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["4043325319 41 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 Table 4 Nijmegen\u2019s Taxonomy The Nijmegen Group\u2019s Taxonomy Conceptual strategies-manipulating the target concept to make it expressible through available linguistic resources. (a) Analytic strategies-specifying characteristic features of the concept (e.g., \u201ca talk uh bird\u201d for \u201cparrot\u201d in circumlocution) (b) Holistic strategies-using a different concept which shares characteristics with the target item (e.g., \u201cchair\u201d for \u201cstool\u201d in approximation) Linguistic strategies-manipulating the speaker\u2019s linguistic knowledge (a) Morphological creativity-creating a new word by applying L2 morphological rules to an L2 word (e.g., \u201cappliances\u201d for \u201cletters of application\u201d) (b) Transfer-transferring from L1 or L3 Taxonomy 4: Bialystok\u2019s Taxonomy Bialystok (1990) analyzed the strategies from a psychological perspective and based her theory on the distinction between \u2018analysis\u2019 or \u2018knowledge\u2019 and \u2018control\u2019, an approach based on cognitive psychology. She revealed that an analysis- based strategy is \u201can attempt to convey the structure of the intended concept by making explicit the relational defining features\u201d. In other words, the speaker attempts to modify the content of the message by using either their knowledge of a concept or providing information about it. There are five subtypes of analysis-based strategies: circumlocution, paraphrase, transliteration, word coinage, and mime. The control- based strategy refers to \u201cthe manipulation of a form of expression through attention to different sources of information\u201d. There are four subtypes within this strategy including language switch, ostensive definition, an appeal for help, and mime. In contrast, the \u2018analysis-based strategies\u2019 offer the speaker access to different means of reference, outside their L2. The following Table provides a summary of Bialystok\u2019s taxonomy:","42 Table 5 Bialystok\u2019s Taxonomy of Communication Strategies Bialystok\u2019s taxonomy of CSs 4043325319 Analysis-based strategies-conveying the structure of the intended concept by making explicit the relational defining features. BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 (a) Circumlocution (b) Paraphrase (c) Transliteration (d) Word coinage (e) Mime Control-based strategies-switching from the linguistic system being used and focusing instead on some other symbolic reference system that can achieve the same communication function (i.e., pointing to real objects) (a) Language switch (b) Ostensive definition (c) Appeal for help (d) Mime There are some differences between the taxonomies of the Nijmegen group and Bialystok, which are presented below: Taxomonomies Bialystok Nijmegen Analysis\/Conceptual Paraphrase Paraphrase Word coinage Semantic word coinage Control\/Code Mime Mime Language switch Linguistic word coinage Appeal for assistance Ostensive definition Transfer Figure 2 Surface structures of two binary systems","4043325319 43 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 Flyman (1997) argued that both Bialystok\u2019s distinction between \u2018analysis\u2019 and \u2018control\u2019 and the Nijmegen taxonomy are both binary systems based on underlying cognitive processes. She also claimed that the two taxonomies have the same basic surface structure, with the exception that the Nijmegen group made a crucial distinction between mime and ostensive definition, and between semantic and linguistic word coinage. Bialystok also included an appeal for help as one of her \u2018control-based strategies.\u2019 This reveals that the control-based strategies in Bialystok\u2019s taxonomy feature a wider variety of strategies than those offered by the Nijmegen group\u2019s set of linguistic strategies. It should also be noted that the definitions and exemplifications of Bialystok\u2019s taxonomy of communication strategies are clear and some strategies (e.g., circumlocution, word coinage and mime) are similar to Tarone\u2019s taxonomy, which are included in this present study. Taxonomy 5: Dornyei\u2019s Taxonomy Dornyei (1995) proposed his communication strategies taxonomy based on core or traditional conceptualizations, which are similar to Tarone (1977) and Faerch & Kasper (1983) by dividing his communication strategies into three major categories: avoidance or reduction strategies, achievement or compensatory strategies, and stalling or time-gaining strategies. Avoidance or reduction strategies consist of two subtypes: message abandonment and topic avoidance strategies. He stated that \u201cavoidance or reduction involves an alteration, a reduction, or complete abandonment of the intended meaning\u201d (p. 57), and that \u201cachievement or compensatory strategies offer alternative plans for the speakers to carry out their original communicative goal by manipulating the available language\u201d (p. 57). These strategies contain eight subtypes: circumlocution, approximation, the use of all-purpose words, word coinage, as well as non-linguistic means; literal translation, foreignizing, code switching and an appeal for help. The last category, stalling or time-gaining strategies, involves the use of fillers or a hesitation devices strategy. However, Dornyei argued that these new strategies should be included in his categorization and that these stalling or time- gaining strategies were mentioned last as they are used as a device to gain time and to keep the communication channels open in times of difficulty. Similarly, Kongsom (2009) noted that these strategies are not used to compensate for vocabulary","4043325319 44 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 deficiency, but rather to acqquire more time to think and maintain their conversation with their interlocutor. The details are summarized in the following Table: Table 6 Dornyei\u2019s Traditional Conceptualizations of Communication Strategies Dornyei\u2019s taxonomy of CSs Avoidance or Reduction Strategies 1. Message abandonment 2. Topic avoidance Achievement or Compensatory Strategies 3. Circumlocution 4. Approximation 5. Use of all-purpose words 6. Word coinage 7. Use of non-linguistic means 8. Literal translation 9. Foreignizing 10. Code switching 11. Appeal for help Stalling or Time-gaining Strategies 12. Use of fillers\/hesitation devices Taxonomy 6: Dornyei & Scott\u2019s Taxonomy Dornyei & Scott (1997) reviewed articles about communication strategies. They summarized the definitions and taxonomies included in the communication strategies suggested by researchers in the field. For the extended taxonomy of problem-solving strategies, they classified communication strategies in terms of problem-management, in other words, how communication strategies contribute to conflict resolution and the achievement of mutual understanding (Dornyei & Scott, 1997). They proposed that these new strategies should be separated into three basic categories: direct, indirect and interactional strategies. For direct strategies, they added the use of similar-sounding words, mumbling, omission, feigning","4043325319 45 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 understanding and asking for repetition, as well as the use of fillers as part of an indirect strategy. They revealed that \u201cthese fillers are used to prevent breakdowns and keep the communication channel open\u201d (p. 198). Moreover, for interactional strategies, they included an appeal for help, a request for clarification, and confirmation and comprehension checks. Interactional strategies are considered as target strategies which are included in this present study since the above argument. The details of this taxonomy are presented in the following Table. Table 7 Dornyei & Scott\u2019s Taxonomy of Communication Strategies Dornyei and Scott\u2019s Taxonomy of Communication Strategies Direct Strategies Resource deficit-related strategies 1. Message abandonment occurs when the speaker is faced with communicative problems and leaves a message unfinished. 2. Message reduction or topic avoidance means that the speaker reduces the message by avoiding certain linguistic structures or topics considered problematic language-wise, or omits some intended elements because they lack the linguistic knowledge to express them. 3. Message replacement is the substitution of an original message with a new one because the speaker does not feel capable of executing the original message. 4. Circumlocution or Paraphrase describes the concept of circumlocution, or using a synonym or a word that has the same meaning, or using an illustration or description of the characteristics of the target object or action. 5. Approximation means using a single alternative term, such as a synonym or a related vocabulary word, which shares enough meaning with the target vocabulary or structure. 6. Use of all-purpose words means to use a common or \u201cempty\u201d vocabulary word to a context where a specific word is not enough. 7. Word coinage refers to the creation of non-existent L2 vocabulary through the employment of supposed L2 rules to existing L2 vocabulary.","4043325319 46 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 Dornyei and Scott\u2019s Taxonomy of Communication Strategies 8. Restructuring is when the speaker abandons the execution of a verbal plan because of language problems and leaves the utterance unfinished, then communicates the intended sentence using an alternative plan. 9. Literal translation means that the speaker literally translates a vocabulary item, an idiom, a compound word or structure from L1\/L3 to L2. 10. Foreignizing is when the speaker uses an L1\/L3 term and adjusts it to an L2 sound (i.e. with a L2 pronunciation) and morphology. 11. Code switching or Language switch consists of L1\/L3 vocabularies with L1\/L3 sound in L2 speaking; this may involve stretches of discourse ranging from single vocabulary to whole chunks and even complete turns. 12. Use of similar sounding words is when the speaker compensates for a lexical item because the speaker does not know the vocabulary word (either existent or non-existent) which sounds more or less like the target term. 13. Mumbling is when the speaker is unsure about a word, phrase, or the interlocutor\u2019s correct form and mutters or deliberately says the word unclearly. 14. Omission is when the speaker leaves a gap when they do not know the correct vocabulary and then continue as if it had been said. 15. Retrieval is when the speaker tries to retrieve a word by using a series of incomplete or incorrect structures before eventually reaching the correct form. 16. Mime (Nonlinguistic\/Paralinguistic strategies) describes all forms of nonverbal communication or the act of accompanying a verbal strategy with a visual illustration. Own-performance problem-related strategies refer to the following strategies: 17. Self-repair is when the speaker makes self-initiated corrections in their own speech. Other-repair is correcting missing target language in the speech of the interlocutor. 18. Self-rephrasing is when the speaker repeats a word by adding something or using paraphrase.","4043325319 47 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 Dornyei and Scott\u2019s Taxonomy of Communication Strategies Other-performance problem-related strategies refer to the following strategy: 19. Over-explicitness (waffling) is when the speaker uses more terms to get a common communicative purpose than what is considered normal in the same L1 situation. Interactional Strategies Resource deficit-related strategies consist of the following strategy: 20. Direct appeal for help is when the speaker turns to the interlocutor for help by asking an explicit question to fill a gap in their L2 knowledge. An indirect appeal for help is trying to elicit help from the interlocutor indirectly by expressing the lack of a necessary L2 item by using either verbal or nonverbal communication. Own-performance problem-related strategies consist of the following strategies: 21. Comprehension check is when the speaker asks questions to check that the interlocutor can understand them. 22. Own-accuracy check is when the speaker asks a concrete question or repeats a word with a question intonation to check that what they said was correct. Other-performance problem-related strategies refer to the following strategies: 23. Asking for repetition is when the listener asks for repetition if they did not hear or understand something properly. 24. Asking for clarification is asking for an explanation or a description of an unfamiliar meaning or concept. 25. Asking for confirmation is requiring confirmation that one has heard or understood the target language correctly. 26. Guessing is similar to a confirmation check, but the latter implies a higher level of certainty regarding the key item, whereas guessing relates more to actual indecision. 27. Expressing non-understanding is expressing that one did not understand something completely using either verbal or nonverbal communication. 28. Interpretive summary is the use of wide paraphrase of the interlocutor\u2019s message to check that the speaker has understood correctly.","4043325319 48 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 Dornyei and Scott\u2019s Taxonomy of Communication Strategies 29. Response: 29.1 Response repeat is reiteration of the original message or the advised corrected form (after another-repair). 29.2 Response repair is providing other-commenced self-repair. 29.3 Response rephrase is repeating the reaction. 29.4 Response expansion is an attempt to set the problem word or issue into a broader context. 29.5 Response confirmation is attesting what the interlocutor has pronounced or suggested. Indirect Strategies Processing time pressure-related strategies include the following strategies: 30. Use of fillers is when the speaker uses gambits to fill gaps, to stall, or to gain time in order to keep the communication channel open and to continue speaking in a difficult communication situation. 31. Self-repetition is when the speaker repeats a word or a string of words immediately after saying them in the conversation. Other-repetition is to repeat the speech of the interlocutor in order to gain more time. Own-performance problem-related strategies include the following strategy: 32. Verbal strategy markers refer to the verbal marking phrases used before or after a strategy to signal that the vocabulary or structure does not completely convey the intended meaning in the L2 code. Other-performance problem-related strategies consist of the following strategy: 33. Feigning understanding is when the speaker tries to carry on the conversation in spite of not understanding the target language by pretending to understand.","49 4043325319 In summary, the communication strategy taxonomies offered by many scholars seem to vary. Kongsom (2009) summarized that \u201cthere have been about nine BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 key taxonomies of CSs that have emerged from 33 types of CSs\u201d. Faerch & Kasper (1983) and Dornyei (1995) used the same classification system, dividing communication strategies into categories including reduction and achievement strategies. Dornyei (1995) also included time-gaining strategies in his framework. Tarone (1977) classified communication strategies into five types: avoidance, paraphrase, conscious transfer, appeal for assistance and mime. Avoidance fell into the subtype of the reduction strategies proposed by Faerch & Kasper (1983) and Dornyei (1995); while, paraphrase, conscious transfer, appeals for assistance, and mime are subtypes of the achievement strategies established by Dornyei (1995). However, psycholinguistic researchers have classified these strategies in a number of different ways. Bialystok (1990) classified communication strategies into L1-based strategies, L2-based strategies, non-linguistic strategies, analysis-based strategies, and control- based strategies. In contrast, the Nijmegen group\u2019s taxonomy divided communication strategies into two categories, conceptual and linguistic strategies. Most recently, Dornyei & Scott (1997) expanded communication strategy research by proposing a new classification of communication strategies, which can be divided into three main categories: direct, indirect and interactional strategies. The summary Table is presented below: Table 8 Summary of Various Taxonomies of Communication Strategies Tarone Faerch Nijmegen Bialystok Dornyei (1995) Dornyei & (1977) group (1987) (1990) Scott & Kasper Avoidance or (1997) Paraphrase: (1983) Conceptual Analysis-based Reduction -Approximation strategies strategies Strategies Direct -Word coinage Avoidance: -Analytic -Circumlocution -Message Strategies -Circumlocution Formal strategies -Paraphrase abandonment Resource Borrowing: reduction: -Holistic -Transliteration -Topic avoidance deficit-related -Literal -Phonological strategies -Word coinage Achievement or strategies translation -Morphological Linguistic -Mime Compensatory -Message -Language switch -Grammar strategies Control-based Strategies abandonment Appeal for Functional -Morphological strategies Circumlocution -Message Assistance: reduction: creativity -Language reduction -Actional -Message -Propositional","50 Tarone Faerch Nijmegen Bialystok Dornyei (1995) Dornyei & (1977) group (1987) (1990) Scott & Kasper -Approximation (1997) Mime: Avoidance: (1983) -Transfer switch -Use of all- purpose -Topic avoidance -Ostensive words replacement -Message -Modal definition -Word coinage - abandonment Achievement: -Appeal for -Use of non- Circumlocution Non- help linguistic means - cooperative: -Mime -Literal Approximation -Code-switching translation -Use of all- 4043325319 -Foreignizing -Foreignizing purpose words Interlanguage -Code switching -Word-coinage BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 strategies: -Appeal for -Restructuring -Substitution help -Literal -Generalization translation - Stalling or Time- -Foreignizing Exemplification gaining Strategies -Code -Word-coining -Use of switching -Restructuring fillers\/hesitation -Use of similar -Description devices sounding Non-linguistic words strategies: -Mumbling -Mime -Omission -Imitation -Retrieval Cooperative: -Mime -Appeals Own- performance problem- related strategies -Self- rephrasing -Self-repair Other- performance problem- related strategies -Other-repair However, this taxonomy is not intended to be a final categorization of all existing communication strategies. Thus, Bialystok (1990, p. 61) remarked that: the variety of taxonomies proposed in the literature differs primarily in terms of terminology and overall categorizing principles rather than in the substance of the specific","4043325319 51 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 strategies. If we ignore differences in the structures of the taxonomies of the various overall categories, then a core group of specific strategies that appear consistently across the taxonomies clearly emerges . . . differences in the definitions and illustrations for those core strategies across the various studies are trivial. The classification of communication strategies in this present study is based on both interactional and psychological views since communication strategies is considered as devices to assist non-native speakers to mutual understanding or successful in their conversations with interlocutors and overcome language difficulties. According to the study of many scholars\u2019 taxonomies in the area of communication strategies sixteen communication strategies are considered, which are commonly used by non-native learners, particularly by Thai students. Wongsawang (2001), Wannaruk (2002), Weerarak (2003), Pornpibul (2005), Prinyajarn (2007), and Kongsom (2009) study communication strategies, which employed by Thai students in academic context. The results indicate that non-native students mainly used topic avoidance and message abandonment, when they did not know how to express their ideas in English. They also used approximation, the use of all-purpose words, and word coinage, when they experienced communication problems in English. Moreover, non-linguistic strategies are used when they were speaking. Literal translation was used when the learners literally translated a lexical item, Foreignizing was employed by using an L1 word by adjusting it to L2 phonology and\/or morphology. Code switching was applied when the students used an L1 word with L1 pronunciation or an L3 word with L3 pronunciation while speaking L2. An appeal for help was used when they wanted to ask for aid from the interlocutor either directly or indirectly. Self-repair was employed when the learners made self-initiated corrections to their own speech. Clarification requests, a confirmation, and a comprehension check were used as a signal for negotiation in order to overcome communication difficulties. Stalling or time-gaining strategies, such as pause fillers and hesitation devices, were employed by Thai learners when they were faced with linguistic difficulties and needed more time to think or to maintain a conversation.","4043325319 52 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 And back-channels were also frequently employed by Thai students in conversations. The summary taxonomy for this study is presented below: Table 9 Taxonomy of Communication Strategies Adopted in this Study Taxonomy of CSs adopted in the current study 1. Topic avoidance 2. Message abandonment 3. Circumlocution 4. Approximation 5. Word coinage 6. Use of all-purpose words 7. Appeal for help 8. Literal translation 9. Code switching 10. Foreignizing 11. Non-linguistic strategy 12. Self-repair 13. Confirmation check 14. Comprehension check 15. Clarification request 16. Pause fillers and hesitation devices 17. Back-channel 2.11 Communication strategies used and proficiency Previously, the use of communication strategies is considered to describe the frequency of communication strategies, with several studies emphasizing on the differences in the use of communication strategies between high and low proficiency groups. The empirical studies presented the relationship between the use of communication strategies and learners\u2019 proficiency levels (Littlemore, 2003). G\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f (2007) and Ting and Phan (2008) studied about this relationship. They found that proficiency level is not influencing the use of communication strategies. On the","4043325319 53 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 other hand, Bialystok (1997) indicates that the most crucial predictor of specific communication strategy use is language proficiency. Ellis (1984), Wannaruk (2003), and Maldonado (2016) found that high proficient learners seem to use language-based strategies or compensatory strategies e.g. word coinage, approximation and generalization. In contrast, low proficient learners resorted more to knowledge-based, repetition, avoidance strategies, particularly time gaining strategies (L2 processing requires more attentional resources and time than is needed when using an L1), L1 based strategies (such as language switching) and paralinguistic strategies (including gesture and mime). Yoshida-Morise (1998) and Wannarak (2003) also note that although, low proficient students have abilities to used communication strategies, they were still unsuccessful in communication. 2.12 Way of Promoting Communication Strategies Many researchers have conducted research on communication strategies instruction in L2 teaching. Faerch and Kasper (1986, p. 186) recommend three specific activity types of communication strategies training. \u201cThese are (1) communication games with full visual contact between the participants and full possibilities for immediate feedback, (2) communication games with no visual contact between the participants but still full possibilities for immediate feedback (e.g., simulating a telephone conversation) and (3) Monologue with limited or no possibilities for obtaining immediate feedback (e.g., \u201ctwo-minute talk\u201d)\u201d. They indicate that all of these activities can assist students evaluate which strategies are most suitable when they want to expand their knowledge of the foreign language, especially through communication. Moreover, Willems (1987) offered some activities such as crossword puzzles and describing the strange object to develop approximation and paraphrase strategies. He believed that correctness-errors which learners will make may reasonably be compensated for interaction by skillfulness in the use of communication strategies. Later, Dornyei (1995) further proposed that the direct approach to teaching communication strategies might involve six interrelated procedures as follows (Dornyei, 1995, pp. 63-64):","4043325319 54 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 1. Raising learner awareness about the nature and communicative potential of communication strategies 2. Encouraging students to be willing to take risks and use communication strategies 3. Providing L2 models of the use of certain communication strategies 4. Highlighting cross-cultural differences in communication strategies use 5. Teaching communication strategies directly 6. Providing opportunities for practice in strategy use Dornyei explains raising learner awareness about the nature and communicative potential of communication strategies that \u201cmaking learners conscious of strategies already in their repertoire, sensitizing them to the appropriate situations where these could be useful, and making them realize that these strategies could actually work\u201d. He describes encouraging students to be willing to take risks and use communication strategies that manipulating available language without being afraid of making errors. Providing L2 models of the use of certain communication strategies is promoted through demonstrations, listening materials and videos, and getting learners to identify, categorize, and evaluate strategies used by native speakers or other L2 speakers. For highlighting cross-cultural differences in communication strategies use involves various degrees of stylistic appropriateness associated with communication strategies, differences in the frequency of certain communication strategies in the speaker\u2019s L1 and L2, as well as differences in the verbalization of particular communication strategies. Teaching communication strategies directly is conducted by presenting linguistic devices to verbalize communication strategies which have a finite range of surface structure realization. Providing opportunities for practice in strategy use is necessary because communication strategies can only fulfil their function as immediate first aid devices if their use has reached an automatic stage. These procedures above support the view of direct teaching of communication strategies to assist the learner reach communicative goal. In this study, some communication strategies are trained to learners. The direct approach, which presented by Dornyei (1995) was used as a framework to develop knowledge of communication strategies and control over their use of","4043325319 55 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 communication strategies. Therefore, the communication strategies instruction followed all six types of communication strategy teaching procedures both an instruction and a practice stage. Learners were informed of the rationale and the value of communication strategies instruction as well as given a list of names and examples of the target strategies. Moreover, they were given chances to employ the strategies and guided to evaluate strategy use at the end of the lesson. 2.13 ELF Awareness ELF awareness is defined as \u2018the process of engaging with ELF research and developing one\u2019s own understanding of the ways in which it can be integrated in one\u2019s classroom context, through a continuous process of critical reflection, design, implementation and evaluation of instructional activities that reflect and localize one\u2019s interpretation of the ELF construct.\u2019 (Sifakis and Bayyurt 2017: 459). Sifakis (2019) also proposes that ELF awareness consists of three components: 1) awareness of language and language use, 2) awareness of instructional practice, and 3) awareness of learning. Firstly, awareness of language and language use involves an engagement with language (Svalberg 2009) that is both implicit or explicit (Alderson, Clapham & Steel 1997), and refers to knowledge of the syntactic, morphological, lexical, phonological, pragmatic and sociocultural features of English, which relates to the interaction of non-native user. Mackey, Gass and McDonough (2000) indicate that sensitivity and noticing, which relate to alertness and orientation to stimuli and their processing by language users, are two of the processes that are of interest in ELF awareness. The crucial thing in becoming ELF aware is developing an awareness of the processes of languaging (the process of using communication strategies for negotiating and producing meaningful interactions\u2014Swain 2006) and translanguaging (the process of using multiple linguistic and nonlinguistic resources to ensure effective communication between multilingual interlocutors\u2014Garc\u00eda and Wei 2014). Secondly, awareness of instructional practice concerns with awareness of teacher-related practice such as teacher role, personal theories about instruction, corrective feedback (Lyster and Saito 2010), determining and responding to learners\u2019","4043325319 56 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 needs, perceptions and attitudes about normativity, the notion of error (Long 1991) and its sources (i.e., L1 transfer, omission and overgeneralization or simplification of L2 rules\u2014cf. Ellis 2008) are considered as a central concern. Moreover, textbook and policy are considered as other forms of instructional practice awareness. Since, these forms concern an awareness of the extent to which the teaching situation is orientated towards a specific goal (e.g., passing a highstakes exam) and whether instructional materials and \u201cendorsed\u201d instructional practices prioritize a norm-bound (Sifakis 2004) approach. Thirdly, awareness of learning refers to the main impact ELF use has for learning. Since English is increasingly becoming a part of everyday life. In this way, learners attending typical English as a foreign language (EFL) classes are users of ELF, and these experiences with ELF play an important, even a primary, role in their learning (Seidlhofer 2011). According to the Sifakis and Bayyurt (2018), ELF awareness has two important features: ecological in nature (critical perspective\/ ESP approach to ELF awareness) and potentially transformative. The ecological in nature of ELF-awareness reflects teachers\u2019 awareness of the micro- and macro- ecosystem, including their own classrooms and the wider institutional and social setting, the idiosyncratic local features as well as other constraints and problems that arise. In short, this perspective focuses on the outside world and attempts to understand and change the context. It is invaluable in our attempt to understand the complex processes of the global spread of English and the intricate ways in which it continues to be localized and relocalized (Pennycook, 2010). It has the tools to help teachers appreciate the complications of context and the various underlying and often hidden discourses, from learner identity construction in the ESOL classroom (Norton & Toohey, 2011) to language testing (Shohamy, 2004) to the politics of pedagogy in the \u201cclassroom as a microcosm of the larger social and cultural world\u201d (Pennycook, 2001: 138). While, transformative perspective emphasizes on the attempt to understand and change the individual. Sifakis & Bayyurt (2018) believe that this perspective is very useful in that it asks learners to confront and change their own established viewpoints about a particular issue by prompting them to engage in a critical examination of their assumptions, explore new alternative terrains and roles on the basis of new information and,","4043325319 57 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 ultimately, embrace change on the basis of conditions dictated by the new perspective. Moreover, Kindelan (1997) indicated that these activities can expose students to a number of strategies which may help them examine their approach to language learning, improve their language skills as well as monitor and assess their performance in the foreign language, and make the autonomous in language learning by becoming more conscious or aware of their own mental process. Sung (2013) also support that apart from developing learners\u2019 awareness of the variability in ELF use, teachers should also try to inculcate the importance of communicative strategies in dealing with the variability and fluidity inherent in ELF use. 2.14 Previous research In previous studies, many scholars have examined communication strategies for second language learners in the context of native and non-native communication (Littlemore, 2011). According to the paradigm shifted, English move to global language. Researchers focus on language users in ELF rather than EFL because of the spread of English (Seidlhofer, 2004). However, ELF communication strategies research is quite limited, particularly in academic context (Vettorel, 2017). Since, ELF researcher investigates their studies in two categories: intelligibility-focused and communication strategies (CS). Intelligibility focused on what goes wrong to cause misunderstandings and breakdowns in communication for English as a lingual franca context. Communication strategies focuses on how English communication in lingual franca context successful or reach communicative goals and overcome the difficulties. (eg. Firth (1996); Haegeman (2002); Meierkord (2000); Wagner and Firth (1997)). 2.14.1 Communication strategies used by ELF Communication strategies have been investigated in both academic and informal context by several scholars (Kaur, 2011; Mauranen, 2006). Communication strategies used were presented in two aspects. The first aspect was considered as a joint enterprise of expressing meaning, which emphasized on successful communication and mutual understanding are achieved, or pre-empted, through a broad range of communication strategies that are skillful employed by ELF users.","4043325319 58 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 The second aspect was considered in aspects of lingual capability, which ELF users employed communication strategies to compensate for a lack in (linguistic) proficiency. For this aspect, ELF users are a collaborative co-construction of meaning making skillful use of pragmatic moves and are capable of drawing on all the resources in their repertoires to jointly co-build and accomplish successful communication (Vettorel, 2017). Communication strategies are used in ELF context from both speakers and listeners to overcome linguistic or cultural barriers in communication situation. They can assist to clarify message to their interlocutors (Mauranen, 2007). Mauranen (2006) studied the speakers\u2019 signal and prevent misunderstanding in ELF in academic setting corpus. The participants are 29 speakers of both sexes, ranging in age from 17 to 51, and from a variety of language backgrounds in the English Department of the University of Tampere in Helsinki. Mauranen used data from four different seminars and one conference discussion, which were recorded and transcribed. Senior undergraduate students of both sexes, different ages, and from different language backgrounds have been recorded in the seminar recordings, with one senior faculty member present during each seminar. For the conference recording, less information on the speakers was available. Mauranen found that the participants made use of three different ways to signal misunderstanding: 1) to ask the speaker direct and specific questions in order to understand the meaning of an utterance or part of an utterance, 2) repetition of the problematic item by the hearer and 3) indirect. Moreover, Mauranen indicated that the participants used three strategies in order to prevent misunderstanding: confirmation checks, interactive repair and self-repair. Kaur (2011) also examined the notion of raising explicitness of expression by looking at some of the self-repair practices of speakers using ELF. The participants consisted of 22 graduate students at a tertiary institution in Kuala Lumpur. The 22 participants came from 13 different lingua-cultural backgrounds and therefore, English was used as the main medium of communication. The research instruments consisted of cassette recorders. The students were assigned based on their course work, so discussions pertaining to their studies made up a large part of the data. The rest of the data consisted of student consultations with staff members as","4043325319 59 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 well as casual conversations between the participants, which were included as they constituted a large part of the interactions that took place in this setting. The data was transcribed using the conversation analysis approach. The result was that the participants employed a variety of self-repair practices that made utterances more explicit or improved communicative clarity. The attention to detail in terms of clarity and explicitness on the part of the speakers possibly stemmed from a heightened awareness of the precarious nature of the ELF context. Bjorkman (2014) reported on an analysis of the communicative strategies (CSs) used by speakers in spoken lingua franca English (ELF) in an academic setting. The objective of the work has primarily been to outline the communication strategies employed in polyadic ELF speech which are used in consequential situations to ensure communication effectiveness and to present a framework that shows the different communicative functions of a number of CSs. The data comprises fifteen group sessions of naturally occurring student group-work discuss in content courses at a technical university. Detailed qualitative analyzes were performed, resulting in a framework of the communication strategies employd by the speakers. The methodology provides us with communication strategies taxonomy for ELF interactions\u2019 nature. The finding presented that other than explicitness strategies, comprehension checks, confirmation checks and clarification requests were frequently employed CSs in the data. Here were very few cases of self-initiated and other- initiated word replacement, most likely owing to the nature of the high-stakes interactions where the emphasis is on the task rather than the language. The results overall also present that the speakers in these ELF interactions used other-initiated strategies as frequently as self-initiated communicative strategies. According to Mauranen (2006) and Kaur (2011), it is considered that ELF speakers attempt to use communication strategies when they are faced with communication problems. It is utilized to give them another chance to ensure mutual understanding in an interaction, or to prevent misunderstandings (potential communication problems) between interlocutors in an interaction. The summary of previous research was presented in the Table 10.","60 Table 10 Previous studies on ELF communication strategies Researchers Subjects Method Findings Mauranen 29 speakers from a - Data from four - Three different ways to (2006) variety of language different seminars signal backgrounds in the and one conference misunderstanding: 1) to English Department discussion, which ask the speaker direct 4043325319 of the University of were recorded and and specific questions in Tampere in Helsinki transcribed order to understand the meaning of an utterance BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 or part of an utterance, 2) repetition of the problematic item by the hearer and 3) indirect - Three strategies in order to prevent misunderstanding: confirmation checks, Kaur (2011) 22 graduate students - Casual interactive repair and self-repair. - Variety of self-repair at a tertiary conversations practices that made institution in Kuala - Transcribed using utterances more explicit Lumpur the conversation or improved analysis approach communicative clarity. Bjorkman Fifteen group A taxonomy of CSs - The speakers in these (2014) sessions of naturally in natural ELF ELF interactions occurring student interactions employed other-initiated group-work talk in strategies as frequently content courses at a as self-initiated technical university communicative strategies.","4043325319 61 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 2.14.2 Communication strategies instruction and training Most communication strategies research has been concerned with pedagogical aspects and language teaching in EFL context. It emphasized conversation between native and non-native speakers, which researchers paid attention to solve non-native speakers\u2019 communicative problems. The research concerns with communication strategies pedagogy and training for ELF is least (Vettorel, 2017). However, both EFL and ELF contexts have the same purposes, which assist non-native speakers to reach communicative goals and overcome language barriers. Therefore, communication strategies pedagogies are the same approaches as EFL context. Dornyei (1995) investigated communication strategies courses for 109 Hungarian learners of English and assessed the effects of the treatment by using pre- test and post-test. Three communication strategies courses: topic avoidance, circumlocution and pause fillers were trained in six weeks. The study was designed based on quasi-experimental research which consisted of a treatment group and two types of control group: the first group had no treatment and the second group was given conversational training without any specific strategic focus. All students took written and oral test before the training course and oral test again after the training course. Post-tests presented the improvement in both quality and quantity of strategy use. It was found that there was improvement in the quality of circumlocutions and the frequency used of filters and circumlocutions. Moreover, the result showed that student had positive attitude towards the communication strategy training. Rossiter (2003) studied the effects of communication strategy instruction on strategy use and on second language performance. The participants were two classes of adult immigrants in Canada. This study has one groups experimental and on control group. One group received 12 hours of direct communication instruction of paraphrasing, and another group is a comparison group. Two oral tasks which were picture story narratives and object descriptions were administered in 3 weeks. The results from the post-test presented a direct effect of the communication strategy condition on a range of strategies used. It was found that the object description task was more effective than the narrative in producing communication strategies. Rossiter concluded that strategy instruction appeared to have little overall impact on learners","4043325319 62 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 regarding task performance. Rossiter further recommend about the measurement that it may be needed to explore the impact of CS instruction in more detail and to triangulate the findings. Lam (2004) examined the effects of oral communication strategy training (OCST) on learners\u2019 performance and on strategy use. Participants were students in the secondary ESL classroom in Hong Kong. They were separated in two classes: one class received 16 hours of OCST and another class was a comparison group. The taught strategies were resourcing, paraphrasing, using self-repetition, using fillers, using self-correction, repetition requests, clarification requests and asking for confirmation. Data were collected from the learners\u2019 performance in group work discussions, self-report questionnaires, observations of learners\u2019 strategy use, and stimulated recall interviews in week 1, 10, 20. The results presented that the treatment group outperformed the comparison group. Moreover, the results also maintained the view that young L2 learners tended to rely on \u201cbedrock strategies\u201d in oral communication tasks. Finally, the distinct advantages of using a multi-method approach to gauging the effects of OCST were appraised. Multi-method approach was used to triangulate findings of students\u2019 strategy use. However, her study emphasized only one type of divergent task. Lam further recommended to investigate the strategy training on strategy use across different task types. Nakatani (2005) investigated the effects of awareness-raising training on oral CS. Participants were 62 Japanese learners of English at a private school in Japan. They were separated to two groups: the control group and the strategies training group. The strategy training group was given 12 weeks of metacognitive training and was taught communication strategies such as asking for clarification, comprehension checks and paraphrasing. The control group received only the tradition communicative course, with no explicit focus on oral communication strategies. Data are gathering from three types: the participants\u2019 pre-and post-course oral communication test scores, transcription data from the tests, and retrospective protocol data from their task performance were assessed. The results reported that participants in the strategy training group developed their oral proficiency test scores while improvements in the control group were not significant. Moreover, the findings of the transcription and retrospective protocol data analysis revealed that the","4043325319 63 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 participants\u2019 success was to some extent due to an increase of general awareness of oral communication strategies and of the use of specific oral communication strategies. In Nakatani\u2019s study, he struggled to incorporate the use of metacognitive strategies and learners\u2019 awareness-raising into communication strategy instruction, which he indicated that they might help learners to know how to control their employment of communication strategies. In addition, the findings are particularly valuable as they have cast some light on the teachability issue of communication strategies. Pornpibul (2005) conducted communication strategies used by Thai undergraduate students. The participants were 200 second-year students attending an English speaking and listening course at the University of Thammasat. Questionnaires, observations, video tapes of three different tasks, and retrospective interviews were employed as data collection. The results reported that the participant frequency employed (1) appeal for help, (2) approximation, (3) avoidance, (4) nonlinguistic signals, (5) circumlocution, and (6) code-switching. Low proficiency students often employed strategies that were less dependent on the knowledge of English (e.g., appeal for assistance, avoidance and code-switching). However, high proficiency students were found that they frequently employ circumlocution. Moreover, Pornpibul indicated many that had the potential to affect the option of communication strategies for the participants. The researcher suggested that instructors raise awareness of the possibilities of using more advanced communication strategies between students. Lin (2007) examined Taiwanese learners\u2019 perceptions about learning five set of communication strategies. Participated were 24 university students. They were trained using five communication strategies in Faerch and Kasper\u2019s taxonomy which were topic avoidance, message abandonment, meaning replacement strategy, interlanguage strategy and cooperation strategy. After that seven students were interviewed both in the middle and at the end of the training period. The findings showed that the students had different perspectives about each communication strategies. All students agreed that topic avoidance was applicable but they had seen message abandonment both appropriate and inappropriate usages. Moreover, most students thought that meaning replacement strategy was an applicable and effective","4043325319 64 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 strategy. Lin also reported that the students ' attitudes to the interlanguage strategy were positive. Lastly, most of the students appreciated their collaborative strategy learning experience. In addition, Lin indicated the relationship between the perceptions of the students and their actual performance regarding these taught communication strategies require further discussion. Dimosky, Yujobo, and Imai (2016) investigated the effectiveness of communication strategies (CSs) through pro-active listening (PAL) comprehension activities for students to actively negotiate and co-construct meaning in an English as a lingua franca (ELF)-informed pedagogy. Participants were fifty-three Japanese students in classes at the Center for English as a Lingua Franca (CELF) at Tamagawa University. Responses to a pre- and post- questionnaire on the perceived effectiveness of CS use, transcribed speech collected during PAL comprehension activities, and written reflections by students were analyzed. The results reported that an ELF- informed pedagogy of explicit teaching of CSs increases students\u2019 perceived ability to use CSs effectively in PAL activities. The researchers also gave further recommendation that ELF pedagogy should incorporate opportunities for students to explicitly learn and use CSs independently to become competent international communicators among other ELF speakers. According to the above previous research, the results of the studies reviewed report on the possibility and benefits of teaching communication strategies to develop strategic and oral skills for learners.The previous research showed that it sufficiently supports teachability in communication strategies, which focus on communication strategies instruction. The summary of previous research was presented in the Table 11.","65 Table 11 Previous studies on communication strategies instruction in Thailand Researchers Subjects Method Taught CSs Findings Dornyei 109 - a written test -topic avoidance-post-tests (1995) Hungarian -an oral test -circumlocution showed learners of (topic -pause fillers improvement in English description, both quality and 4043325319 cartoon quantity of description and strategy use, that BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 definition is, there was formulation) improvement in the quality of circumlocutions and the frequency of fillers and circumlocutions. -students had positive attitude towards the strategy training","66 Researchers Subjects Method Taught CSs Findings Rossiter 31 adult - two oral tasks: -paraphrasing - a direct effect in (2003) intermediate- picture story favor of the level ESL narratives and communication learners in object strategy Canada descriptions condition on a 4043325319 -self-report range of questionnaires strategies used in the object BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 description task, which was more effective than the narrative in eliciting CSs. - strategy instruction appear to have little overall impact on learners regarding task performance.","67 Researchers Subjects Method Taught CSs Findings Lam Two classes in- group work -resourcing - the treatment (2004) the discussions -paraphrasing group secondary - self-report -using self- outperformed the ESL questionnaires repetition comparison classroom in -observations -using fillers group 4043325319 Hong Kong - stimulated -using self- recall interviews correction -asking for BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 repetition -asking for clarification -asking for confirmation","68 Researchers Subjects Method Taught CSs Findings Nakatani 62 Japanese - pre-and post- -appeal for help - participants in (2005) learners of course oral -confirmation the strategy English at a communication checks training group private school test -clarification improved their in Japan - retrospective requests oral proficiency 4043325319 protocol -maintenance test scores while -asking for improvements in repetition the control group BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 -comprehension were not checks significant -using fillers - the participants\u2019 -offering success was assistance partly because of an increase of general awareness of oral CSs and of the use of specific oral CSs Pornpibul 200 second- -questionnaire - -participants often employed (2005) year Thai -video tapes of undergraduate three different appeal for help, students tasks approximation, - observations avoidance, non- -retrospective linguistic signals, interviews circumlocution, and code- switching","69 Researchers Subjects Method Taught CSs Findings Lin 24 Taiwanese -interview - topic - the students had (2007) university avoidance different views students - message about each CS abandonment - all students - meaning admitted that 4043325319 replacement topic avoidance strategy was applicable - interlanguage but they had BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 strategy viewed about - cooperation message strategy abandonment both appropriate and inappropriate usages -most students viewed that meaning replacement strategy was applicable and effective strategy -the students had positive attitudes for the interlanguage strategy. -most students appreciated their learning experience of the cooperation strategy","70 Researchers Subjects Method Taught CSs Findings Dimosky, Fifty-three - Responses to a - An ELF-informed Yujobo and Japanese students pre- and post- pedagogy of explicit Imai (2016) in classes at the questionnaire on teaching of CSs increases Center for English the perceived students\u2019 perceived ability as a Lingua Franca effectiveness of to use CSs effectively in 4043325319 (CELF) at CS use PAL activities Tamagawa - Transcribed University speech collected BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 during PAL comprehension activities -Written reflections From this viewpoint, field studies of communication strategies have been investigated learners\u2019 use of lexical compensatory strategies, learners\u2019 proficiency in CSs used and speaking tasks for EFL context. However, communication strategy instruction is relatively limited, especially in ELF context. Therefore, this current study aims to examine communication strategies that can help promote interactive skill between speakers and listeners and instruction. Chapter summary This chapter presents a review of literature, which is divided in two main theoretical backgrounds: Global Englishes and communication. The first part presents a review of internationalization, cross-cultural communication, English as a lingual franca, English as a lingual franca in academic context, World Englishes, and roles of English in ASEAN. The second part presents a review of communication, communicative competence, communication problems between ELF speaker, communication strategies, communication strategies used and proficiency, and way of promoting communication strategies. Moreover, the previous research studied","71 involving communication strategies used by non-native speakers or non-native students are also discussed. 4043325319 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41","4043325319 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 This chapter presents the research methodology of the study. This study consists of three phases as follows: 1) research phase, 2) developing phase, and 3) implementation phase. Each phase contains the detail of participants, research instruments and data collection, and data analysis respectively. 3.1 Research Design This study aims to develop university students\u2019 communication strategies used in an academic situation, where English is used as a Lingua Franca (ELF), hereafter called ELF academic context. To achieve the purpose, Research and Development (R&D) was used as a methodology to guide the data collection. Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007) defined R & D as creative work systematically undertaken to add the sum of knowledge including knowledge of mankind, culture, and society, and the use of that sum of knowledge for new applications. R & D has several stages that basic research or applied research has. The first stage aims at exploring possible applications for the results of basic research or at finding new solutions making it possible to achieve the target chosen in advance. The second stage is experimental development, based on knowledge obtained through the first stage, undertaken by means of a prototype or pilot installations, to launch new products. The third stage is establishing new processes or bringing about a substantial improvement in existing processes and products. The R & D research design of this current study was presented in Figure 3","73 \u2022 To research common communication problems\/ needs in an 1.Research ELF academic context \u2022 To develop and to try out communication strategies instruction designed to quench the communication needs 2.Development 4043325319 \u2022 To investigate effects of communication strategies instruction on ability to use English in an ELF academic context 3.Implementation BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 Figure 3 Steps of research and development approach This study consists of three phases. This first phase was to research common communication needs, reported by Thai students and Cambodian students, encountered in an ELF academic context. In this phase, the students and their Thai professors were interviewed to explore the communication needs in the ELF academic context. A semi-structured interview was used as a method. The interview questions were tried out with a group of students with similar characteristics to the target participants. The data from the interview was analyzed by using the coding method. In the second phase, the development phase, communication strategies instruction was developed and tried out with the pilot group. The observation was recorded, and researcher\u2019s reflection was performed to reivse the communication strategies instruction. The data from researcher\u2019s reflection was analyzed by coding method. In the third phase, or implementation phase, the revised communication strategies was implemented to explore the effects of the instruction on learners\u2019 ability to use English in an ELF academic context. To explore the effects, the learenrs performed a pre-communication strategies task and they are observed. Field notes with video records were used to document the effects. After completing each strategy, the students did the student\u2019s reflection. The data from the observational field notes and video recorder were transcribed. Each phase was presented in detail as following","74 Phase 1: Research The objective of this phase was to research common communication needs in an ELF academic context from Thai students and cambodian students. The process of this phase was presented in the Table 12: Table 12 The process of the first phase 4043325319 Goal Participants Instrument Data Data - Interview collection Analysis To research - Two Thai - Semi- - Coding BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 common professors, who structure method communication are teaching Thai interview needs, reported and Combodian by Thai students students and - 15 Previously Cambodian enrolled students, Cambodian encountered in students an ELF - 15 Previously academic enrolled Thai context students Participants. The participants in this phase were two Thai English professors, who had experiences teaching classes where Thai students and Cambodian students were in the same class. They were pursively selected to gather the data for exploring the students\u2019 communication needs. Thai students and Cambodian students were also selected as the participants by using the purposive sampling technique. The expected number of participants in this phase were 28 students,13 Thai students and 15 Cambodian students, who previously enrolled at the University where ELF was used in academic context. The Cambodian students participating in this study speak Khmer as the first language. While Cambodian students usually study English under their national","4043325319 75 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 curriculum, the students from public or private schools often have different levels of English backgrounds. In general, Cambodian students who attend public school begin to study English in Grade 7 and may take extracurricular courses from private language tutoring institutes. In contrast, Cambodians in private schools can participate in special English language classes in primary school. After high school, they are required to take a university entrance examination. Similarly, the Thai students who participated in this study speak Thai as their first language. According to the curriculum of Thai Education, Thai students usually begin to study English at Grade 1 or at the primary level in both public and private schools. In terms of English background knowledge, Thai students and Cambodian students are quite similar. For example, their English is mainly based on what they studied in high school. Instrument 1) Semi-structured interview was employed to examine common communication needs in an ELF academic context. Interviews can help a researcher to obtain in-depth data. The interview protocol consisted of several topics such as their reported communication problems that they faced while learning in the classrooms where English is used as a lingua franca. This semi-structured interview was designed to encourage as much flexibility and spontaneity as possible to help the respondents to express their perspectives on communication problems arising in the ELF academic context. The interview was conducted in three languages: English, Thai, or Cambodian, depending on the students\u2019 choices.","4043325319 76 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 Data Analysis and Trustworthiness 1) The data from this interview from Thai students and Cambodian students and two Thai English professors were transcribed professionally and rechecked the accuracy. Then, the data were analyzed by using the coding method by Saldana (2009). Saldana (2009) proposes three steps of coding method: 1) open coding, 2) axial coding, and 3) selective coding. For the first step, open coding is the process of labeling and naming categories from the analysis of the data. The aim is to grasp the core idea of each part and to develop a code to describe it. I read, reread, and identify the codes in the interview data. The second step, axial coding, the aim of this step is to identify the relationships among the codes to generate categories. In selective coding step, it involves the process of combining the categories into themes. To enhance trustworthiness of the data, a member check technique was used, by bringing the emergent themes to the participants to check whether they reflect their authentic communication needs or not. Phase 2: Development The objective of this phase was to develop and try out communication strategies instruction to quench the communication needs revealed in the first phase. To illustrate the process of the research in this phase, it was presented in Table 13","77 Table 13 The process of the second phase Goal Participants Research Data collection Data instrument Analysis To develop 3 experts IOC form IOC form \uf053R \u00f7 N components of Coding method communication 4043325319 strategies instruction BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 - 30 students in Lesson plan Researcher\u2019s the pilot group reflection Participants. The participants in the phase consisted of 30 students and three experts. Purposive sampling was used to select the participants. The experts were the teachers or lecturers in the field of English language teaching, who had more than five years of teaching experiences. The three experts were asked to check and recheck communication strategies instruction content validity by using Item Objective Congruence (IOC). The 30 students were used as the pilot group to try out the communication strategies instruction. Instruments. 1) I designed the lesson plan of communication strategies instruction. In order to check the validity of communication strategies instruction, three experts were asked to rate the Item Objective Congruence (IOC). According to Brown (1996), the Item Objective Congruence (IOC) is a validation method used to measure the relevancy of the content, and the objectivity of the questionnaire. In this study, IOC was used to ask the experts check communication strategies instruction 2) This communication strategies instruction was designed based on Dornyei (1995) instructional design as the following steps (Dornyei, 1995, pp. 63-64). 1. Raising awareness about the communicative potential of CSs 2. Encouraging students to be willing to take risks and use CSs","4043325319 78 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 3. Providing L2 models of the use of certain CSs 4. Highlighting cross-cultural differences in CS use 5. Teaching CSs directly 6. Providing opportunities for practice in strategy use The first step is to inform the objectives, situations, and the outcome of the activities to make them realize that these strategies could work. The second step, encouraging students to be willing to take risks and employ communication strategies that manipulate available language without being afraid of making errors. The third step is to provide models or materials to illustrate them in order to know the use of certain communication strategies and getting learners to identify, categorize, and evaluate strategies used by native speakers or other L2 speakers. The fourth step, it relates various degrees of stylistic appropriateness associated with communication strategies, differences in the frequency of certain communication strategies in the speaker\u2019s native and non-native speakers, as well as differences in the verbalization of particular communication strategies. The fifth step is to teach communication strategies through the activities by presenting linguistic devices to verbalize communication strategies which have a finite range of surface structure realization. The last step is to give opportunities for students to practice in strategy use. Since communication strategies are very useful to fulfil students\u2019 function as immediate first aid devices if they can employ these strategies automatically. It means that the above step can help students reach their communicative goal. After that, the lesson plans of communication strategies instruction were tried out and developed. The results were presented below: The first lesson was circumlocution. According to pilot study, the problems was found in training class. The first problem, students reported that the vocabulary in the lesson was very difficult. This problem was solved by changing easier vocabulary or using synonym. For example, the word \u2018adequate\u2019 was changed to \u2018enough\u2019. The second problem was that the students may not understand the content of the example, which they stated that teacher should indicate the point of the examples. Therefore, the more details were described and highlighted the strategy in the example page (content in the lesson). The third problem was in the practicing part. Some of Thai","4043325319 79 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 students did not try to describe the words to Cambodian students because they said that they did not know the meaning of the vocabulary, but some students kept quiet. This problem was solved by putting both vocabulary and picture in the card. The second lesson was approximation. This lesson assisted to solve inadequate vocabulary problem. This strategy was used a single alternative term, such as a synonym or a related vocabulary word, which shareed enough meaning with the target vocabulary or structure. From the pilot study, two problems were found. The first problem dealed with difficult vocabulary. It was solved by using easy word. Another problem occurred in practicing part. Students did not understand in direction, they asked for example before playing the game. Therefore, the direction in the lesson was improved and gave example before staring the game. The third lesson was clarification request. This strategy can help student to solve listening comprehension skill. This strategy is asking for an explanation or a description of an unfamiliar meaning or concept. It was found that students could not drawing picture in the practicing part. Upon asking, some of Thai students and Cambodian students stated that they understood the contents, but they could not draw picture. They said that they had short time for drawing. To solve the problem, the activity was change from the short paragraph to drawing an easy picture following the direction. The last lesson was confirmation check, which can help student to solve listening comprehension skill. This strategy is requiring confirmation that one has heard or understood the target language correctly. In this lesson, it was found that some of the students had confused with the direction, and they could not draw picture, which was the same problem of clarification request. They reported that they had short time for drawing picture. To solve the problem, the direction and activity were changed by using shapes such as oval, circle, square and the position of the shapes, which was easier to draw picture. Moreover, it was found that students used the strategy to ask for confirm their comprehension. After communication strategies instruction was developed following by researcher reflection and students\u2019 recommendation. My advisor was asked to proof the instruction before training to the new group of the students.","4043325319 80 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 3) Researcher\u2019s reflection refers to the form, which researcher uses to for noting students\u2019 reaction or responses towards communication strategies instruction. Boud et al. (1985) proposed the definition of reflection as \u201c[r]eflection in the context of learning [as] a generic term for those intellectual and affective activities in which individuals engage in exploring their experiences in order to lead to new understandings and appreciations\u201d (p. 19). Data Analysis. 1) The data from IOC was analyzed by using the formula of Hambleton and Rovinelli (1986) is that (IOC=\u03a3R\/ N). It is based in the assumption that, in the ideal case, an item would be matched with only one objective of the set. The evaluation form used a 3-point scales (1 = appropriate, 0 = uncertain, -1 =not appropriate). \uf053 refers to the sum of the experts\u2019 opinion R refers to the score of the experts\u2019 opinion per a question N refers to the number of the experts According to Brown (1996), the criteria of the Item Objective Congruence (IOC) index \u2265 0.5 are accepted as congruent. 2) The data from researcher\u2019s reflection was analyzed by using the coding method. The three steps of coding method Saldana (2009) were used to analyzed with the initial data. The first step, data from both sources were read, scanned and identified. Then, the data was identified the relationships among them to generate categories. Lastly, I combined the categories into themes by selectively choose the ones related to the effective of the communication strategies. Phase 3: Implementation The objective of this phase is to examine the effects of the communication strategies instruction on ability to use English in an academic context. In order to examine the effects of communication strategies instruction, both Thai students and cambodian students have to complete standardize test to high and low proficiency group. Then, they had to do the pre-post communication strategies task in order to compare the effects of communication strategies instruction. Moreover, reflection form and observational field note also employed to support the students\u2019 effects in","81 term of qualitative part. The process of the research in this phase was presented in the Table 14. Table 14 The process of the third phase Goal Participants Research Data Analysis instruments 4043325319 To investigate - 15 Thai new - Standardize test - Wilcoxon effects of comer students - Pre-post Signed-rank Test communication -15 Cambodia communication task strategies new comer BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 instruction on students - Observation - Coding method ability to use (VDO recorder) English in an ELF academic context - Observation field - Coding method note - Reflection - Coding method form Participants. The participants were 30 studetns, 15 Thai and 15 Cambodian newcomer students, which was not the same group of the first and the second phase and the participants in this group have the same characteristic with the participant in the second phase. Purposive sampling was used to select the participants, who were enrolled at the University where ELF was used in academic context. Instruments. 1) The Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was used to determine the level of a test taker\u2019s ability to understand a range of grammatical forms and the meanings they convey in a wide range of contexts. It also measures the extent to which learners can use these language resources to communicate in English language situations. Moreover, Oxford declared that the test could access communication proficiency. This current study aims to test students\u2019 communication in order to find the effective","4043325319 82 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 communication strategies. Therefore, Oxford placement test was used as research instrument for categorizing students\u2019 proficiency. It is a multiple test, which consists of 2 parts: Listening 100 items and Grammar 100 items. Listening part is primarily a test of reading and listening skills, and of vocabulary size, in which learner performance is dependent in applying knowledge of sound and writing systems of English and on the ability to make use of this knowledge at a task-speed. In grammar part, students were tested grammar, vocabulary and reading skills. In this test, the test items were presented in a sequence providing both situational and linguistic contexts. The total score is 200 marks. This current study aims to test students\u2019 communication in order to find the effective communication strategies. 2) Pre-post communication strategies tasks refer to the communication task, which communication situations are provided in order to know the communication strategies used by high and low proficiency students. Students have to complete the task in order to compare effects of communication strategies instruction on ability to use English in an ELF academic context. Moreover, this task can indicate that whether communication strategies were used to achieve their communicative gials or not. Moreover, it can point out that what types of communication strategies are selected to overcome communication ploblems. 3) Observation. In this study, fieldnote was used to documents the effects of communication strategies instruction and video recorder were used to check the data accuracy and record the students\u2019 effects. Observational fieldnote is a written form which I recorded the students\u2019 effects through the training activities during they were trained. It was used in the events, which related to interesting aspects through the conversation and verified with video transcripts. This observational fieldnote is designed and rechecked by my advisor. The data from observation was analyzed by coding method. Moreover, reflection form was used for collecting data in order to triangulate the students\u2019 effects towards the training activities. Boud et al. (1985) proposed the definition of reflection as \u201c[r]eflection in the context of learning [as] a generic term for those intellectual and affective activities in which individuals engage in exploring their experiences in order to lead to new understandings and appreciations\u201d (p. 19). Vygotsky (1978) also supports this idea that learning also emphasizes the importance of explicit reflection. Huang (2012, p. 3) states that","4043325319 83 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 Vygotsky considers \u201cdevices (spoken reflection), which function as mediators that come between the subject (the individual) and the object (the goal towards which the individual\u2019s action is directed) enable individuals to shape their worlds according to their own motives and goals, and thus to alter learning processes.\u201d In learning context, self-reflection function is considered as a mediational device that learners can use to express their internalize such as ideas or feelings, which provide significant feedback to the teachers or trainers. In this present study, the students had to complete after finishing each strategy training in order to know the feedback of the training in order to develop the course and set as communication strategies instruction for the other non-native speakers. As I mention above, reflection form relevanted to both Thai students and cambodian students. This form needed to know students\u2019 internal phenomena; therefore, it should be clear to prevent the students\u2019 inaccurate or incomplete responses. To solve this problem and to check the trustworthiness of reflection form in both Thai students and Cambodian version, the form was checked and try out. Data Analysis 1) The students\u2019 score results from the standardized test was arranged and analyzed to separate students to high and low proficiency group. According to the Ministry of Education of Thailand, high school students\u2019 English proficiency should be in B1 of Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) level (Ketamon, Pomduang, N., & Hanchayanon, 2017). Therefore, the comparison score between the Oxford Placement Test and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) by Allen (1992) was presented below.","84 Table 15 The comparing score of Oxford Placement Test and Common European Framework of Reference for Languages OPT Score OPT Language level Common European Framework of Reference for Languages level 198-200 Functionally bilingual 4043325319 190-197 Professional command- expert user BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 170-189 Highly proficient- very advanced C2 Mastery- very good user user 150-169 Proficient- advanced user C1 Effective Operational Proficiency-good user 135-149 Upper Intermediate- competent B2 Vantage-independent user user (+) 120-134 B1 Threshold- Lower Intermediate- modest user independent user (-) 105-119 Elementary- limited user A2 Waystage 90-104 Basic-extremely limited user B1 Breakthrough 80-89 False beginner-minimal user Below 75 Beginner From the Table 15, B1 of Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) can compare with 120-134 scores of Oxford Placement Test. Therefore, I design to cut the students\u2019 proficiency at 134 scores of Oxford Placement Test. It means that students, who get more than 134 scores are high proficiency students. In other word, students who got less than 134 scores are low proficiency students.","4043325319 85 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 2) Wilcoxon Signed-rank Test was used to investigate the behavior of communication strategies used from the score of pre- post communication strategies tasks to examine the effects of communication strategies instruction on ability to use English in an ELF academic context. 3) According to the observational field note and students\u2019 reflection, the data was transcribed and recheck the collectiveness. After that, the three steps of coding method: 1) open coding, 2) axial coding, and 3) selective coding by Saldana (2009) were used to analyze the data. The first step, data from both sources were in the process of labeling and naming categories from the analysis of the data. The purpose was to grasp the core idea of each part and to develop a code to describe it. Then, I read, scanned and identified the codes from both sources. The second step, the data was identified the relationships among them to generate categories. The third step was selective coding. I combined the categories into themes by selectively choose the ones related to the effects of the communication strategies instruction. Moreover, a member check technique was used to enhance trustworthiness of the data by bringing the emergent themes to the participants to check whether they reflected the effects of the communication strategies instruction. Chapter Summary This study was framed by the R & D research approach, consisting of three phases: 1) research, 2) development, and 3) implementation. In the research phase, the goal was to investigate common communication needs in an ELF academic context. Semi-structured interview was used for collecting the data. Coding method was employed for analyzing data. In the developing phase, aimed to develop communication strategies instruction researcher reflection was employed for gathering the data and it is analyzed by coding method. The implementation phrase focused on investigating the effects of communication strategies instruction. Pre\u2013post communication strategies tasks were used as research instrument in order to collect data and it was analyzed by Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Moreover, observation and field note were employed for gathering data. Coding method was employed for analyzing data.","4043325319 CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 This chapter presents the findings relating to the three research questions. The first part presents common communication needs encountered in an ELF academic context. The second parts describe the components of communication strategies instruction. The last part reports effects of the communication strategies instruction on ability to use English in an ELF academic context. Each part will be elaborated in detail respectively. 4.1 Findings Research question 1: What are common communication needs encountered in an ELF academic context? The objective of this phase was to explore common communication needs in an ELF academic context, experienced by Thai students and Cambodian students. In this phase, 15 Cambodian students and 15 Thai students were interviewed, focusing on their experiences learning English in the classrooms where they learned together. Two English instructors were also interviewed to examine their perspectives about teaching these students. The questions of the interview were about the communication problems between Thai students and cambodian students\/interlocutors in the classroom and how they solved their communication problems. Then, the interviews were analzyed by using the coding method. The analysis revealed two themes of communication problems between Thai students and cambodian students: 1) limited linguistic knowledge, and 2) sociocultural bias. Limited linguistic knowledge The data analysis of the interviews, obtained from Thai students and Cambodian students found that they reported having communication problems about limited linguistic knowledge in terms of three aspects: 1) comprehension skill, 2) grammatical errors, 3) inadequate vocabulary.","4043325319 87 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 To begin with, Thai students and Cambodian students reported having difficulty to comprehend the message when listening to their counterparts in the English classrooms. For the Thai students, all of them (n = 15) said that it was challenging to listen to Cambodian students in the classrooms. They attributed this challenge to the speed of Cambodian students\u2019 talk. From this problem, one student said that the speed of delivering the messagewas not only difficult to catch the words but also to understand the message. The quotes below illustrate the responses. \u201cThey speak too fast, so I cannot catch the words.\u201d (Thai student, interview) \u201cCambodian friends speak unclear and fast, so I lose some words in the sentence.\u201d (Thai student, interview) In addition, Thai students reported that some Cambodian students used their mother tongue in the sentence. This indicated that they lacked vocabulary knowledge in English, so they insterted the vocabulary from their mother tongue into the sentence. This created confusion for them since they did not know the meaning of the message from their interlocutors. \u201cSome of my Cambodian friends use their mother tongue in the sentence, which that word is the main of the sentence\u201d (Thai student, interview) \u201cCambodian students made me confused because they speak fast in their regular conversation, and they used Khmer language\u201d (Thai student, interview) Similary, Cambodian students also reported in the interview that they had difficulties communicating with Thai students in the classrooms. They reported that the Thai counterpart spoke very fast, and they may not understand the meaning and catch the expression words. Moreover, some Thai counterpart used Thai language in the sentence. The quotes below illustrate the responses. \u201cI cannot catch all message from Thai interlocutor because he\/she speak too fast\u201d (Cambodian student, interview)","4043325319 88 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 \u201cThai friend sometimes uses Thai language in the sentence\u201d (Cambodian student, interview) From the above quotes, it showed that Thai students and cambodian students had similar needs about comprehension skills; they could not comprehend the message from interlocoturs because of the speedy talk and L1 interferance. Moreover, the lecturer confirmed the findings in the interview that when communicating with each other in the classs, Thai students and Cambodian students had comprehension need, and they did not understand the message. \u201cMy students often say I don\u2019t know or I don\u2019t understand, when they worked in pair. It showed that they do not comprehend with the message from the interlocutor.\u201d (Instructor, interview) In the second aspect of limited linguistic knowledge, the communication need was related to grammatical errors. From the interview, all Thai students (n = 15) also stated that their interlocutors might not use correct grammar, especially, incorrect tense. The quotes below illustrate the responses. \u201cSome Cambodians use present tense and put the word tomorrow of word of time at the end of the sentence to show that they will do it\u201d (Thai student, interview) Moreover, some of Cambodian students reported that their interlocutors used incorrect grammar, especially in sentence arrangement. The quotes below illustrate the responses. \u201cI am confused with my friend uses wrong grammar and the words in sentence is in the wrong position, such as, he put adjective before infinitive verb.\u201d (Cambodian student, interview)","4043325319 89 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 The two instructors also confirmed the data from the interview that their students used incorrect grammar but some of them could understand each other. Upon asking the Thai students, they said although, they spoke with wrong grammar, but they could guess what the interlocutor wanted to communicate from vocabulary meaning. The quotes below illustrate the responses. \u201cMost of my students use present simple tense and they also have incorrect in sentence arrangement, which I heard from their conversation with the classmte\u201d (Instructor, interview) \u201cMy students are non-native speakers; it is normally that they have grammartical errors.\u201d (Instructor, interview) From the above data, it presented that all Thai students and Cambodian students had the same needs about grammartical accuracy, particularly, tenses and sentence arrangment. They could not comprehend the message from interlocoturs. Moreover, the instructor, lecturer confirmed that they had the comprehension need because the instructor often heard the obviously sentences to show that they did not understand the message, while the students did pair work in the classroom. In the third aspect of limited linguistic knowledge, the communication problem concerned with students\u2019 inadequate vocabulary knowledge. All Thai students (n = 15) and Cambodian students (n = 15) reported that they encountered problems about limited vocabulary knowledge. They could not remember or did not know vocabulary to express their ideas with interlocutors when they did the pair work in the classroom. Hence, they sometimes kept quiet or sentence avoidance. The quotes below illustrate the responses. \u201cI cannot remember the vocabulary. I try to use body language or drawing picture to communicate with my interlocutors\u201d (Thai student, interview) \u201cI don\u2019t know the vocabulary to express my idea. I stop and keep quiet.\u201d (Thai student, interview)","4043325319 90 BUU iThesis 61810053 dissertation \/ recv: 20082565 23:43:30 \/ seq: 41 \u201cWhen Cambodian friends used more difficult vocabulary, I did not understand them.\u201d (Thai student, interview) \u201cI try to describe or give example about the word when I cannot recall the vocabulary\u201d (Cambodian student, interview) \u201cI try to use synonym to help interlocutor understand what I said\u201d (Cambodian student, interview) \u201cI wanted to explain somethings, I did not know how the word is\u201d (Cambodian student, interview) From the above quotes, it presented that the students attempted to solve their communication needs of pair work when they cannot remember or faced with inaddiquate vocabulary by using non-verbal communication, word choices or giving the examples to achive their communicative goals. However, it was found that some of them kept quiet. The instructors also reported that upon asking Thai students and Cambodia students, all of them (n =30) seemed to have limited vocabulary knowledge. It was observed that they did not know vocabulary in English to express what they wanted to say. However, they tried to solve their problems by using body language, drawing pictures, or give examples. The quote below illustrates the response. \u201cMy students have inadequate vocabulary. It is one of the problems that occurred in their communication. Cambodian students attempt to use synonym, while Thai students try to use body language.\u201d (Instructor, interview) Upon asking how the students solved the problem of having limited linguistic knowledge, it was found that Thai students tried to avoid the problems. For example, one Thai student said that when she did not understand what my counterpart said, she kept quiet or smile to him\/her. she did not know how to do. However, some of Thai students attempted to solve their communication problem when they did not"]