and elaborate typography all of which brought a new dimension to graphic design. 31

CHILDREN’S LITERATURE flourished in 19th Century. The Victorians saw children as children and treated them as such. Their sensitivity towards them “was expressed through the development of colorful picture books for [preschoolers called toy books.]” (Meggs, 159). The illustrations of Walter Crane, Randolph Scott, and Kate Greenaway captivated audiences. HERMAN IHLENBURG “is perhaps the most prolific, underrated and rarely credited type designer and punch cutter in all of type history.”(“Hermann Ihlenburg”, 2006). By century end, he had designed more than“eighty display typefaces and cut punches for over thirty-two thousand typographic characters.” (Meggs, 166), including Arboret, Crayon, Nymphic, and Ringlet. All were very ornate and could be characterized as swirly. Ringlet HARPER’S WEEKLY along with its magazine counterpart Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, ushered in “the era of the pictorial magazine.”(Meggs, 161). Ad agencies grew alongside magazines providing art direction, copy writing, production and placement. 32

Advertising posters flourished in America and in Europe in the late 19th Century. Although broadsides and posters had been produced in the past with little color by using woodblocks or metal engraving, it wasn’t until Jules Cheret perfected his three stone lithographic process, Postermaniawasfull-blowncolorapossibility. This innovation along with other advances in printing technology allowed for bulk printing and mass circulation of illustrated posters. With the illustration being the focal point, a new relationship between image and text was forged changing the face of advertising forever. 33

JULES CHERET’S lithographic process, “allowed artists to Five Celebrated Clowns Attached to Sands, Nathan & Co.’s Circus achieve every color in the rainbow with as little as three stones—usually red, yellow and blue—printed in careful Both letterpress posters and broadsheets found stiff competition registration.”(“An Introduction toVintage Poster Art”, 2005). from the very vivid lithographic poster. Designers like Joseph Morse, It was a difficult process but it resulted in brilliant colors used large woodblocks to create mulit-colored wood block posters such and marvelous textures. “This ability to combine word and as Five Celebrated Clowns Attached to Sands, Nathan & Co.’s Circus. image in such an attractive and economical format finally made the lithographic poster a powerful innovation.” (“An From realistic subject matter such as political posters to the free style whimsical posters Introduction to Vintage Poster Art”). Cheret broke the rules of the Belle Époque, the ability to mass-produce color posters ushered in the modern age using “vivid, direct designs, combining illustration and text of advertising. and using few bright colors in large coherent shapes.” (“A Short introduction to the History of the Poster”, 2006). 34 By the 1880s and 1890s advertising posters blanketed Europe.Theyweredeemed“ArtoftheStreet”asthestreets of large European cities were like galleries and raised art appreciation among the masses. His subjects were often young smiling Parisian women. He influenced the famous poster designer Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec best known for the Moulin Rouge (1891) poster. In America, posters advertising circuses, carnivals, and theatre were quite popular. “Complex montage designs promoting traveling shows, literary works and theatrical performances engaged viewers. Compared to contemporary posters, these advertisements were designed for greater viewing time because of the slower pace of the19th century life and the relative lack of competition from other colorful images.”(Meggs, 157).

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Design Goes Full Circle and Takes a Giant Leap The Arts & Crafts Movement What goes around comes around. Nothing could the Victorian era and to ‘soulless’ machine-made be truer of design in the late 19th Century. As the production aided by the Industrial Revolution.” (“Arts potpourri of designs, styles, and motifs emerged from the and Crafts movement”, 2006). With its roots in the Arts Victorian era, a counter movement inspired by John Ruskin and Crafts movement, Art Nouveau developed into an began to take shape almost simultaneously. The Arts international style that became the “bridge between and Crafts movement “began primarily as a search for Victorian clutter and modernism.” (Meggs, 195). Both authentic and meaningful styles for the 19th movements left a legacy that went beyond visual century and as a reaction to the eclectic historicism of appearances inspiring future 20th century designers. Although the Arts and Crafts movement was more rooted in social reform in addition to elevating the artist, the Arts and Crafts movement and Art Nouveau could be considered close cousins with similar attitudes about form, function and beauty. As designers in the 20th Century adopted the Art Nouveau and Arts and Crafts approach to material, function, processes, and values, the influence of these two distinct styles would bring about revolution in style and new aesthetics with the dawn of Modernism. The legacy lives on. 37

JOHN RUSKIN was the artist, writer and social critic The architect and designer, ARTHUR MACKMURDO is who inspired the Arts and Crafts movement. He rejected somewhat of a bridge figure between Arts and Crafts thoughtless mass-produced goods created by the mercantile and Art Nouveau. Inspired by William Morris, in 1882, he economy of industrialization and the Victorian “anything established the Century Guild with other young artists goes”philosophy. Ruskin’s philosophy was deeply rooted in and designers. Through the Century Guild, Mackmurdo the belief that beautiful things are useful and therefore and his associates “evolved a new design aesthetic valuable because of their beauty. He believed that artists [incorporating] Renaissance and Japanese design ideas had become increasingly isolated because of technology and industrialization into their work [providing] one of the links between the resulting in a decline of design aesthetics and creativity. He “pointed toward Arts and Crafts movement and the floral stylization of art the union of art and labor in service to society, as exemplified in the design nouveau.”(Meggs, 169). Several of Mackmurdo’s designs and construction of the medieval Gothic cathedral.” (Meggs, 167). are Art Nouveau in concept. William Morris–Illustrated page from The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer WILLIAM MORRIS embraced Ruskin’s ideas on design aesthetics as socialism and sought to revive the craftsmanship of the past. He brought together artists and craftsmen to form Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Company. Known as the Fine Art Workman, “their attention to designing objects to decorate the home… helped elevate the decorative arts to the level of fine art.” (“The Beauty of Life William Morris & The Art of Design”, 2003). The Arts and Crafts style was greatly influenced by the gothic revival. Designs were intricate and colorful as in Morris’ 1883 rose fabric design. The return to the past extended to books as well. Because of mass production, attention to quality and design in book publishing had diminished. MORRIS AND THE KELMSCOTT PRESS sought to revive the fine book. Their book designs were intricate and very stylistic. Morris returned to “printing methods of the incunabula period, he used initials, borders, and ornaments. [Ironically since these] were modular, interchangeable and repeatable, [he] applied a basic aspect of industrial production to the printed page.”(Meggs, 174). 38

During Japan’s self-imposed isolation between 1603 and 1867, Japanese art flourished, unadulterated by external influences. Ukiyo-e (pictures of the floating world) defines the art movement that documented the lifestyle, fashions and entertainment in Japan’s urban centers during this era. (“Ukiyo-e - Images from the Floating World”, 2005). Japonisme et l’art Nouveau Japanese decorative arts were thrust onto the world stage when the naval expeditions of Matthew C. Perry to Japan led to the collapse of Japan’s isolationist policies. Open trade with the west led to Japonisme, the 19th century craze for everything Japanese. The lines and forms created by Ukiyo-e artists were an important source of inspiration for the style of art, design and architecture that flourished in Europe and America known as Art Nouveau. 39

“The practitioners of Art Nouveau borrowed motifs from Japanese wood prints, “The Peacock Skirt”, illustration for Oscar Wilde’s play Salomé which had an angular, linear look, incorporating the grids and parallel lines of Japanese interior design depicted in these images, as well as the sinuous, flowing 40 lines of the kimono.” (“Art Nouveau-The importance of new decoration”, 2000). Among these artists was AUBREY BEARDSLEY. Beardsley’s work was quite scandalous. He was known as Art Nouveau’s‘enfant terrible’because of “his striking pen line, vibrant black-and-white work, and shockingly exotic imagery.” (Meggs, 199). Beardsley’s illustrations for Morte d’Arthur (1893) and Salome (1894) clearly show the influence of Japanese art. The elongated figures of the women depicted by both are reminiscent of tall graceful female figures found in Ukiyo-e woodblock prints. Beardsley’s ability to “contrast between geometric and organic shapes reflects [another aspect] of the influence of Japanese print.” (Meggs, 200).

History of Graphic Design Innovations 400 AD-1900 AD In Retrospect One must look to the past to understand the future. This is our history. The history of graphic design is marked by centuries of remarkable innovations by extraordinary people. From scrolls to the printed page, visual communication took several giant leaps forward between 400 AD and 1900 AD. At the root of it all, was the need to communicate. 41

WORK CITED: Lupton, Ellen.“Letter lecture.”Thinking With Type. 13 October 2005. Princeton Architectural Press. 26 April 2006. <http://www.papress.com/thinkingwithtype/teachers/type_lecture/ “A Short introduction to the History of the Poster”. Poster Connection. 18 May 2006. Poster history_notes.htm>. Connection, Inc. 18 May 2006. <http://www.posterconnection.com/r_history.htm>. Meggs, Philip. Meggs’ History of Graphic Design. Hoboken, NJ: Johns Wiley &Sons, Inc., 2006. “About Wood Type.”Hamilton Wood Type and Printing Museum. 2002. 1 May 2006. <http://www.woodtype.org/museum_information_about.shtml>. “Nicéphore Niépce.”Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 13 Apr 2006, 17:22 UTC. 10 May 2006, 21:05 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni “An Introduction to Vintage Poster Art”. International Poster Gallery Online. 2005. International %C3%A9pce&oldid=48299170>. Poster Gallery. 18 May 2006. <http://www.internationalposter.com/intro.cfm>. Odin, Jaishree K.“Technologies of Writing.”University of Hawaii at Manoa. 1997. April 19, 2006. “Arts and Crafts movement.”Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 22 May 2006, 20:00 UTC. Wikimedia <http://www.hawaii.edu/aln/printing.htm>. Foundation, Inc. 26 May 2006. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arts_and_ Crafts_movement&oldid=54580791>. “Richard March Hoe.”Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 17 Nov 2005, 10:48 UTC. 17 May 2006, 05:17 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_March_Hoe&oldid=28583706>. “Codex.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 6 May 2006, 01:05 UTC. 7 May 2006, 20:54 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Codex&oldid=51766844>. Roper, Quentin M.“Art Nouveau-The importance of new decoration.”The Home of Q Design. 23 July 2000. Qdesign. 1 June 2006. <http://www.qdesign.co.nz/designhist_artnou.html>. Ellard, Donna Beth.“Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc du Berry.”Transliteracies Project. 3 March 06. 12 April 2006. <http://transliteracies.english.ucsb.edu/post/research-project/ “The Beauty of Life William Morris & The Art of Design.”Huntington Library. 2003. The Huntington research-clearinghouse-individual/research-reports/les-tres-riches-heures-du-duc-du-berry>. Library, Art Collections, and Botanical Gardens. 23 May 2006. <http://www.huntington.org/ArtDiv/Morris2003/Morris2003.html>. “Gutenberg Bible.”Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 20 May 2006, 06:38 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 22 May 2006. “The Industrial Revolution: A Potpourri of Design.”Discovery. 2006. Malaspina University-College. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gutenberg_Bible&oldid=54153927>. 3 May 2006.<http://www.discovery.mala.bc.ca/web/mclaneb/IRfinal.htm#xxxx >. “Hermann Ihlenburg”. My Fonts. 2006. My Fonts.com, Inc. 16 May 2006. “Ukiyo-e - Images from the Floating World.”Art Encyclopedia. 2005. John Malyon/Artcyclopedia. <http://www.myfonts.com/person/ihlenburg/herman/>. 30 May 2006. <http://www.artcyclopedia.com/history/ukiyo-e.html>. “History—What is Photography?” SC Photo. 12 April 2006. SCPhoto.com. 9 May 2006. 42 <http://www.scphoto.com/html/history.html>. Kohnke, Mike.“Typographic History at a Glance: Renaissance and the Incunabula.”Typebox. July 2003.Typebox, LLC. 23 April 2006. <http://www.typebox.com/3thinkbox/3hist3_2.html>.

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