Sachmoi.net-Lich-su-van-minh-The-gioi

["Quyjote. Th\u00f4ng qua h\u00ecnh \u1ea3nh ch\u00e0ng hi\u1ec7p s\u0129 l\u1ed7i th\u1eddi Don Quyjote, Cervantes \u00e1m ch\u1ec9 t\u1ea5ng l\u1edbp qu\u00ed t\u1ed9c T\u00e2y Ban Nha v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng quan ni\u1ec7m danh d\u1ef1 c\u1ed5 h\u1ee7 v\u00e0 v\u1ebd n\u00ean b\u1ee9c tranh m\u1ed9t n\u01b0\u1edbc T\u00e2y Ban Nha qu\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 \u0111ang b\u1ecb ch\u00ecm \u0111\u1eafm trong v\u0169ng l\u1ea7y phong ki\u1ebfn l\u1ea1c h\u1eadu. 4.2.2. V\u1ec1 k\u1ecbch: Nh\u00e0 vi\u1ebft k\u1ecbch v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i th\u1eddi ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh c\u00f3 t\u00ean l\u00e0 W. S\u1ebfchpia. (William Shakespeare ). \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft t\u1edbi 36 v\u1edf bi, h\u00e0i k\u1ecbch. Nh\u1eefng v\u1edf k\u1ecbch n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng t\u1edbi nhi\u1ec1u n\u01b0\u1edbc tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi nh\u01b0 R\u00f4m\u00ea\u00f4 v\u00e0 Giuyliet, Hamlet, Vua Lia, \u00d4tenl\u00f4... 4.2.3. H\u1ed9i ho\u1ea1, \u0111i\u00eau kh\u1eafc: Nh\u00e0 danh ho\u1ea1 kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3 th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng l\u00e0 L\u00ea\u00f4na \u0111\u01a1 Vanhxi ( Leonardo da Vinci), \u00f4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u00dd. \u00d4ng kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ho\u1ea1 s\u0129 thi\u00ean t\u00e0i m\u00e0 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t con ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u00f4ng th\u00e1i tr\u00ean nhi\u1ec1u l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c ho\u1ea1 n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u01b0 B\u1eefa ti\u1ec7c cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng , N\u00e0ng Gi\u00f4c\u00f4ng\u0111\u01a1 ( La Joconde ), \u0110\u1ee9c m\u1eb9 \u0111\u1ed3ng trinh trong hang \u0111\u00e1. T\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XV, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1nh qu\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ea9y n\u01b0\u1edbc cho thuy\u1ec1n thay m\u00e1i ch\u00e8o; v\u1ebd ra nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a m\u00e1y bay tr\u1ef1c th\u0103ng, d\u00f9 tho\u00e1t hi\u1ec3m...nh\u01b0ng nh\u1eefng k\u0129 thu\u1eadt h\u1ed3i \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng cho ph\u00e9p \u00f4ng th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Mikenl\u0103ngi\u01a1 (Michelangelo) ra \u0111\u1eddi \u1edf \u00dd(1475-1564). \u00d4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t danh ho\u1ea1, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 \u0111i\u00eau kh\u1eafc n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng, \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi c\u00f2n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac s\u01b0, m\u1ed9t thi s\u0129. T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 b\u1ee9c ho\u1ea1 S\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u1ebd tr\u00ean tr\u1ea7n nh\u00e0 th\u1edd Xixtin g\u1ed3m c\u00f3 343 nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt. C\u00f2n b\u1ee9c Cu\u1ed9c ph\u00e1n x\u00e9t cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng th\u00ec \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ebd tr\u00ean t\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u00e0 th\u1edd Xixtin. V\u1ec1 \u0111i\u00eau kh\u1eafc, \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i nhi\u1ec1u b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u nh\u01b0 pho t\u01b0\u1ee3ng M\u00f4id\u01a1, Ng\u01b0\u00f2i n\u00f4 l\u1ec7 b\u1ecb tr\u00f3i, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 pho t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0110avid. Pho t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0110avid c\u1ee7a Mikenl\u0103ngi\u01a1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1c tr\u00ean \u0111\u00e1 c\u1ea9m th\u1ea1ch cao t\u1edbi 5,3 m\u00e9t. \u0110avid \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ch\u00fa b\u00e9 ch\u0103n c\u1eebu m\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ch\u00e0ng thanh ni\u00ean \u0111ang \u0111\u1ed9 tu\u1ed5i m\u01b0\u1eddi t\u00e1m \u0111\u00f4i m\u01b0\u01a1i, \u0111ang \u0111\u1ed9 tu\u1ed5i sung s\u1ee9c, v\u1edbi c\u01a1 b\u1eafp kho\u1ebb m\u1ea1nh, v\u1ea7ng tr\u00e1n th\u00f4ng minh, \u00e1nh m\u1eaft t\u1ef1 tin, s\u1eb5n s\u00e0ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ea7u v\u1edbi m\u1ecdi kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n th\u1eed th\u00e1ch. M\u01b0\u1ee3n h\u00ecnh t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0110avid, Mikenl\u0103ngi\u01a1 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n s\u1ee9c s\u1ed1ng \u0111ang l\u00ean c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t l\u1edbp ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n cho m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i m\u1edbi, th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ea7n nh\u1eefng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3 v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 s\u1ea3n sinh ra nh\u1eefng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3 . Ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng c\u00f2n c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ngh\u1ec7 s\u0129 n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng kh\u00e1c nh\u01b0 Raphaen ( Raffaello ), Gi\u00f4t\u00f4 (Giotto ), B\u00f4tixeli ( Botticelli )... 4.2.4. Khoa h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean: Th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng c\u00f2n c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p c\u1ee7a nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc d\u0169ng c\u1ea3m, d\u00e1m ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng suy ngh\u0129 sai l\u1ea7m ngh\u00ecn \u0111\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1edbi quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c \u0111\u1ea3m b\u1ea3o, th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn. N. C\u00f4pecnic ( Nikolai Kopernik - 1473 - 1543 ) l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t gi\u00e1o s\u0129 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba Lan. Qua nhi\u1ec1u n\u0103m nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111i t\u1edbi m\u1ed9t k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn \u0111\u00e1ng s\u1ee3 h\u1ed3i \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0: Tr\u00e1i \u0111\u1ea5t quay xung quanh M\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 M\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi quay xung quanh Tr\u00e1i \u0111\u1ea5t. Thuy\u1ebft M\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi l\u00e0 trung t\u00e2m \u0111\u00f3 c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1eady l\u00e0 tr\u00e1i h\u1eb3n v\u1edbi thuy\u1ebft Tr\u00e1i \u0111\u1ea5t l\u00e0 trung t\u00e2m \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u00e0 th\u1edd c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn h\u00e0ng ngh\u00ecn n\u0103m. \u0110i\u1ec1u ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m B\u00e0n v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c thi\u00ean th\u1ec3. Nh\u01b0ng s\u1ee3 b\u1ecb k\u1ebft t\u1ed9i, \u00f4ng ch\u01b0a d\u00e1m c\u00f4ng b\u1ed1. M\u00e3i t\u1edbi khi c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y s\u1eafp t\u1eeb gi\u00e3 c\u00f5i \u0111\u1eddi \u00f4ng m\u1edbi c\u00f4ng b\u1ed1. Giooc\u0111an\u00f4 Brun\u00f4 ( Giordano Bruno - 1548-1600 ), l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t gi\u00e1o s\u0129 tr\u1ebb ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u00dd. \u00d4ng t\u00edch c\u1ef1c h\u01b0\u1edfng \u1ee9ng h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a C\u00f4pecnic khi gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i c\u1ea5m l\u01b0u h\u00e0nh. Kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf, \u00f4ng c\u00f2n ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n th\u00eam t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a C\u00f4pecnic. \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng M\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 trung t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 trung t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a Th\u00e1i d\u01b0\u01a1ng h\u1ec7. Trong v\u0169 tr\u1ee5, b\u00ean c\u1ea1nh M\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi c\u00f2n c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u h\u1ec7 m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi kh\u00e1c. \u0110\u01b0\u01a1ng nhi\u00ean","th\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng b\u1ecb \u0111\u01b0a ra to\u00e0 \u00e1n t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o. To\u00e0 \u00e1n h\u1ed3i \u0111\u00f3 bu\u1ed9c \u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i c\u00f4ng b\u1ed1 l\u1ea1i l\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb qu\u1ec9 \u00e1m th\u00ec s\u1ebd tha t\u1ed9i ch\u1ebft nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng th\u00e0 ch\u1ebft ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ecbu n\u00f3i tr\u00e1i v\u1edbi ni\u1ec1m tin c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb thi\u00eau tr\u00ean d\u00e0n l\u1eeda. M\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u00dd kh\u00e1c l\u00e0 Galil\u00ea ( Gallileo Gallilei - 1564-1642 ) ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a C\u00f4pecnic v\u00e0 Brun\u00f4. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean d\u00f9ng k\u00ednh vi\u1ec5n v\u1ecdng ph\u00f3ng to g\u1ea5p 30 l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ec3 quan s\u00e1t b\u1ea7u tr\u1eddi. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1eefng minh l\u00e0 M\u1eb7t tr\u0103ng c\u00f3 b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t g\u1ed3 gh\u1ec1 ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 nh\u1eb5n b\u00f3ng; Thi\u00ean h\u00e0 l\u00e0 do v\u00f4 s\u1ed1 v\u00ec sao t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng sao ch\u1ed5i. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 cha \u0111\u1ebb c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc th\u1ef1c nghi\u00eam, ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt r\u01a1i t\u1ef1 do v\u00e0 dao \u0111\u1ed9ng con l\u1eafc. Ti\u1ebfn xa h\u01a1n, nh\u00e0 thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0110\u1ee9c l\u00e0 K\u00eapl\u01a1 ( Kepler - 1571-1630 ) \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t minh ra ba qui lu\u1eadt quan tr\u1ecdng v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh tinh xung quanh M\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng minh r\u1eb1ng qu\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1o chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh tinh kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 h\u00ecnh tr\u00f2n m\u00e0 l\u00e0 h\u00ecnh el\u00edp, c\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebfn g\u1ea7n M\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi, v\u1eadn t\u1ed1c chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u00e0ng t\u0103ng l\u00ean v\u00e0 c\u00e0ng xa M\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi th\u00ec v\u1eadn t\u1ed1c chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u00e0ng ch\u1eadm l\u1ea1i. Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u0169ng c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng b\u01b0\u1edbc ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n m\u1edbi. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1edf \u0111\u1ea7u cho tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc duy v\u1eadt th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh, F. Baic\u01a1n ( Francis Bacon - 1561- 1626 ). \u00d4ng \u0111\u1ec1 cao tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc duy v\u1eadt Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc duy t\u00e2m v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc kinh vi\u1ec7n. 4.3. N\u1ed9i dung t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng: Phong tr\u00e0o V\u0103n ho\u00e1 Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng tuy danh ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng l\u1ea1i s\u1ef1 huy ho\u00e0ng c\u1ee7a v\u0103n ho\u00e1 Hy-La c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, n\u00f3 c\u00f3 ti\u1ebfp thu nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 t\u1eeb n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 Hy-La c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, nh\u01b0ng th\u1ef1c ch\u1ea5t \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n m\u1edbi, d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng kinh t\u1ebf-x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i m\u1edbi v\u00e0 h\u1ec7 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a giai c\u1ea5p t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n \u0111ang l\u00ean. Qua c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 v\u0103n ho\u00e1 th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng \u0111\u00e3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n nh\u1eefng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u00ednh sau: \u2022 Phong tr\u00e0o v\u0103n ho\u00e1 Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng quan ni\u1ec7m kh\u00f4ng h\u1ee3p th\u1eddi c\u1ee7a gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i l\u00fac b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd c\u00f9ng t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp qu\u00ed t\u1ed9c phong ki\u1ebfn. Nhi\u1ec1u t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u0103n ho\u00e1 \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f4ng khai \u0111\u1ea3 k\u00edch, ch\u00e2m bi\u1ebfm th\u00f3i \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c gi\u1ea3, d\u1ed1t n\u00e1t c\u1ee7a t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp qu\u00ed t\u1ed9c, phong ki\u1ebfn. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 v\u0103n ho\u00e1 th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng \u0111\u1ea5u tranh \u0111\u00f2i v\u0103n ho\u00e1 ph\u1ea3i kh\u00f4ng b\u1ecb ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t b\u1edfi nh\u00e0 th\u1edd. \u2022 Nhi\u1ec1u t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u00f4ng khai ca ng\u1ee3i quy\u1ec1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ed1ng t\u1ef1 do ph\u00f3ng kho\u00e1ng, quy\u1ec1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u01b0\u1edfng th\u1ee5. H\u1ecd ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u0103n ho\u00e1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n ph\u1ea3i l\u1ea5y m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch v\u00ec h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac con ng\u01b0\u1eddi; \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng ca ng\u1ee3i ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi... C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ea1o l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a nh\u00e2n v\u0103n (humannisme). \u2022 Phong tr\u00e0o V\u0103n ho\u00e1 Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng c\u00f2n ca ng\u1ee3i t\u00ecnh y\u00eau t\u1ed5 qu\u1ed1c, tinh th\u1ea7n d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c v\u00e0 \u00fd th\u1ee9c c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u0103n ho\u00e1 ph\u1ea3i h\u01b0\u1edbng v\u1ec1 ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp b\u00ecnh d\u00e2n. V\u00ec v\u1eady c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u0103n ho\u00e1 giai \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y ph\u1ea7n nhi\u1ec1u kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ch\u1eef Latin m\u00e0 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ch\u1eef vi\u1ebft ri\u00eang c\u1ee7a m\u1ed7i d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c. \u2022 Nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 v\u0103n ho\u00e1 th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng \u0111\u00e3 d\u0169ng c\u1ea3m ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng quan \u0111i\u1ec3m ph\u1ea3n khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf l\u1ef1c c\u1ea7m quy\u1ec1n \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi, b\u1ea5t ch\u1ea5p s\u1ef1 \u0111e do\u1ea1 c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng h\u00ecnh ph\u1ea1t, k\u1ec3 c\u1ea3 d\u00e0n thi\u00eau. C\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00e1ng nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f2n quy\u1ebft li\u1ec7t v\u00e0o tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc kinh vi\u1ec7n v\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a duy t\u00e2m \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi, l\u00e0m lung lay quy\u1ec1n uy c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c t\u0103ng l\u1eef. \u2022 Phong tr\u00e0o V\u0103n ho\u00e1 Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng l\u00e0 t\u1ea5m g\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u1ea3n chi\u1ebfu s\u1ee9c s\u1ed1ng m\u00e3nh li\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nhi\u1ec1u th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u r\u1ef1c r\u1ee1. 4.4. \u00dd ngh\u0129a: Phong tr\u00e0o V\u0103n ho\u00e1 Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng tr\u00ean m\u1eb7t tr\u1eadn v\u0103n ho\u00e1, t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a giai c\u1ea5p","t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n \u0111ang l\u00ean ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i phong ki\u1ebfn, \u0111\u1ec3 chu\u1ea9n b\u1ecb m\u1edf \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng cho m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i. Phong tr\u00e0o n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1eb7t c\u01a1 s\u1edf, m\u1edf \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng cho v\u0103n ho\u00e1 T\u00e2y \u00c2u ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n trong nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 ti\u1ebfp theo sau. Phong tr\u00e0o V\u0103n ho\u00e1 Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng c\u00f2n c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p quan tr\u1ecdng v\u00e0o kho t\u00e0ng v\u0103n ho\u00e1 nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i.","V. S\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 v\u1ec1 k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt Tr\u1ea3i qua m\u1ed9t qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh t\u00edch lu\u1ef9 kinh nghi\u1ec7m l\u00e2u d\u00e0i, t\u1edbi th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIV - XVI v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t k\u0129 thu\u1eadt \u1edf T\u00e2y \u00c2u \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 \u0111\u00e1ng k\u1ec3, c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 trong l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c khai kho\u00e1ng, luy\u1ec7n kim, h\u00e0ng h\u1ea3i v\u00e0 ch\u1ebf t\u1ea1o v\u0169 kh\u00ed. Th\u1eddi trung \u0111\u1ea1i, h\u1ea7u nh\u01b0 m\u1ecdi vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0m b\u1eb1ng tay, n\u0103ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 s\u1ee9c gi\u00f3 v\u00e0 s\u1ee9c n\u01b0\u1edbc. V\u00ec v\u1eady, vi\u1ec7c c\u1ea3i ti\u1ebfn ngu\u1ed3n n\u01b0\u1edbc th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIV \u0111\u00f3ng m\u1ed9t vai tr\u00f2 r\u1ea5t quan tr\u1ecdng. L\u00fac \u0111\u1ea7u, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta \u0111\u1eb7t gu\u1ed3ng n\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ea1nh s\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ee3i d\u1ee5ng s\u1ee9c n\u01b0\u1edbc ch\u1ea3y quay gu\u1ed3ng. \u0110\u01b0\u01a1ng nhi\u00ean nh\u00e0 m\u00e1y c\u0169ng ph\u1ea3i x\u00e2y k\u1ec1 m\u00e9p n\u01b0\u1edbc. \u0110\u1ebfn th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIV, khi \u0111\u1ec3 quay gu\u1ed3ng n\u01b0\u1edbc ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft l\u00e0m nh\u1eefng con k\u00eanh d\u1eabn n\u01b0\u1edbc t\u1eeb tr\u00ean cao \u0111\u1ed5 v\u00e0o c\u00e1c m\u00e1ng \u0111\u1eb7t tr\u00ean gu\u1ed3ng n\u01b0\u1edbc. \u0110i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 t\u1ea1o ra n\u0103ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u1edbn h\u01a1n v\u00e0 nh\u00e0 m\u00e1y kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft ph\u1ea3i k\u1ec1 c\u00e1c con s\u00f4ng t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean v\u00e0 c\u0169ng s\u1ebd an to\u00e0n h\u01a1n. Trong ngh\u1ec1 khai kho\u00e1ng, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft d\u00f9ng m\u00e1y b\u01a1m chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng do c\u00e1c gu\u1ed3ng n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u1ec3 h\u00fat n\u01b0\u1edbc t\u1eeb c\u00e1c h\u1ea7m l\u00f2 l\u00ean. C\u00e1c c\u00f4ng \u0111o\u1ea1n r\u1eeda qu\u1eb7ng, nghi\u1ec1n qu\u1eb7ng c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u01a1 gi\u1edbi ho\u00e1. Ngh\u1ec1 luy\u1ec7n kim c\u0169ng b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u01a1 gi\u1edbi ho\u00e1 nh\u1edd s\u1ee9c n\u01b0\u1edbc. Nhi\u1ec1u l\u00f2 n\u1ea5u qu\u1eb7ng cao t\u1edbi 2 m\u00e9t, 3 m\u00e9t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00f4ng gi\u00f3 nh\u1edd qu\u1ea1t ch\u1ea1y b\u1eb1ng gu\u1ed3ng n\u01b0\u1edbc, thay th\u1ebf cho nh\u1eefng l\u00f2 nh\u1ecf qu\u1ea1t tay hay l\u1ee3i d\u1ee5ng gi\u00f3 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean tr\u01b0\u1edbc kia. B\u00faa m\u00e1y s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng s\u1ee9c n\u01b0\u1edbc c\u0169ng b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng. M\u00e1y khoan, m\u00e1y m\u00e0i c\u0169ng l\u1ea7n l\u01b0\u1ee3t ra \u0111\u1eddi. Ng\u00e0nh d\u1ec7t c\u0169ng c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng c\u1ea3i ti\u1ebfn. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 xa k\u00e9o s\u1ee3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ea3i ti\u1ebfn, \u0111\u1ea1p b\u1eb1ng ch\u00e2n ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng quay b\u1eb1ng tay nh\u01b0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc kia. Khung c\u1eedi n\u1eb1m ngang c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 thay th\u1ebf cho khung c\u1eedi \u0111\u1ee9ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc kia. Ch\u1ee7ng lo\u1ea1i, m\u00e0u s\u1eafc h\u00e0ng d\u1ec7t c\u0169ng phong ph\u00fa h\u01a1n. K\u0129 thu\u1eadt qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 c\u0169ng c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng b\u01b0\u1edbc ti\u1ebfn l\u1edbn nh\u1edd k\u0129 thu\u1eadt luy\u1ec7n kim. N\u00f2ng \u0111\u1ea1i b\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00fac b\u1eb1ng th\u00e9p d\u00e0y h\u01a1n, l\u1edbn h\u01a1n. \u0110\u1ea1n b\u1eb1ng gang \u0111\u00e3 thay th\u1ebf \u0111\u1ea1n b\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ed3ng, b\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00e1 tr\u01b0\u1edbc kia v\u00e0 c\u00f2n n\u1ed5 l\u1ea7n n\u1eefa khi ch\u1ea1m m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau v\u00ec v\u1eady c\u00f3 s\u1ee9c c\u00f4ng ph\u00e1 l\u1edbn h\u01a1n. T\u1edbi th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVI, s\u00fang b\u1ed9 binh \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 qui l\u00e1t thay th\u1ebf cho d\u00e2y d\u1eabn l\u1eeda. \u00c1o gi\u00e1p, m\u0169 tr\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a k\u1ecb s\u0129 tr\u1edf n\u00ean m\u1ea5t t\u00e1c d\u1ee5ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc nh\u1eefng v\u0169 kh\u00ed m\u1edbi n\u00e0y. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu d\u1eabn t\u1edbi nh\u1eefng thay \u0111\u1ed5i trong chi\u1ebfn thu\u1eadt qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1. Trong ng\u00e0nh h\u00e0ng h\u1ea3i, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00f3ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng con t\u00e0u \u0111\u00e1y nh\u1ecdn c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng v\u01b0\u1ee3t \u0111\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u01a1ng, m\u1ed7i t\u00e0u \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 trang b\u1ecb la b\u00e0n, th\u01b0\u1edbc ph\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1ecb \u0111\u1ec3 x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1ecb tr\u00ed tr\u00ean bi\u1ec3n. Giai \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y ngh\u1ec1 l\u00e0m \u0111\u1ed3ng h\u1ed3 c\u01a1 kh\u00ed v\u00e0 ngh\u1ec1 in c\u0169ng xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n. Nh\u1eefng ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t k\u0129 thu\u1eadt \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m n\u0103ng su\u1ea5t lao \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u0103ng h\u1eb3n l\u00ean, t\u1ea1o \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n cho kinh t\u1ebf t\u01b0 b\u1ea3n ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n.","VI. S\u1ef1 ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea1o Tin L\u00e0nh 6.1. Ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh l\u1ecbch s\u1eed: Th\u1eddi k\u00ec trung \u0111\u1ea1i, gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i Thi\u00ean ch\u00faa l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ebf l\u1ef1c th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ea7y quy\u1ec1n uy. Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c l\u00e3nh ch\u00faa phong ki\u1ebfn. Sang th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVI, giai c\u1ea5p t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n mu\u1ed1n lo\u1ea1i b\u1ecf nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u trong gi\u00e1o l\u00ed kh\u00f4ng ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng kinh doanh c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, h\u1ecd mu\u1ed1n nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1o l\u00ed ph\u1ea3i ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi tr\u00e0o l\u01b0u kinh doanh v\u00e0 l\u1ed1i s\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 m\u1edbi n\u1ed5i l\u00ean. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n s\u00e2u xa l\u00e0m b\u00f9ng n\u1ed5 ra phong tr\u00e0o c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf T\u00e2y \u00c2u th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVI. 6.2. Phong tr\u00e0o c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea1o Tin l\u00e0nh: \u0110\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVI, phong tr\u00e0o c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o di\u1ec5n ra \u1edf ba n\u01a1i: \u0110\u1ee9c, Thu\u1ef5 S\u0129 v\u00e0 Anh. 6.2.1. C\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf \u0110\u1ee9c: Ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1edfi x\u01b0\u1edbng ra phong tr\u00e0o c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf \u0110\u1ee9c l\u00e0 Martin Luther ( 1483 - 1546 ), \u00f4ng l\u00e0 con m\u1ed9t th\u1ee3 m\u1ecf ngh\u00e8o \u1edf Thirighen \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ecdc tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh lu\u1eadt s\u01b0. N\u0103m 1517, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft \u201cLu\u1eadn v\u0103n 95 \u0111i\u1ec1u\u201d d\u00e1n tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1eeda nh\u00e0 th\u1edd c\u1ee7a tr\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc vitenbec t\u1ed1 c\u00e1o vi\u1ec7c mua b\u00e1n th\u1ebb mi\u1ec5n t\u1ed9i h\u1ed3i \u0111\u00f3. Trong \u201cLu\u1eadn v\u0103n 95 \u0111i\u1ec1u\u201d \u00f4ng cho r\u1eb1ng vi\u1ec7c mua b\u00e1n th\u1ebb mi\u1ec5n t\u1ed9i l\u00e0 gi\u1ea3 d\u1ed1i, ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0m l\u1ee3i cho nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u1ee3i d\u1ee5ng n\u00f3. \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng ch\u1ec9 c\u1ea7n l\u00f2ng tin v\u00e0o \u0110\u1ee9c Ch\u00faa l\u00e0 s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ee9u v\u1edbt, ngay c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng nghi l\u1ec5 ph\u1ee9c t\u1ea1p, t\u1ed1n k\u00e9m c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft. Phong tr\u00e0o \u0111\u00f2i c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf \u0110\u1ee9c \u0111\u00e3 di\u1ec5n ra r\u1ea5t quy\u1ebft li\u1ec7t. R\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00f4ng d\u00e2n \u0111\u00e3 \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 nh\u1eefng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Martin Luther v\u00e0 x\u1ea3y ra xung \u0111\u1ed9t v\u1edbi gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i. \u0110\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1555, nh\u1eefng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Luther \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn. T\u00f4n gi\u00e1o c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Luther t\u1eeb \u0110\u1ee9c \u0111\u00e3 lan sang nhi\u1ec1u n\u01b0\u1edbc Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u kh\u00e1c. 6.2.2. C\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf Thu\u1ef5 S\u0129: \u0110\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u cho phong tr\u00e0o c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf Thu\u1ef5 S\u0129 l\u00e0 Can Vanh ( Jean Calvin). N\u0103m 1536 Calvin cho xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n cu\u1ed1n \u201cThi\u1ebft ch\u1ebf C\u01a1 \u0110\u1ed1c\u201d. Trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf v\u00e0 thuy\u1ebft tam v\u1ecb nh\u1ea5t th\u1ec3 nh\u01b0ng ch\u1ec9 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn c\u00f3 kinh Ph\u00fac \u00e2m. \u00d4ng ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n vi\u1ec7c tu h\u00e0nh kh\u1ed5 h\u1ea1nh v\u00e0 cho r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 l\u00f2ng tin. \u00d4ng c\u0169ng ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng khuy\u1ebfn kh\u00edch vi\u1ec7c l\u00e0m gi\u00e0u. Calvin ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng gi\u1ea3m b\u1edbt nh\u1eefng nghi l\u1ec5 phi\u1ec1n ph\u1ee9c, t\u1ed1n k\u00e9m. \u0110i\u1ec3m quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a thuy\u1ebft Calvin l\u00e0 thuy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ec7nh. \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn con ng\u01b0\u1eddi do Ch\u00faa Tr\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ecbnh tr\u01b0\u1edbc, vi\u1ec7c b\u1ecf ra m\u1ed9t \u00edt ti\u1ec1n mua th\u1ebb mi\u1ec5n t\u1ed9i kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u00ec. Nh\u01b0 v\u1eady l\u00e0 \u00f4ng ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i vi\u1ec7c b\u00e1n th\u1ebb mi\u1ec5n t\u1ed9i, cho \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tr\u00f2 l\u1eeba b\u1ecbp. C\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf Thu\u1ef5 S\u0129 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea3o m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9. Gi\u01a1nev\u01a1 ( Gen\u00e8ve) tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh trung t\u00e2m phong tr\u00e0o c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf T\u00e2y \u00c2u.","6.2.3. C\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf Anh: T\u1eeb \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVI, kinh t\u1ebf t\u01b0 b\u1ea3n \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n kh\u00e1 m\u1ea1nh \u1edf Anh. Giai c\u1ea5p t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n l\u1edbn m\u1ea1nh mu\u1ed1n c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o m\u1edbi ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 c\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c kinh doanh c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd. L\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 nh\u00e0 th\u1edd \u1edf Anh c\u00f2n chi\u1ebfm kh\u00e1 nhi\u1ec1u ru\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ea5t. Vua Anh c\u0169ng mu\u1ed1n l\u1ea5y l\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n ru\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 th\u1edd v\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i b\u1ecf \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i R\u00f4ma \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi v\u01b0\u01a1ng quy\u1ec1n. Nh\u00e2n vi\u1ec7c Gi\u00e1o ho\u00e0ng ph\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ed1i vi\u1ec7c b\u1ecf v\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a vua Anh l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 Henri VIII, Henri VIII \u0111\u00e3 ban \u201cS\u1eafc lu\u1eadt v\u1ec1 quy\u1ec1n t\u1ed1i cao\u201d v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1534, tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 c\u1eaft \u0111\u1ee9t quan h\u1ec7 v\u1edbi gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i R\u00f4ma v\u00e0 th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp m\u1ed9t gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i ri\u00eang g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Anh gi\u00e1o. Anh gi\u00e1o do vua Anh l\u00e0m gi\u00e1o ch\u1ee7, nh\u01b0ng m\u1ecdi gi\u00e1o l\u00ed, nghi l\u1ec5, ph\u1ea9m h\u00e0m th\u00ec v\u1eabn gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u1ea1o Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa. C\u00e1c gi\u00e1o ph\u1ea9m th\u00ec do vua Anh b\u1ed5 nhi\u1ec7m, m\u1ecdi ru\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i R\u00f4ma b\u1ecb ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n t\u1ecbch thu. Anh gi\u00e1o nh\u01b0 v\u1eady ch\u01b0a \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c y\u00eau c\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a giai c\u1ea5p t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n. T\u01b0 s\u1ea3n Anh c\u1ea7n c\u00f3 c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch tri\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ec3 h\u01a1n, \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn t\u1edbi Thanh gi\u00e1o ( t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o trong s\u1ea1ch). Thanh gi\u00e1o xo\u00e1 b\u1ecf h\u1ebft t\u00e0n d\u01b0 c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea1o Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa, \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n ho\u00e1 c\u00e1c nghi l\u1ec5, c\u1eaft \u0111\u1ee9t quan h\u1ec7 v\u1edbi Anh gi\u00e1o. H\u1ecd th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp m\u1ed9t h\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng ri\u00eang, c\u1ea7m \u0111\u1ea7u l\u00e0 c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00e3o do c\u00e1c t\u00edn \u0111\u1ed3 b\u1ea7u ra. Nh\u01b0 v\u1eady th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVI \u1edf T\u00e2y \u00c2u c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u gi\u00e1o ph\u00e1i m\u1edbi \u0111\u00e3 ra \u0111\u1eddi. C\u00e1c gi\u00e1o ph\u00e1i n\u00e0y \u1edf c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc kh\u00e1c nhau, gi\u00e1o l\u00ed c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec3m kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng nhau nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u1ec1u gi\u1ed1ng nhau m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec3m l\u00e0 \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n ho\u00e1 c\u00e1c nghi l\u1ec5, c\u1eaft \u0111\u1ee9t quan h\u1ec7 v\u1edbi Gi\u00e1o ho\u00e0ng v\u00e0 to\u00e0 th\u00e1nh R\u00f4ma. H\u1ecd ch\u1ec9 tin v\u00e0o kinh Ph\u00fac \u00e2m. Ch\u1eef Ph\u00fac \u00e2m c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 tin m\u1eebng, tin l\u00e0nh, n\u00ean sau n\u00e0y ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta g\u1ecdi t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o m\u1edbi l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1o Tin l\u00e0nh.","Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng VII: S\u1ef0 XU\u1ea4T HI\u1ec6N V\u0102N MINH C\u00d4NG NGHI\u1ec6P","I. \u0110i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p 1.1. Phong tr\u00e0o ph\u00e1t ki\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ecba l\u00ed th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XV-XVI: 1.1.1. Nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n: Th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XV, kinh t\u1ebf h\u00e0ng ho\u00e1 \u1edf T\u00e2y \u00c2u \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00e1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n, nhu c\u1ea7u v\u1ec1 th\u1ecb tr\u01b0\u1eddng t\u0103ng cao. Giai c\u1ea5p t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n T\u00e2y \u00c2u mu\u1ed1n m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng th\u1ecb tr\u01b0\u1eddng sang ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0110\u00f4ng, m\u01a1 \u01b0\u1edbc t\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ngu\u1ed3n v\u00e0ng b\u1ea1c t\u1eeb ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0110\u00f4ng. T\u1ea1i T\u00e2y \u00c2u, t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 c\u0169ng t\u0103ng l\u00ean do \u0111\u00f3 nhu c\u1ea7u v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c m\u1eb7t h\u00e0ng \u0111\u1eb7c s\u1ea3n, cao c\u1ea5p c\u00f3 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c t\u1eeb ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0110\u00f4ng nh\u01b0 ti\u00eau, qu\u1ebf, tr\u1ea7m h\u01b0\u01a1ng, l\u1ee5a t\u01a1 t\u1eb1m, ng\u00e0 voi... t\u0103ng v\u1ecdt h\u1eb3n l\u00ean. Trong khi \u0111\u00f3, con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng t\u01a1 l\u1ee5a m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft t\u1eeb th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 l\u1ea1i \u0111ang b\u1ecb \u0111\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u00ec theo \u0111\u1ea1o H\u1ed3i chi\u1ebfm gi\u1eef, \u0111i qua ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 m\u1ea5t m\u1ea1ng, v\u00ec v\u1eady ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 c\u00e1ch t\u00ecm m\u1ed9t con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111i m\u1edbi tr\u00ean bi\u1ec3n. L\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi T\u00e2y \u00c2u \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi tin v\u00e0o gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft Tr\u00e1i \u0111\u1ea5t h\u00ecnh c\u1ea7u. H\u1ecd c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00f3ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng con t\u00e0u bu\u1ed3m \u0111\u00e1y nh\u1ecdn, th\u00e0nh cao, c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng v\u01b0\u1ee3t \u0111\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u01a1ng, m\u1ed7i t\u00e0u l\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 la b\u00e0n v\u00e0 th\u01b0\u1edbc ph\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1ecb, \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 t\u0103ng th\u00eam s\u1ef1 quy\u1ebft t\u00e2m cho nh\u1eefng thu\u1ef7 th\u1ee7 d\u0169ng c\u1ea3m. 1.1.2. Nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c ph\u00e1t ki\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ecba l\u00ed l\u1edbn th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XV-XVI: T\u00e2y Ban Nha v\u00e0 B\u1ed3 \u0110\u00e0o Nha l\u00e0 hai n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111i \u0111\u1ea7u trong phong tr\u00e0o ph\u00e1t ki\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ecba l\u00ed. N\u0103m 1415 m\u1ed9t tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u00e0ng h\u1ea3i do ho\u00e0ng t\u1eed Henri c\u1ee7a B\u1ed3 \u0110\u00e0o Nha s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp v\u00e0 b\u1ea3o tr\u1ee3. T\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3, h\u00e0ng n\u0103m ng\u01b0\u1eddi B\u1ed3 \u0110\u00e0o Nha t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m men theo b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n ph\u00eda t\u00e2y Ch\u00e2u Phi. N\u0103m 1486, \u0111o\u00e0n th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m B\u1ed3 \u0110\u00e0o Nha do B. Dias ch\u1ec9 huy \u0111\u00e3 t\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ef1c nam Ch\u00e2u Phi, h\u1ecd \u0111\u1eb7t t\u00ean m\u0169i \u0111\u1ea5t n\u00e0y l\u00e0 m\u0169i Hy V\u1ecdng . N\u0103m 1497, Vasc\u00f4 \u0111\u01a1 Gama (Vasco de Gama ) \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ea7m \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111o\u00e0n th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m B\u1ed3 \u0110\u00e0o Nha t\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi T\u00e2y Ban Nha l\u1ea1i \u0111i t\u00ecm \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 theo h\u01b0\u1edbng M\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi l\u1eb7n. N\u0103m 1492, m\u1ed9t \u0111o\u00e0n th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m do C. C\u00f4l\u00f4ng ( C. Colombus) ch\u1ec9 huy \u0111\u00e3 t\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c qu\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea3o mi\u1ec1n trung Ch\u00e2u M\u0129, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng l\u1ea1i t\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 t\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9. \u00d4ng g\u1ecdi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ed5 d\u00e2n \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 Indians. Sau n\u00e0y, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 h\u00e0ng h\u1ea3i ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u00dd l\u00e0 Amerigo Vespucci m\u1edbi ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a C\u00f4l\u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 m\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n m\u1edbi \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u. Amerigo \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9ng minh \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3. V\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t m\u1edbi \u0111\u00f3 sau n\u00e0y mang t\u00ean America. Th\u1eadt \u0111\u00e1ng ti\u1ebfc cho C. C\u00f4l\u00f4ng. N\u0103m 1519 - 1522, F. Magienlan \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ea7m \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111o\u00e0n th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m T\u00e2y Ban Nha l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u0111i v\u00f2ng quanh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. M\u1ed9t h\u1ea1m \u0111\u1ed9i g\u1ed3m 5 t\u00e0u v\u1edbi 265 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 v\u01b0\u1ee3t \u0110\u1ea1i T\u00e2y D\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1edbi b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a Nam M\u0129. H\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 \u0111i theo m\u1ed9t eo bi\u1ec3n h\u1eb9p g\u1ea7n c\u1ef1c nam Ch\u00e2u M\u0129 v\u00e0 sang \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u01a1ng m\u00eanh m\u00f4ng \u1edf ph\u00eda b\u00ean kia. Su\u1ed1t qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh v\u01b0\u1ee3t \u0111\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u01a1ng m\u00eanh m\u00f4ng \u0111\u00f3, \u0111o\u00e0n t\u00e0u bu\u1ed3m c\u1ee7a Magienlan h\u1ea7u nh\u01b0 kh\u00f4ng g\u1eb7p m\u1ed9t c\u01a1n b\u00e3o \u0111\u00e1ng k\u1ec3 n\u00e0o. \u00d4ng \u0111\u1eb7t t\u00ean cho \u0111\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u01a1ng m\u1edbi \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 Th\u00e1i B\u00ecnh D\u01b0\u01a1ng. F.Magienlan \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecf m\u1ea1ng \u1edf Philippin do tr\u00fang t\u00ean \u0111\u1ed9c c\u1ee7a th\u1ed5 d\u00e2n. \u0110o\u00e0n th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 18 ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng s\u00f3t tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1edbi qu\u00ea h\u01b0\u01a1ng. 247 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecf m\u1ea1ng tr\u00ean t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c v\u00f9ng bi\u1ec3n v\u00e0 c\u00e1c h\u00f2n \u0111\u1ea3o tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u00ec nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n kh\u00e1c nhau. Nh\u01b0ng th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t m\u00e0 chuy\u1ebfn \u0111i \u0111\u1ea1t","\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0 l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 \u0111i v\u00f2ng quanh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. 1.1.3. T\u00e1c d\u1ee5ng c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c ph\u00e1t ki\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ecba l\u00ed: C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m b\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ebfn \u0111i th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf \u0111\u1ea7y d\u0169ng c\u1ea3m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng minh cho gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft Tr\u00e1i \u0111\u1ea5t h\u00ecnh c\u1ea7u. H\u1ecd c\u00f2n cung c\u1ea5p cho c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft m\u1edbi v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ecba l\u00ed, thi\u00ean v\u0103n, h\u00e0ng h\u1ea3i, sinh v\u1eadt h\u1ecdc... Sau nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c ph\u00e1t ki\u1ebfn n\u00e0y, m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfp x\u00fac gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi di\u1ec5n ra do c\u00e1c c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n c\u00f3 ngu\u00f4n g\u1ed1c v\u0103n ho\u00e1 kh\u00e1c nhau nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c gi\u00e1o s\u0129, nh\u00e0 bu\u00f4n, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi khai ph\u00e1 v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t m\u1edbi, nh\u1eefng qu\u00e2n nh\u00e2n... M\u1ed9t l\u00e0n s\u00f3ng di chuy\u1ec3n d\u00e2n c\u01b0 l\u1edbn tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi trong th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVI-XVIII v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng d\u00f2ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u di chuy\u1ec3n sang Ch\u00e2u M\u0129, Ch\u00e2u \u00dac. Nhi\u1ec1u n\u00f4 l\u1ec7 da \u0111en c\u0169ng b\u1ecb c\u01b0\u1ee1ng b\u1ee9c r\u1eddi kh\u1ecfi qu\u00ea h\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u1ee9 s\u1edf sang Ch\u00e2u M\u0129 . Ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u00f4ng bu\u00f4n b\u00e1n tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi tr\u1edf n\u00ean s\u00f4i n\u1ed5i, nhi\u1ec1u c\u00f4ng ti bu\u00f4n b\u00e1n t\u1ea7m c\u1ee1 qu\u1ed1c t\u1ebf \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp. Nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c ph\u00e1t ki\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ecba l\u00ed n\u00e0y c\u0169ng g\u00e2y ra kh\u00f4ng \u00edt h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3 ti\u00eau c\u1ef1c nh\u01b0 n\u1ea1n c\u01b0\u1edbp b\u00f3c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba, bu\u00f4n b\u00e1n n\u00f4 l\u1ec7 da \u0111en v\u00e0 sau n\u00e0y l\u00e0 ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 th\u1ef1c d\u00e2n. 1.2. Th\u1eafng l\u1ee3i c\u1ee7a phong tr\u00e0o c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n ( th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVI- XVIII): S\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a th\u1ecb tr\u01b0\u1eddng tr\u00ean qui m\u00f4 to\u00e0n th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111\u00e3 t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a nhi\u1ec1u qu\u1ed1c gia, tr\u01b0\u1edbc h\u1ebft l\u00e0 c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc b\u00ean b\u1edd \u0110\u1ea1i T\u00e2y D\u01b0\u01a1ng, s\u1ef1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i s\u1ebd di\u1ec5n ra l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu. Giai c\u1ea5p t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng l\u1edbn m\u1ea1nh v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t kinh t\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng h\u1ecd ch\u01b0a c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ecba v\u1ecb ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb t\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u1ee9ng, ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng c\u1ea3n tr\u1edf c\u00e1ch l\u00e0m \u0103n c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd. Th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVI-XVIII \u0111\u00e3 di\u1ec5n ra nhi\u1ec1u cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n \u1edf T\u00e2y \u00c2u v\u00e0 B\u1eafc M\u0129. B\u01b0\u1edbc chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n qua h\u00e0ng lo\u1ea1t nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n nh\u01b0: C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n H\u00e0 Lan ( 1566-1572), C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n Anh (1640-1689), Chi\u1ebfn tranh gi\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp \u1edf B\u1eafc M\u0129 (1775-1783), C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n Ph\u00e1p(1789-1799)... C\u00e1c cu\u1ed9c bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed9ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i \u0111\u00f3 tuy c\u00e1ch xa nhau v\u1ec1 kh\u00f4ng gian, th\u1eddi gian c\u0169ng c\u00e1ch xa nhau h\u00e0ng th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng n\u00e9t gi\u1ed1ng nhau l\u00e0 nh\u1eb1m l\u1eadt \u0111\u1ed5 ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 l\u1ea1c h\u1eadu \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi, t\u1ea1o \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n cho kinh t\u1ebf t\u01b0 b\u1ea3n ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n. V\u1edbi s\u1ef1 th\u1eafng l\u1ee3i c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c qu\u1ed1c gia t\u01b0 b\u1ea3n, c\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u01a1ng nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd. L\u1ecbch s\u1eed nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i \u0111ang b\u01b0\u1edbc sang m\u1ed9t giai \u0111o\u1ea1n v\u0103n minh m\u1edbi.","II. Cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p 2.1. Nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n d\u1eabn t\u1edbi cu\u1ed9c C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p \u1edf Anh: 2.1.1. V\u1ec1 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean: Anh c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u m\u1ecf than, s\u1eaft v\u00e0 c\u00e1c m\u1ecf n\u00e0y l\u1ea1i n\u1eb1m g\u1ea7n nhau, \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 r\u1ea5t thu\u1eadn l\u1ee3i v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t kinh t\u1ebf khi kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p. V\u1ec1 nguy\u00ean li\u1ec7u, Anh c\u00f3 thu\u1eadn l\u1ee3i l\u00e0 ngu\u1ed3n l\u00f4ng c\u1eebu trong n\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0 b\u00f4ng nh\u1eadp t\u1eeb M\u0129, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean li\u1ec7u c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft cho ng\u00e0nh d\u1ec7t. C\u00e1c d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng \u1edf Anh tuy kh\u00f4ng d\u00e0i nh\u01b0ng s\u1ee9c ch\u1ea3y kh\u00e1 m\u1ea1nh, \u0111\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ea1y c\u00e1c m\u00e1y v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh b\u1eb1ng s\u1ee9c n\u01b0\u1edbc. H\u1ea3i c\u1ea3ng Anh thu\u1eadn l\u1ee3i \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0a h\u00e0ng ho\u00e1 \u0111i kh\u1eafp th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. 2.1.2. V\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i: Giai c\u1ea5p qu\u00ed t\u1ed9c Anh s\u1edbm tham gia v\u00e0o vi\u1ec7c kinh doanh v\u00e0 h\u1ecd tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp qu\u00ed t\u1ed9c m\u1edbi, c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n l\u1ee3i g\u1eafn li\u1ec1n v\u1edbi t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n, c\u00f3 c\u00e1ch nh\u00ecn c\u1ee7a t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n. Nhu c\u1ea7u v\u1ec1 l\u00f4ng c\u1eebu \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn t\u1edbi phong tr\u00e0o \u0111u\u1ed5i nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00f4ng d\u00e2n ra kh\u1ecfi ru\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 qu\u00ed t\u1ed9c bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5t \u0111ai \u0111\u00f3 th\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed3ng c\u1ecf nu\u00f4i c\u1eebu. L\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00f4ng d\u00e2n b\u1ecb d\u1ed3n \u0111u\u1ed5i ra kh\u1ecfi ru\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ea5t \u0111\u00e3 cung c\u1ea5p m\u1ed9t l\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u1edbn lao \u0111\u1ed9ng cho c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng tr\u01b0\u1eddng th\u1ee7 c\u00f4ng \u1edf c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh th\u1ecb. 2.2. Nh\u1eefng th\u00e0ng t\u1ef1u c\u1ee7a C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p: N\u0103m 1733 John Kay \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t minh ra \u201cthoi bay\u201d. Ph\u00e1t minh n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ee3 d\u1ec7t kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i lao thoi b\u1eb1ng tay v\u00e0 n\u0103ng su\u1ea5t lao \u0111\u1ed9ng l\u1ea1i t\u0103ng g\u1ea5p \u0111\u00f4i. N\u0103m 1765 Gi\u00eam Hagriv\u01a1 ( James Hagreaves ) \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ebf \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c chi\u1ebfc xa k\u00e9o s\u1ee3i k\u00e9o \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c 8 c\u1ecdc s\u1ee3i m\u1ed9t l\u00fac. \u00d4ng l\u1ea5y t\u00ean con m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 Gienny \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1eb7t cho m\u00e1y \u0111\u00f3. N\u0103m 1769, Akrai ( Richard Arkrwight ) \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ea3i ti\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c k\u00e9o s\u1ee3i kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i b\u1eb1ng tay m\u00e0 b\u1eb1ng s\u00fac v\u1eadt, sau n\u00e0y c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u00e9o b\u1eb1ng s\u1ee9c n\u01b0\u1edbc. N\u0103m 1785, ph\u00e1t minh quan tr\u1ecdng trong ng\u00e0nh d\u1ec7t l\u00e0 m\u00e1y d\u1ec7t v\u1ea3i c\u1ee7a linh m\u1ee5c \u00c9tm\u00f4n Cacrai (Edmund Cartwright). M\u00e1y n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 t\u0103ng n\u0103ng su\u1ea5t d\u1ec7t l\u00ean t\u1edbi 40 l\u1ea7n. Ph\u00e1t minh trong ng\u00e0nh d\u1ec7t c\u0169ng t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng sang c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh kh\u00e1c. L\u00fac b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd, c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 m\u00e1y d\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ec1u ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1eb7t g\u1ea7n s\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ee3i d\u1ee5ng s\u1ee9c n\u01b0\u1edbc ch\u1ea3y, \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 b\u1ea5t ti\u1ec7n r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u m\u1eb7t. N\u0103m 1784, Gi\u00eam O\u00e1t (James Watt) ph\u1ee5 t\u00e1 th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t tr\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t minh ra m\u00e1y h\u01a1i n\u01b0\u1edbc. Nh\u1edd ph\u00e1t minh n\u00e0y, nh\u00e0 m\u00e1y d\u1ec7t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1eb7t b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 n\u01a1i n\u00e0o. Kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf ph\u00e1t minh n\u00e0y c\u00f2n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 coi l\u00e0 m\u1ed1c m\u1edf \u0111\u1ea7u qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh c\u01a1 gi\u1edbi ho\u00e1. Ng\u00e0nh luy\u1ec7n kim c\u0169ng c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng b\u01b0\u1edbc ti\u1ebfn l\u1edbn. N\u0103m 1784 Henry Cort \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm ra c\u00e1ch luy\u1ec7n s\u1eaft \u201cpuddling\u201d. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p c\u1ee7a Henry Cort \u0111\u00e3 luy\u1ec7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eaft c\u00f3 ch\u1ea5t l\u01b0\u1ee3ng h\u01a1n nh\u01b0ng v\u1eabn ch\u01b0a \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c y\u00eau c\u1ea7u v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ed9 b\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a m\u00e1y m\u00f3c. N\u0103m 1885, Henry Bessemer \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t minh ra l\u00f2 cao c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng luy\u1ec7n gang l\u1ecfng th\u00e0nh th\u00e9p. Ph\u00e1t minh n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ec1 y\u00eau c\u1ea7u cao v\u1ec1 s\u1ed1","l\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u00e0 ch\u1ea5t l\u01b0\u1ee3ng th\u00e9p h\u1ed3i \u0111\u00f3. C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng c\u0169ng di\u1ec5n ra trong ng\u00e0nh giao th\u00f4ng v\u1eadn t\u1ea3i. N\u0103m 1804, chi\u1ebfc \u0111\u1ea7u m\u00e1y xe l\u1eeda \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean ch\u1ea1y b\u1eb1ng h\u01a1i n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e3 ra \u0111\u1eddi. \u0110\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1829, v\u1eadn t\u1ed1c xe l\u1eeda \u0111\u00e3 l\u00ean t\u1edbi 14 d\u1eb7m\/gi\u1edd. Th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m b\u00f9ng n\u1ed5 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng s\u1eaft \u1edf Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u v\u00e0 M\u0129. N\u0103m 1807, Ph\u01a1nt\u01a1n (Robert Fulton) \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ebf ra t\u00e0u thu\u1ef7 ch\u1ea1y b\u1eb1ng h\u01a1i n\u01b0\u1edbc thay th\u1ebf cho nh\u1eefng m\u00e1i ch\u00e8o hay nh\u1eefng c\u00e1nh bu\u1ed3m. 2.3. Nh\u1eefng h\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p: Nhi\u1ec1u khu c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n, d\u00e2n t\u1eadp trung ra c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh th\u1ecb ng\u00e0y m\u1ed9t nhi\u1ec1u d\u1eabn t\u1edbi qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh \u0111\u00f4 th\u1ecb ho\u00e1 th\u1eddi c\u1eadn \u0111\u1ea1i. Nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f4 th\u1ecb v\u1edbi d\u00e2n s\u1ed1 tr\u00ean 1 tri\u1ec7u ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u1ea7n h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh. Giai c\u1ea5p v\u00f4 s\u1ea3n c\u0169ng ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n v\u1ec1 s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng. V\u1edbi \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n s\u1ed1ng c\u1ef1c kh\u1ed5 l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3, m\u1ed7i ng\u00e0y l\u1ea1i ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0m vi\u1ec7c t\u1eeb 12 \u0111\u1ebfn 15 gi\u1edd n\u00ean nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ea5u tranh c\u1ee7a giai c\u1ea5p v\u00f4 s\u1ea3n \u0111\u00e3 s\u1edbm n\u1ed5 ra. N\u0103m 1811 - 1812, \u1edf Anh \u0111\u00e3 n\u1ed5 ra phong tr\u00e0o \u0111\u1eadp ph\u00e1 m\u00e1y m\u00f3c. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t bi\u1ec3u hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea5u tranh b\u1ed9c ph\u00e1t. B\u00e3i c\u00f4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u0169 kh\u00ed \u0111\u1ea5u tranh ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a giai c\u1ea5p v\u00f4 s\u1ea3n. Nhi\u1ec1u cu\u1ed9c b\u00e3i c\u00f4ng c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 n\u1ed5 ra. \u1ede Anh, 1836 - 1848 c\u00f2n n\u1ed5 ra phong tr\u00e0o Hi\u1ebfn ch\u01b0\u01a1ng. Quy\u1ebft li\u1ec7t h\u01a1n, \u1edf Ph\u00e1p, \u0110\u1ee9c c\u00f2n n\u1ed5 ra nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c kh\u1edfi ngh\u0129a. N\u0103m 1831 - 1834 t\u1ea1i Lion (Ph\u00e1p) v\u00e0 S\u01a1l\u00eadin (\u0110\u1ee9c) \u0111\u00e3 n\u1ed5 ra nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c kh\u1edfi ngh\u0129a. Nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ea5u tranh n\u00e0y ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf giai c\u1ea5p v\u00f4 s\u1ea3n \u0111ang tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp, \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi thay \u0111\u1ed5i s\u1ef1 th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a giai c\u1ea5p t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n.","III. Nh\u1eefng ph\u00e1t minh KHKT v\u00e0 h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb th\u1eddi c\u1eadn \u0111\u1ea1i 3.1. Nh\u1eefng ph\u00e1t minh khoa h\u1ecdc t\u1ea1o n\u00ean cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng tri th\u1ee9c th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVII-XVIII: Trong hai th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVII v\u00e0 XVIII, khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u l\u1edbn \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t trong c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh thi\u00ean v\u0103n, v\u1eadt l\u00ed, ho\u00e1 h\u1ecdc, y h\u1ecdc. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n v\u00e0 \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 t\u00ednh \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn c\u1ee7a h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft C\u00f4p\u00e9cnic l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 b\u00e1c h\u1ecdc \u0110\u1ee9c, Gi\u00f4han K\u00eaple (Johann Kepler). K\u00eaple \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra 3 \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c thi\u00ean th\u1ec3. \u0110\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t, \u00f4ng kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh Tr\u00e1i \u0110\u1ea5t chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng quanh M\u1eb7t Tr\u1eddi, kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf \u00f4ng c\u00f2n x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c qu\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1o chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng tr\u00f2n m\u00e0 l\u00e0 h\u00ecnh el\u00edp. \u0110\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt th\u1ee9 hai, K\u00eaple ch\u1ee9ng minh v\u1eadn t\u1ed1c chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a h\u00e0nh tinh t\u0103ng l\u00ean khi \u0111ang t\u1edbi g\u1ea7n M\u1eb7t Tr\u1eddi v\u00e0 gi\u1ea3m d\u1ea7n khi n\u00f3 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng xa M\u1eb7t Tr\u1eddi. \u0110\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt th\u1ee9 ba, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 x\u00e1c l\u1eadp \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00f4ng th\u1ee9c to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc gi\u1eefa th\u1eddi gian c\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ec3 h\u00e0nh tinh chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng h\u1ebft m\u1ed9t v\u00f2ng quanh M\u1eb7t Tr\u1eddi v\u00e0 kho\u1ea3ng c\u00e1ch gi\u1eefa n\u00f3 v\u1edbi M\u1eb7t Tr\u1eddi. Galil\u00ea\u00f4 Galil\u00ea (Galileo Galilei), m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u00dd \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ebf t\u1ea1o ra k\u00ednh thi\u00ean v\u0103n \u0111\u1ec3 quan s\u00e1t b\u1ea7u tr\u1eddi. Galil\u00ea c\u0169ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 nhi\u1ec7t t\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a C\u00f4pecnic. \u00d4ng c\u00f2n l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp l\u00e0m th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 r\u01a1i t\u1ef1 do tr\u00ean th\u00e1p nghi\u00eang Piza...C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i Galil\u00ea l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh h\u00e0ng lo\u1ea1t th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u00f3 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng. V\u00ec v\u1eady, sau n\u00e0y ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta coi Galil\u00ea l\u00e0 cha \u0111\u1ebb c\u1ee7a ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m trong khoa h\u1ecdc. M\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00ed ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh, William Gilbert trong m\u1ed9t quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n n\u0103m 1600 \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch Tr\u00e1i \u0110\u1ea5t nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t c\u1ee5c nam ch\u00e2m kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3 t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb tr\u01b0\u1eddng (nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng m\u1ea1nh), \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0m kim la b\u00e0n ch\u1ec9 xoay v\u1ec1 h\u01b0\u1edbng B\u1eafc. \u00d4ng c\u00f2n nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng t\u0129nh \u0111i\u1ec7n. \u00d4ng th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng, kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 h\u1ed5 ph\u00e1ch khi b\u1ecb ch\u00e0 x\u00e1t m\u1edbi h\u00fat c\u00e1c v\u1eadt nh\u1eb9 m\u00e0 c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng th\u1ee9 kh\u00e1c nh\u01b0 thu\u1ef7 tinh ... c\u0169ng c\u00f3 t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t nh\u01b0 v\u1eady. \u00d4ng g\u1ecdi \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng h\u1ed5 ph\u00e1ch - electric. ( electric do t\u1eeb electron theo ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 h\u1ed5 ph\u00e1ch). Niut\u01a1n ( I . Newton ) l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 b\u00e1c h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00ed v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVIII. \u0110\u00f3ng g\u00f3p v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a Niut\u01a1n n\u1eb1m trong 3 \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt mang t\u00ean \u00f4ng m\u00e0 n\u1ed5i b\u1eadt l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt V\u1ea1n v\u1eadt h\u1ea5p d\u1eabn. C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 coi Niut\u01a1n l\u00e0 h\u00f2n \u0111\u00e1 t\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n v\u1eadt l\u00ed c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n. T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Niut\u01a1n l\u00e0 C\u00e1c nguy\u00ean l\u00ed to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean V\u1ec1 ho\u00e1 h\u1ecdc, Joseph Priestley l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadt s\u01b0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 ra oxy. Y h\u1ecdc c\u0169ng c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9. Adreas Vesalius, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi B\u1ec9 \u0111\u00e3 cho in cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch V\u1ec1 c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac c\u1ee7a c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi. \u0110\u1ec3 vi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch n\u00e0y, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ea3i nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u t\u1eed thi. \u00d4ng ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ec9 bi\u1ebft v\u00f9i \u0111\u1ea7u v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 y h\u1ecdc th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. Hacv\u00e2y (William Harvey), m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 sinh l\u00ed ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh \u0111\u00e3 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u v\u1ec1 h\u1ec7 tu\u1ea7n ho\u00e0n c\u1ee7a chim, c\u00e1, \u1ebfch. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 v\u1ec1 h\u1ec7 tu\u1ea7n ho\u00e0n m\u00e1u trong c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi qua quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch Ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh gi\u1ea3i ph\u1eabu \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a tim v\u00e0 m\u00e1u trong c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 lo\u00e0i v\u1eadt. 3.2. Nh\u1eefng ph\u00e1t minh khoa h\u1ecdc, k\u0129 thu\u1eadt n\u1ed5i b\u1eadt trong th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX:","Cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng tri th\u1ee9c trong th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVIII \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n cho nh\u1eefng ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 \u1edf nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 sau. \u0110ant\u01a1n (John Dalton), m\u1ed9t gi\u00e1o vi\u00ean ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh cho r\u1eb1ng m\u1ecdi v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ec1u c\u1ea5u t\u1ea1o b\u1edfi c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean t\u1eed. Nguy\u00ean t\u1eed c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c ch\u1ea5t kh\u00e1c nhau th\u00ec c\u00f3 kh\u1ed1i l\u01b0\u1ee3ng kh\u00e1c nhau. C\u00e1c nguy\u00ean t\u1eed h\u1ee3p th\u00e0nh t\u1eebng \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb ( b\u00e2y gi\u1edd ta g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ph\u00e2n t\u1eed). \u00d4ng c\u00f2n mi\u00eau t\u1ea3 ch\u00fang b\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng c\u00f4ng th\u1ee9c ho\u00e1 h\u1ecdc. M\u1ed9t ph\u00e1t minh v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t ho\u00e1 h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 B\u1ea3ng h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng tu\u1ea7n ho\u00e0n n\u0103m 1869 c\u1ee7a Dmitri Mendeleev, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 ho\u00e1 h\u1ecdc Nga. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 x\u1eafp x\u1ebfp c\u00e1c ch\u1ea5t ho\u00e1 h\u1ecdc th\u00e0nh t\u1eebng nh\u00f3m theo kh\u1ed1i l\u01b0\u1ee3ng ri\u00eang, t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t ri\u00eang c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang. \u00d4ng c\u00f2n d\u1ef1 \u0111o\u00e1n m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ch\u1ea5t m\u00e0 lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea5p v\u00e0o ch\u1ed7 tr\u1ed1ng trong B\u1ea3ng tu\u1ea7n ho\u00e0n c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c \u0111\u00e1ng kinh ng\u1ea1c. N\u0103m 1800, Vonta (\u00dd) \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ebf t\u1ea1o ra pin do t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng ho\u00e1 h\u1ecdc. N\u0103m 1831, Michael Faraday (Anh) \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng minh d\u00f2ng \u0111i\u1ec7n s\u1ebd xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n khi ta di chuy\u1ec3n \u1ed1ng d\u00e2y qua m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb tr\u01b0\u1eddng. Ph\u00e1t minh c\u1ee7a Faraday \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o c\u01a1 s\u1edf cho vi\u1ec7c ch\u1ebf t\u1ea1o ra m\u00e1y ph\u00e1t \u0111i\u1ec7n sau n\u00e0y. N\u0103m 1860 Macxel (James Clerk Maxwell), m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Scotland \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra l\u00ed thuy\u1ebft gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u0169ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t d\u1ea1ng c\u1ee7a s\u00f3ng \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eeb m\u00e0 trong kho\u1ea3ng m\u1eaft ta nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. T\u1edbi n\u0103m 1885, Heinrich Hertz \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng minh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 kh\u00e1c nhau c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i s\u00f3ng \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eeb kh\u00e1c nhau. Sau n\u00e0y ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta l\u1ea5y t\u00ean Hertz \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1eb7t cho \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb \u0111o chu k\u00ec. N\u0103m 1895, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0110\u1ee9c kh\u00e1c l\u00e0 R\u01a1nghen (Wilhelm Roentgen) \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i tia c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e2m xuy\u00ean qua c\u00e1c v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 r\u1eafn, \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 xuy\u00ean qua \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. \u00d4ng g\u1ecdi \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 tia X . N\u0103m 1898, hai \u00f4ng b\u00e0 Pierre v\u00e0 Marie Curie ( Ph\u00e1p) \u0111\u00e3 tinh ch\u1ebf \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ea5t radium v\u00e0 ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra t\u00ednh ph\u00f3ng x\u1ea1 c\u1ee7a n\u00f3. V\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t th\u00f4ng tin, ph\u00e1t minh quan tr\u1ecdng ph\u1ea3i k\u1ec3 t\u1edbi l\u00e0 n\u0103m 1876 Alexander Graham Bell \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t minh ra m\u00e1y \u0111i\u1ec7n tho\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean. 1879 Thomas A. Edison \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m cho \u0111i\u1ec7n ph\u00e1t s\u00e1ng \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng . V\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t k\u0129 thu\u1eadt, \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX kh\u00ed \u0111\u1ed1t v\u00e0 gas \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh v\u00e0 Ph\u00e1p \u0111\u01b0a v\u00e0o ph\u1ee5cv\u1ee5 cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng. 1897 m\u1ed9t k\u0129 s\u01b0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0110\u1ee9c l\u00e0 R . Diesel \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ebf ra m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u01a1 \u0111\u1ed1t trong kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n bugi, s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng d\u1ea7u c\u1eb7n nh\u1eb9. \u0110\u1ed9ng c\u01a1 Diesel ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 mang t\u00ean \u00f4ng. V\u1ec1 y h\u1ecdc, ph\u00e1t minh quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX ph\u1ea3i k\u1ec3 t\u1edbi Louis Pasteur (Ph\u00e1p), \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ebf ra c\u00e1ch ng\u1eeba b\u1ec7nh m\u1edbi l\u00e0 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng vaccin. V\u1ec1 Sinh h\u1ecdc, ph\u00e1t minh quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX ph\u1ea3i k\u1ec3 t\u1edbi Charles Darwin. N\u0103m 1859 \u0110acuyn \u0111\u00e3 cho ra \u0111\u1eddi t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c c\u00e1c lo\u00e0i qua con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng ch\u1ecdn l\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. Trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y 3 \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu: \u0111\u1ea5u tranh sinh t\u1ed3n, ch\u1ecdn l\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a gi\u1ed1ng th\u00edch \u1ee9ng v\u1edbi m\u00f4i tr\u01b0\u1eddng t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh c\u01a1 s\u1edf c\u1ee7a h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft ti\u1ebfn ho\u00e1 c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n. V\u1ec1 di truy\u1ec1n h\u1ecdc, Gregor Mendel (\u00c1o) \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft ch\u1ee9ng minh s\u1ef1 di truy\u1ec1n nh\u1eefng ph\u1ea9m ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf h\u1ec7 tr\u01b0\u1edbc cho th\u1ebf h\u1ec7 sau qua nh\u1eefng ph\u00e2n t\u1eed c\u1ef1c nh\u1ecf, m\u00e0 sau n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 gien. V\u1ec1 t\u00e2m l\u00ed h\u1ecdc, cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX c\u00f3 hai ph\u00e1t minh quan tr\u1ecdng l\u00e0 c\u1ee7a Papl\u1ed1p (Ivan Pavlov) v\u00e0 Fr\u01a1t (Sigmund Freud). Papl\u00f4p \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra ph\u1ea3n x\u1ea1 c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n.Th\u1eed nghi\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a Papl\u00f4p \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch nhi\u1ec1u h\u00e0nh vi c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eb1ng l\u00ed tr\u00ed, th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng m\u00e1y m\u00f3c tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u00e1c k\u00edch th\u00edch \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh t\u1eadp t\u00ednh. C\u00f2n h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Fr\u01a1t th\u00ec gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch nhi\u1ec1u h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng nhu c\u1ea7u, \u01b0\u1edbc mu\u1ed1n ti\u1ec1m \u1ea9n. Fr\u01a1t \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra ng\u00e0nh ph\u00e2n t\u00e2m h\u1ecdc 3.3. Nh\u1eefng h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb th\u1eddi c\u1eadn \u0111\u1ea1i: 3.3.1. H\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n v\u00e0 qu\u1ed1c gia d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX: Nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1ecfi nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec1m ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9c","\u0111o\u00e1n c\u1ee7a ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 phong ki\u1ebfn. Con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng c\u00f3 \u00fd th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n v\u00e0 quy\u1ec1n b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c. Trong \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, nh\u1eefng h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n v\u00e0 quy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh. V\u1ec1 quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n ph\u1ea3i k\u1ec3 t\u1edbi nh\u1eefng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Gi\u00f4n Min (John Stuart Mill - Anh) qua t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 t\u1ef1 do. Gi\u00f4n Min \u0111\u00e3 n\u00eau l\u00ean nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc, c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec mi\u1ec5m l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng h\u1ea1i t\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c, kh\u00f4ng \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng t\u1edbi quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c. Trong th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng, vi\u1ec7c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc n\u00e0y c\u00f2n ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u v\u00e0o tr\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e2n tr\u00ed v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 nghi\u00eam minh c\u1ee7a ph\u00e1p lu\u1eadt. T\u00f4c\u01a1vin (Alexis de Tocqueville - Ph\u00e1p) th\u00ec vi\u1ebft t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m N\u1ec1n d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 Hoa K\u00ec. Qua t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u00e0y, \u00f4ng cho r\u1eb1ng tr\u00e0o l\u01b0u d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 \u0111ang l\u00ean l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 n\u00e0o ng\u0103n c\u1ea3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. \u00d4ng ca ng\u1ee3i tinh th\u1ea7n d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7, s\u1ef1 th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng v\u00e0 s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u0129, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng c\u0169ng \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch thi\u1ebfu t\u1ebf nh\u1ecb, ng\u1ea1o m\u1ea1n, th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 M\u0129 theo c\u00e1ch nh\u00ecn c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00e1p. V\u1ec1 quy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c th\u00ec l\u1ea1i c\u00f3 hai xu h\u01b0\u1edbng tr\u00e1i ng\u01b0\u1ee3c nhau. Xu h\u01b0\u1edbng th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t cho r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed7i d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n ch\u1ecdn c\u00e1ch s\u1ed1ng ri\u00eang cho d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c m\u00ecnh, kh\u00f4ng d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n x\u00e2m ph\u1ea1m. Nh\u00e0 \u00e1i qu\u1ed1c ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u00dd l\u00e0 Madini (Mazzini) \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec3 c\u1ea3 cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi m\u00ecnh ki\u00ean quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ea5u tranh b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y. C\u00e1c cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ea5u tranh c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 y\u00eau n\u01b0\u1edbc \u1edf v\u00f9ng Banc\u0103ng ch\u1ed1 l\u1ea1i s\u1ef1 th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a ngo\u1ea1i bang c\u0169ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m \u0111\u00f3. Xu h\u01b0\u1edbng th\u1ee9 hai th\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i, m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 nh\u00e0 l\u00ed lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c l\u1edbn th\u00ec cho l\u00e0 d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c m\u00ecnh si\u00eau \u0111\u1eb3ng h\u01a1n, c\u00f3 s\u1ee9 m\u1ec7nh ph\u1ea3i gi\u00fap c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c kh\u00e1c khai ho\u00e1 v\u0103n minh, ch\u1ec9 b\u1ea3o cho c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c k\u00e9m h\u01a1n c\u00e1ch s\u1ed1ng h\u1ee3p l\u00ed. H\u1ecd c\u00f2n l\u1ee3i d\u1ee5ng h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft \u0110acuyn v\u1ec1 c\u1ea1nh tranh sinh t\u1ed3n \u0111\u1ec3 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng v\u00e0o x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i. L\u00ed lu\u1eadn n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1edbi th\u1ef1c d\u00e2n r\u1ea5t \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 v\u00ec n\u00f3 ch\u1ee9ng minh cho s\u1ef1 \u201cc\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft\u201d c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t ch\u01b0a ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n. 3.3.2. Nh\u1eefng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX: T\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i \u0111\u00e3 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVI v\u1edbi t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Utopia c\u1ee7a Tomat Mor\u01a1 (Thomas More - Anh), t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u00e0y ph\u1ea3n \u00e1nh \u01b0\u1edbc m\u01a1 m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i c\u00f4ng x\u00e3 n\u00f4ng th\u00f4n thanh b\u00ecnh d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t n\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi th\u1ee7 c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng CNXH c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX \u0111\u00e3 th\u1ea5y s\u1ef1 t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p. T\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 h\u1ecd n\u1ea3y sinh t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf b\u00f3c l\u1ed9t, h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf s\u1ef1 c\u00e1ch bi\u1ec7t gi\u00e0u ngh\u00e8o, kh\u1eafc ph\u1ee5c nh\u1eefng m\u1eb7t ti\u00eau c\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i t\u01b0 b\u1ea3n. Ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u cho c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a kh\u00f4ng t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX l\u00e0 Xanh Xim\u00f4ng, Sacl\u01a1 Phuri\u00ea v\u00e0 R\u00f4b\u01a1t \u00d4en. Xanh Xim\u00f4ng (Saint Simon 1760-1825 - Ph\u00e1p) nh\u1eadn th\u1ea5y m\u00e2u thu\u1eabn gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u00ean l\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u00ean l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0m thu\u00ea r\u1ea5t ngh\u00e8o kh\u1ed5. \u00d4ng ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i m\u1edbi do \u201cnh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p s\u00e1ng su\u1ed1t\u201d \u0111i\u1ec1u h\u00e0nh, trong \u0111\u00f3 m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1u lao \u0111\u1ed9ng theo k\u1ebf ho\u1ea1ch v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u01b0\u1edfng th\u1ee5 b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng. \u0110\u1ec3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, \u00f4ng ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng theo con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng b\u1ea1o l\u1ef1c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng. Sacl\u01a1 Phuri\u00ea ( Charles Fourrier 1772-1837 - Ph\u00e1p) c\u0169ng ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n s\u1ef1 b\u1ea5t c\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i t\u01b0 b\u1ea3n, \u00f4ng v\u1ea1ch r\u00f5 \u201cs\u1ef1 ngh\u00e8o kh\u1ed5 sinh ra t\u1eeb b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n s\u1ef1 th\u1eeba th\u00e3i\u201d. \u00d4ng v\u1ea1ch ra d\u1ef1 \u00e1n x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng x\u00e3 (Phal\u0103ng - Falange) trong \u0111\u00f3 m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1u lao \u0111\u1ed9ng, coi lao \u0111\u1ed9ng l\u00e0 ngu\u1ed3n vui. Trong c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng x\u00e3 c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p gi\u1eefa c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p v\u1edbi n\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p. S\u1ef1 h\u01b0\u1edfng th\u1ee5 s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c chia theo t\u1ec9 l\u1ec7: 5\/12 cho lao \u0111\u1ed9ng, 4\/12 cho t\u00e0i n\u0103ng, 3\/12 cho nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi g\u00f3p v\u1ed1n x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng Falange. \u00d4ng k\u00eau g\u1ecdi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 g\u00f3p v\u1ed1n x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng Falange, nh\u01b0ng l\u1eddi k\u00eau g\u1ecdi c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng ch\u1eb3ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ai \u0111\u00e1p l\u1ea1i. R\u00f4b\u01a1t \u00d4en (Robert Owen 1771-1858 - Anh) v\u1ed1n xu\u1ea5t th\u00e2n t\u1eeb m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0m thu\u00ea, bi\u1ebft l\u00e0m \u0103n v\u00e0 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh \u00f4ng ch\u1ee7. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecf v\u1ed1n c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh ra l\u00e0m g\u01b0\u01a1ng, x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t c\u01a1 s\u1edf l\u00e0m \u0103n. Trong c\u01a1 s\u1edf c\u1ee7a \u00d4en t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 c\u1ee7a chung, m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f9ng l\u00e0m vi\u1ec7c m\u1ed7i ng\u00e0y l\u00e0 10 gi\u1edd, c\u00f3 nh\u00e0 tr\u1ebb","cho c\u00f4ng nh\u00e2n n\u1eef g\u1eedi con nh\u1ecf, l\u1ee3i nhu\u1eadn l\u00e0m ra \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00ec chia c\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng... Vi\u1ec7c l\u00e0m \u0111\u00f3 c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng sau n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i v\u00ec s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a x\u01b0\u1edfng \u00f4ng l\u00e0m ra kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ee7 s\u1ee9c c\u1ea1nh tranh tr\u00ean th\u1ecb tr\u01b0\u1eddng. \u00d4ng b\u1ecf sang M\u0129 th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh l\u1ea7n n\u1eefa nh\u01b0ng c\u0169ng th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i v\u00e0 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng ph\u1ea3i b\u1ecf v\u1ec1 Anh trong c\u1ea3nh ngh\u00e8o kh\u00f3. H\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i kh\u00f4ng t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ea7y t\u00ednh nh\u00e2n \u0111\u1ea1o nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u1ec1u th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i khi \u0111em ra thi h\u00e0nh. N\u00f3i nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta ng\u00e0y nay l\u00e0 thi\u1ebfu t\u00ednh kh\u1ea3 thi. Tuy v\u1eady, nh\u1eefng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng quan tr\u1ecdng t\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ra \u0111\u1eddi h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i khoa h\u1ecdc sau n\u00e0y do C. M\u00e1c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng. 3.3.3. H\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i khoa h\u1ecdc: C.M\u00e1c (Kark Marx - 1818-1883) v\u00e0 F.Enghen (Friedrich Engels - 1820-1895) \u0111\u00e3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng v\u1ec1 h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i khoa h\u1ecdc qua t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Tuy\u00ean ng\u00f4n c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ea3ng C\u1ed9ng s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n th\u00e1ng 2 n\u0103m 1848. Trong Tuy\u00ean ng\u00f4n C.M\u00e1c v\u00e0 F.Enghen \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng minh l\u1ecbch s\u1eed lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u00ecnh th\u00e1i kinh t\u1ebf x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i n\u1ed1i ti\u1ebfp thay th\u1ebf nhau, x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i sau s\u1ebd t\u1ea1o ra n\u0103ng su\u1ea5t lao \u0111\u1ed9ng cao h\u01a1n x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i tr\u01b0\u1edbc. \u0110\u1ea5u tranh giai c\u1ea5p l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9ng l\u1ef1c ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n trong x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i c\u00f3 giai c\u1ea5p. \u0110\u1ea5u tranh giai c\u1ea5p c\u1ee7a giai c\u1ea5p v\u00f4 s\u1ea3n s\u1ebd d\u1eabn t\u1edbi s\u1ef1 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i m\u1edbi c\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng h\u01a1n, ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 h\u01a1n. Giai c\u1ea5p c\u00f4ng nh\u00e2n, t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c ra ch\u00ednh \u0111\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng v\u00f4 s\u1ea3n, ti\u1ebfn l\u00ean x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u00e0 thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 gi\u1eefa c\u00f4ng nh\u00e2n c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc theo tinh th\u1ea7n qu\u1ed1c t\u1ebf v\u00f4 s\u1ea3n. T\u1edbi \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX, V.I.L\u00eanin (Vladimir Ilich Lenine - Nga) \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n th\u00eam l\u00ed lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a M\u00e1c- Enghen v\u00e0 v\u1eadn d\u1ee5ng l\u00ed lu\u1eadn \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0o ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh n\u01b0\u1edbc Nga, ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ea1o phong tr\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea5u tranh \u1edf Nga \u0111i t\u1edbi th\u1eafng l\u1ee3i c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng th\u00e1ng M\u01b0\u1eddi Nga n\u0103m 1917.","IV. Nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u v\u1ec1 v\u0103n h\u1ecdc ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt 4.1. V\u1ec1 v\u0103n h\u1ecdc: Nh\u1eefng bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a l\u1ecbch s\u1eed th\u1eddi c\u1eadn \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u0103n h\u1ecdc Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u ph\u1ea3n \u00e1nh m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch sinh \u0111\u1ed9ng, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 v\u0103n h\u1ecdc Ph\u00e1p. Sau th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Nap\u00f4l\u00ea\u00f4ng v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i t\u1ea1m th\u1eddi c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c th\u1ebf l\u1ef1c b\u1ea3o ho\u00e0ng, \u1edf Ph\u00e1p \u0111\u00e3 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n m\u1ed9t d\u00f2ng v\u0103n h\u1ecdc l\u00e3ng m\u1ea1n th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n s\u1ef1 nu\u1ed1i ti\u1ebfc m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi v\u00e0ng son \u0111\u00e3 qua c\u1ee7a gi\u1edbi qu\u00ed t\u1ed9c. \u0110\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u cho tr\u00e0o l\u01b0u n\u00e0y l\u00e0 Sat\u00f4bri\u0103ng (Chateabriand - 1768-1848). V\u00edchto Huyg\u00f4 (Vitor Hugo - 1802-1885) l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 v\u0103n ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u cho tr\u00e0o l\u01b0u l\u00e3ng m\u1ea1n ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9. \u00d4ng th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n s\u1ef1 th\u00f4ng c\u1ea3m v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ngh\u00e8o kh\u1ed5 qua c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1ed1n kh\u1ed5, Nh\u00e0 th\u1edd \u0110\u1ee9c B\u00e0 Pari. Qua c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m, V\u00edchto Huyg\u00f4 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n l\u00f2ng kh\u00e1t khao mu\u1ed1n v\u01b0\u01a1n t\u1edbi m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i t\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eb9p, c\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng v\u00e0 chan ch\u1ee9a t\u00ecnh nh\u00e2n \u0111\u1ea1o. X\u00e3 h\u1ed9i t\u01b0 b\u1ea3n kh\u1eafc nghi\u1ec7t, t\u00e0n b\u1ea1o c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ea3n \u00e1nh qua d\u00f2ng v\u0103n h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c m\u00e0 ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 Band\u0103c (Honor\u00e9 de Balzac - 1799-1850). Nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng nh\u01b0 \u01a0gi\u00eani Gran\u0111\u00ea, Mi\u1ebfng da l\u1eeba...v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m kh\u00e1c. Nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u00f3 c\u1ee7a Band\u1eafc \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3ct\u1eadp h\u1ee3p trong b\u1ed9 T\u1ea5n tr\u00f2 \u0111\u1eddi. Nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m nh\u01b0 \u0110\u1ecf v\u00e0 \u0110en c\u1ee7a Xt\u0103ng\u0111an (Stendhal - 1783-1842), Vi\u00ean m\u1ee1 b\u00f2 c\u1ee7a Guy de M\u00f4pats\u0103ng (Guy de Maupassant) c\u0169ng ph\u1ea3n \u00e1nh x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i t\u01b0 b\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ea7y b\u1ea5t c\u00f4ng, t\u00e0n b\u1ea1o. V\u0103n h\u1ecdc Nga th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX c\u0169ng c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p quan tr\u1ecdng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m nh\u01b0 Chi\u1ebfn tranh v\u00e0 ho\u00e0 b\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a Liep T\u00f4nxt\u00f4i. Nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 v\u0103n t\u00ean tu\u1ed5i kh\u00e1c c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n v\u0103n h\u1ecdc Nga th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX ph\u1ea3i k\u1ec3 t\u1edbi l\u00e0 Tu\u00f4cgh\u00eanh\u00eaep, G\u00f4g\u00f4n, \u0110\u00f4xt\u00f4iepxki, Bi\u00ealixki... 4.2. V\u1ec1 ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt: \u00c2m nh\u1ea1c th\u1eddi c\u1eadn \u0111\u1ea1i th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVIII v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng nh\u1ea1c s\u0129 l\u1edbn nh\u01b0 B\u00e1ch, M\u00f4za, th\u00ec \u0111\u1ebf th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a B\u00eat\u00f4ven (Ludwig van Beethoven - \u0110\u1ee9c), S\u00f4panh ( Fr\u00e9deric Chopin - Ba Lan)... H\u1ed9i ho\u1ea1 theo xu h\u01b0\u1edbng l\u00e3ng m\u1ea1n th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111i t\u00ecm nh\u1eefng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u1eddi xa l\u1ea1. Danh ho\u1ea1 Ph\u00e1p \u0110\u01a1lacroa (Delacroix) th\u01b0\u1eddng v\u1ebd nh\u1eefng k\u1ecb s\u0129 Ar\u1eadp, nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c \u0111i s\u0103n. \u0110\u1ebfn cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX, danh ho\u1ea1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi T\u00e2y Ban Nha l\u00e0 Goya \u0111\u00e3 v\u1ebd nh\u1eefng c\u1ea3nh t\u00e0n kh\u1ed1c trong cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh ch\u1ed1ng Nap\u00f4l\u00ea\u00f4ng. \u0110i\u00eau kh\u1eafc th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i nhi\u1ec1u t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m nh\u01b0 th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng. Nh\u00e0 \u0111i\u00eau kh\u1eafc Ph\u00e1p Bact\u00f4n\u0111i (Bartholdi) \u0111\u00e3 ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng N\u1eef th\u1ea7n t\u1ef1 do \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7 Ph\u00e1p g\u1eedi t\u1eb7ng n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u0129. ( M\u1ed9t phi\u00ean b\u1ea3n nh\u1ecf, cao g\u1ea5p 1,5 l\u1ea7n ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1eadt c\u1ee7a b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0y c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t t\u1ea1i H\u00e0 N\u1ed9i \u1edf m\u1ed9t c\u00f4ng vi\u00ean m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi H\u00e0 N\u1ed9i g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 V\u01b0\u1eddn hoa B\u00e0 \u0110\u1ea7m, ti\u1ebfc r\u1eb1ng phi\u00ean b\u1ea3n n\u00e0y ng\u00e0y nay kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n n\u1eefa. Ch\u00fang ta ch\u1ec9 c\u00f2n th\u1ea5y d\u1ea5u v\u1ebft qua \u0111\u1ed3ng 50 cen ti\u1ec1n \u0110\u00f4ng D\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u01b0a kia). Kh\u1ea3i ho\u00e0n m\u00f4n \u1edf Pari v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u dinh th\u1ef1 \u1edf Pari c\u0169ng c\u00f2n gi\u1eef l\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111i\u00eau kh\u1eafc gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX. Ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac \u00c2u - M\u0129 th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX r\u1ea5t \u0111a d\u1ea1ng, th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 giao l\u01b0u v\u0103n ho\u00e1 r\u1ed9ng m\u1edf. N\u00e9t m\u1edbi v\u1ec1 ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac giai \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y l\u00e0 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c x\u00e2m nh\u1eadp v\u00e0o ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac qua c\u00e1c v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u m\u1edbi nh\u01b0 th\u00e9p, b\u00ea t\u00f4ng, k\u00ednh d\u00e0y. M\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac M\u0129 l\u00e0 Lui Sulivan (Louis Sulivan) \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a v\u00e0o c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u00f4ng n\u0103ng. Theo \u00f4ng, c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft k\u1ebf ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi ch\u1ee9c n\u0103ng","c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang. Ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n m\u1ed9t ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 gi\u1ed1ng m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ec1n \u0111\u00e0i t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, m\u1ed9t th\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u00e1 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 gi\u1ed1ng m\u1ed9t l\u00e2u \u0111\u00e0i trung c\u1ed5 . \u0110\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac h\u00e0nh ch\u00ednh th\u1eddi k\u00ec n\u00e0y th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n m\u1ed9t phong c\u00e1ch r\u00f5 r\u1ec7t m\u00e0 ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 to\u00e0 nh\u00e0 Qu\u1ed1c h\u1ed9i M\u0129 (1793-1851) v\u00e0 to\u00e0 nh\u00e0 Qu\u1ed1c h\u1ed9i Anh (1840-1865). Th\u1eddi c\u1eadn \u0111\u1ea1i, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 giai \u0111o\u1ea1n th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00e1nh d\u1ea5u b\u01b0\u1edbc ngo\u1eb7t c\u0103n b\u1ea3n chuy\u1ec3n t\u1eeb lao \u0111\u1ed9ng b\u1eb1ng tay sang lao \u0111\u1ed9ng b\u1eb1ng m\u00e1y. Lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 chuy\u1ec3n t\u1eeb n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh n\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p sang n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p. N\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra c\u00e1ch nh\u00ecn m\u1edbi, k\u00e9o theo nh\u1eefng bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed5i l\u1edbn v\u1ec1 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, v\u0103n ho\u00e1, x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i. Lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0o m\u1ed9t giai \u0111o\u1ea1n m\u1edbi c\u1ee7a v\u0103n minh nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i.","Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng VIII: V\u0102N MINH TH\u1ebe GI\u1edaI TH\u1ebe K\u1ef6 XX","I. V\u0103n minh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi n\u1eefa \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XX 1. C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng th\u00e1ng M\u01b0\u1eddi Nga v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean X\u00f4 : \u0110\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX, n\u01b0\u1edbc Nga l\u00e0 n\u01a1i ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng nh\u1eefng m\u00e2u thu\u1eabn gay g\u1eaft c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi : m\u00e2u thu\u1eabn gi\u1eefa t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n v\u1edbi v\u00f4 s\u1ea3n, gi\u1eefa \u0111\u1ecba ch\u1ee7 v\u1edbi n\u00f4ng d\u00e2n, gi\u1eefa ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Nga ho\u00e0ng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba, gi\u1eefa \u0111\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Nga v\u1edbi c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c kh\u00e1c. Chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ea9y c\u00e1c m\u00e2u thu\u1eabn \u0111\u00f3 t\u1edbi c\u1ef1c \u0111i\u1ec3m. Th\u00e1ng 2\/1917 \u0111\u00e3 n\u1ed5 ra cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n \u1edf Nga. Cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng th\u00e1ng 2\/1917 \u0111\u00e3 l\u1eadt \u0111\u1ed5 ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 chuy\u00ean ch\u1ebf c\u1ee7a Nga ho\u00e0ng, n\u01b0\u1edbc Nga tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t n\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n. Th\u1eafng l\u1ee3i n\u00e0y c\u00f3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a r\u1ea5t to l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi l\u1ecbch s\u1eed n\u01b0\u1edbc Nga. Th\u00e1ng 4\/1917 L\u00eanin t\u1eeb n\u01b0\u1edbc ngo\u00e0i tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft b\u1ea3n Lu\u1eadn c\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00e1ng T\u01b0. B\u1ea3n Lu\u1eadn c\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00e1ng T\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 v\u1ea1ch ra con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0a n\u01b0\u1edbc Nga t\u1eeb m\u1ed9t ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 c\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 t\u01b0 s\u1ea3n ti\u1ebfn t\u1edbi ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 X\u00f4 Vi\u1ebft. \u0110\u1ea3ng B\u00f4ns\u00eav\u00edch v\u00e0 V. I . L\u00eanin \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o giai c\u1ea5p c\u00f4ng nh\u00e2n Nga c\u00f9ng nh\u00e2n d\u00e2n ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh cu\u1ed9c C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng th\u00e1ng M\u01b0\u1eddi ( theo l\u1ecbch chung to\u00e0n th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi l\u00e0 7\/11\/1917). Cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng th\u00e1ng M\u01b0\u1eddi Nga n\u0103m 1917 \u0111\u00e3 m\u1edf ra m\u1ed9t k\u1ec9 nguy\u00ean m\u1edbi cho n\u01b0\u1edbc Nga m\u00e0 c\u00f2n \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng s\u00e2u \u0111\u1eadm t\u1edbi l\u1ecbch s\u1eed th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. Ngay trong \u0111\u00eam th\u1eafng l\u1ee3i \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng, ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n X\u00f4 Vi\u1ebft do L\u00eanin \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u00e3 ban h\u00e0nh S\u1eafc lu\u1eadt v\u1ec1 ho\u00e0 b\u00ecnh v\u00e0 S\u1eafc lu\u1eadt v\u1ec1 ru\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ea5t. T\u1edbi th\u00e1ng 3\/1918 ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n X\u00f4 Vi\u1ebft \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp trong c\u1ea3 n\u01b0\u1edbc. Ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n X\u00f4 Vi\u1ebft \u0111\u00e3 ban h\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1t nh\u1eefng s\u1eafc l\u1ec7nh quan tr\u1ecdng kh\u00e1c nh\u01b0, xo\u00e1 b\u1ecf s\u1ef1 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p v\u00e0 m\u1ecdi t\u01b0\u01a1c v\u1ecb phong ki\u1ebfn; tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 quy\u1ec1n b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng nam n\u1eef; Tuy\u00ean ng\u00f4n v\u1ec1 quy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c ; tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do t\u00edn ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng. T\u1eeb n\u0103m 1917 \u0111\u1ebfn 1920, N\u01b0\u1edbc Nga X\u00f4 Vi\u1ebft \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i n\u1ea1n ngo\u1ea1i x\u00e2m v\u00e0 n\u1ed9i ph\u1ea3n. Sau khi \u0111\u1ea9y l\u00f9i n\u1ea1n ngo\u1ea1i x\u00e2m v\u00e0 n\u1ed9i ph\u1ea3n, ng\u00e0y 30\/12\/1922 Li\u00ean bang C\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a X\u00f4 Vi\u1ebft \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp (g\u1ecdi t\u1eaft l\u00e0 Li\u00ean X\u00f4). Li\u00ean X\u00f4 l\u00fac \u0111\u1ea7u g\u1ed3m c\u00f3 4 n\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 Li\u00ean bang (Nga, Ucraina, B\u00ealarutsia v\u00e0 Da Capcad\u01a1), 13 n\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 t\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb v\u00e0 6 t\u1ec9nh t\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb. Sau kho\u1ea3ng n\u1eeda th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n, t\u1edbi gi\u1eefa th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX Li\u00ean X\u00f4 \u0111\u00e3 g\u1ed3m 15 n\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 li\u00ean bang v\u00e0 20 n\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 t\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb, 8 t\u1ec9nh t\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb v\u00e0 10 khu d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c. 1.2. Nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu trong c\u00f4ng cu\u1ed9c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng CNXH \u1edf Li\u00ean X\u00f4 : 1.2.1 : V\u1ec1 kinh t\u1ebf v\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i : T\u1eeb 1921 \u0111\u1ebfn 1941, trong ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n, b\u1ecb bao v\u00e2y kinh t\u1ebf, c\u00f4 l\u1eadp v\u1ec1 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb nh\u01b0ng nh\u00e2n d\u00e2n Li\u00ean X\u00f4 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nhi\u1ec1u th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u quan tr\u1ecdng. T\u1eeb 1921 - 1925 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n th\u1eafng l\u1ee3i ch\u00ednh s\u00e1ch Kinh t\u1ebf m\u1edbi, v\u1ec1 c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n \u0111\u00e3 ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh vi\u1ec7c kh\u00f4i ph\u1ee5c kinh t\u1ebf. Ti\u1ebfp \u0111\u00f3, giai \u0111o\u1ea1n 1926 - 1928 Li\u00ean X\u00f4 b\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u1ea7u x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng c\u01a1 s\u1edf cho n\u1ec1n c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p n\u1eb7ng. T\u1edbi n\u0103m 1928, c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p Li\u00ean X\u00f4 \u0111\u00e3 chi\u1ebfm t\u1ec9 tr\u1ecdng 54,5% t\u1ed5ng s\u1ea3n l\u01b0\u1ee3ng kinh t\u1ebf. K\u1ebf ho\u1ea1ch \u0111i\u1ec7n kh\u00ed ho\u00e1 c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh. Tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng Li\u00ean X\u00f4 v\u1eabn l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t n\u01b0\u1edbc n\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p, t\u1edbi n\u0103m 1933 c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u00e3 chi\u1ebfm 70% n\u1ec1n kinh t\u1ebf. T\u1edbi n\u0103m 1937, Li\u00ean X\u00f4 \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh c\u01b0\u1eddng qu\u1ed1c c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ee9ng th\u1ee9 hai th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ( sau M\u0129).","Sau chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi II, Li\u00ean X\u00f4 nhanh ch\u00f3ng kh\u1eafc ph\u1ee5c kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u00f4i ph\u1ee5c kinh t\u1ebf. T\u1edbi n\u0103m 1975, s\u1ea3n l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean X\u00f4 \u0111\u00e3 chi\u1ebfm 20% c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. ( B\u1eb1ng 80% s\u1ea3n l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p M\u0129). V\u1ec1 n\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p, n\u0103m 1981 s\u1ea3n l\u01b0\u1ee3ng ng\u0169 c\u1ed1c Li\u00ean X\u00f4 l\u00e0 189 tri\u1ec7u t\u1ea5n, \u0111\u1ee9ng h\u00e0ng th\u1ee9 3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi , sau M\u0129 v\u00e0 Trung Qu\u1ed1c. V\u1ec1 c\u01a1 c\u1ea5u x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i c\u0169ng c\u00f3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i l\u1edbn, t\u1edbi n\u0103m 1977 c\u00f4ng nh\u00e2n chi\u1ebfm 61% d\u00e2n s\u1ed1. \u0110\u1ed9i ng\u0169 tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c c\u0169ng l\u00ean t\u1edbi 34 tri\u1ec7u ng\u01b0\u1eddi, t\u0103ng 11 l\u1ea7n so v\u1edbi n\u0103m 1926. 1.2.2. :V\u1ec1 v\u0103n ho\u00e1, khoa h\u1ecdc : Vi\u1ec7c xo\u00e1 n\u1ea1n m\u00f9 ch\u1eef \u0111\u00e3 c\u0103n b\u1ea3n ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh tr\u01b0\u1edbc chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi II. N\u0103m 1980, Li\u00ean X\u00f4 \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 5 tri\u1ec7u sinh vi\u00ean, g\u1ea5p 40 l\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 sinh vi\u00ean c\u1ee7a n\u01b0\u1edbc Nga th\u1eddi Nga ho\u00e0ng. \u0110\u1ed9i ng\u0169 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc c\u0169ng ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n nhanh, t\u1edbi gi\u1eefa nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 70 Li\u00ean X\u00f4 \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 1,3 tri\u1ec7u nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc, chi\u1ebfm \u00bc c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. N\u0103m 1949, Li\u00ean X\u00f4 \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ebf t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng bom nguy\u00ean t\u1eed, \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1 v\u1ee1 th\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9c quy\u1ec1n v\u1ec1 nguy\u00ean t\u1eed c\u1ee7a M\u0129. N\u0103m 1954, x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng nh\u00e0 m\u00e1y \u0111i\u1ec7n nguy\u00ean t\u1eed \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. 1957 Li\u00ean X\u00f4 ph\u00f3ng con t\u00e0u v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean (\u0111i tr\u01b0\u01a1c M\u0129 9 th\u00e1ng) v\u00e0 1961 \u0111\u01b0a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi bay v\u00e0o v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 an to\u00e0n ( tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ea3 M\u0129 ). C\u00f9ng v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc k\u0129 thu\u1eadt, v\u0103n ho\u00e1 ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7 Li\u00ean X\u00f4 quan t\u00e2m. T\u00ean tu\u1ed5i c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 v\u0103n v\u00e0 ngh\u1ec7 s\u0129 l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean X\u00f4 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi bi\u1ebft t\u1edbi nh\u01b0 M. Goocki, M.S\u00f4l\u00f4kh\u1ed1p, A.T\u00f4nxt\u00f4i, D.S\u00f4xtac\u00f4v\u00edch... \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng minh \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3. 1.3. Nh\u1eefng ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc k\u0129 thu\u1eadt n\u1eeda \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX : Cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX, m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00e3 di\u1ec5n ra trong ng\u00e0nh v\u1eadt l\u00ed \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 3 ph\u00e1t minh quan tr\u1ecdng : \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eed (1896), t\u00ednh ph\u00f3ng x\u1ea1 (1898) v\u00e0 Thuy\u1ebft t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i. Gi\u1eefa th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u1eabn c\u00f2n quan ni\u1ec7m nguy\u00ean t\u1eed l\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n t\u1eed nh\u1ecf nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n chia \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u1eefa. Nh\u01b0ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n v\u1ec1 tia X, t\u00ednh ph\u00f3ng x\u1ea1, l\u00e0m ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng c\u00e1ch nh\u00ecn kh\u00e1c. N\u0103m 1911, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 b\u00e1c h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh l\u00e0 E.R\u01a1d\u01a1pho \u0111\u00e3 ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m b\u1eafn ph\u00e1 nguy\u00ean t\u1eed. Th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a E.R\u01a1d\u01a1pho \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng minh nguy\u00ean t\u1eed kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1eb7c m\u00e0 c\u00f3 r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u kho\u1ea3ng tr\u1ed1ng. T\u1eeb k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m \u0111\u00f3, h\u1ecdc tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a E.R\u01a1d\u01a1pho l\u00e0 Ninx\u01a1 Bo \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra l\u00ed thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 m\u1eabu h\u00e0nh tinh nguy\u00ean t\u1eed. Theo Ninx\u01a1 Bo, c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean t\u1eed c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e2n \u1edf gi\u1eefa, xung quanh c\u00f3 c\u00e1c \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eed chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng theo m\u1ed9t qu\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1o nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh tinh chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng quanh M\u1eb7t Tr\u1eddi. M\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed3ng gi\u1eefa th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi vi m\u00f4 v\u1edbi th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u0129 m\u00f4. N\u0103m 1932, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f2n ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra h\u1ea1t nh\u00e2n nguy\u00ean t\u1eed c\u0169ng ch\u01b0a ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n nh\u1ecf nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t. H\u1ea1t nh\u00e2n nguy\u00ean t\u1eed c\u00f2n g\u1ed3m c\u00f3 pr\u00f4t\u00f4n v\u00e0 n\u01a1tr\u00f4n. N\u0103m 1934, Ph\u00ea\u0111\u01a1ric v\u00e0 Iren Quyri ( con r\u1ec3 v\u00e0 con g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 b\u00e1c h\u1ecdc Mari Quyri) \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng ph\u00f3ng x\u1ea1 nh\u00e2n t\u1ea1o v\u00e0 ch\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ed3ng v\u1ecb ph\u00f3ng x\u1ea1. N\u0103m 1938-1939, c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 b\u00e1c h\u1ecdc \u00d4tt\u00f4 Han, Lida Metne (\u0110\u1ee9c), Enric\u00f4 Phecmi (Ialia) v\u00e0 Gi\u00f4li\u00f4 Quyri (Ph\u00e1p) \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f9ng ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng d\u00e2y chuy\u1ec1n ph\u00e1 v\u1ee1 h\u1ea1t nh\u00e2n urani. T\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3, n\u0103m 1942 Enric\u00f4 Phecmi \u0111\u00e3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00f2 ph\u1ea3n \u1ee9ng h\u1ea1t nh\u00e2n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ngay d\u01b0\u1edbi kh\u00e1n \u0111\u00e0i s\u00e2n v\u1eadn \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a tr\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc Sicag\u00f4. Thuy\u1ebft t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i c\u1ee7a Anbe Anhxtanh \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt l\u00ed hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. Khi m\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00f4ng b\u1ed1, nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi cho \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t l\u00ed thuy\u1ebft \u0111i\u00ean kh\u00f9ng. Ngay c\u1ea3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 nh\u00e0 b\u00e1c h\u1ecdc l\u1edbn tu\u1ed5i th\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng hi\u1ec3u n\u1ed5i l\u00ed thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Anhxtanh. Nh\u01b0ng v\u1edbi th\u1eddi gian, nhi\u1ec1u s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c","nghi\u1ec7m c\u00e0ng ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng ch\u1ee9ng minh l\u00ed thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Anhxtanh l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn . L\u00ed thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 thi\u1ebfu trong nhi\u1ec1u l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c nh\u01b0 v\u1eadt l\u00ed h\u1ea1t nh\u00e2n, k\u0129 thu\u1eadt m\u00e1y gia t\u1ed1c, v\u1eadt l\u00ed thi\u00ean v\u0103n hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u c\u00e1c ph\u00e1t minh l\u1edbn v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt l\u00ed c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn l\u00ed thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Anhxtanh. Trong l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c ho\u00e1 h\u1ecdc, sinh h\u1ecdc... c\u0169ng \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nhi\u1ec1u th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u quan tr\u1ecdng. Nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u v\u1ec1 khoa h\u1ecdc cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a v\u00e0 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u01b0 \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u00edn, \u0111i\u1ec7n tho\u1ea1i, ra \u0111a, m\u00e1y bay, phim c\u00f3 \u00e2m thanh...","II. Chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1 ho\u1ea1i v\u0103n minh nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i T\u1eeb th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i t\u1edbi nay, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1ea3i qua h\u00e0ng ng\u00e0n cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh. M\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Thu\u1ef5 S\u0129 l\u00e0 Gi\u0103ng Gi\u1eafc Baben c\u00f2n d\u00f9ng m\u00e1y t\u00ednh \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eed v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0a ra con s\u1ed1 l\u00e0 14513 cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh l\u1edbn nh\u1ecf v\u1edbi s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi thi\u1ec7t m\u1ea1ng l\u00e0 3,6 t\u1ec9 ng\u01b0\u1eddi. T\u1ea5t nhi\u00ean \u0111\u00e2y kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 con s\u1ed1 ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c nh\u01b0ng c\u0169ng l\u00e0m ch\u00fang ta kh\u1ee7ng khi\u1ebfp. Chi\u1ebfn tranh l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng th\u1ea3m ho\u1ea1 ph\u1ee9c t\u1ea1p. C\u00f3 cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn v\u00ec nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n kinh t\u1ebf, c\u00f3 cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn l\u1ea1i v\u00ec nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o hay xung \u0111\u1ed9t s\u1eafc t\u1ed9c. C\u00f3 nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn nh\u1eb1m tranh c\u01b0\u1edbp nhau quy\u1ec1n l\u1ee3i gi\u1eefa nh\u1eefng c\u01b0\u1eddng qu\u1ed1c, c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ec3 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 quy\u1ec1n b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c nh\u1ecf ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i s\u1ef1 \u00e1p b\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c c\u01b0\u1eddng qu\u1ed1c l\u1ee3i d\u1ee5ng th\u1ebf m\u1ea1nh c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111i \u0103n c\u01b0\u1edbp. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf \u0111\u00f3 cho ta th\u1ea5y c\u1ea7n ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t hai lo\u1ea1i chi\u1ebfn tranh ch\u00ednh ngh\u0129a v\u00e0 phi ngh\u0129a. Cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh c\u1ee7a d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c Vi\u1ec7t Nam 30 n\u0103m qua (1945-1975) \u0111\u1ec3 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp c\u1ee7a d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh ch\u00ednh ngh\u0129a. S\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc k\u0129 thu\u1eadt c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX n\u1ebfu \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 d\u1ee5ng ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u00ec n\u00f3 s\u1ebd \u0111em l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i, nh\u01b0ng n\u1ebfu \u0111em s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 chi\u1ebfn tranh n\u00f3 c\u0169ng g\u00e2y ra nh\u1eefng h\u1eadu qu\u1ea3 kh\u1ee7ng khi\u1ebfp. Sang th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX, s\u1ef1 giao l\u01b0u ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng mang t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t to\u00e0n c\u1ea7u th\u00ec chi\u1ebfn tranh n\u1ebfu x\u1ea3y ra c\u0169ng mang t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t to\u00e0n c\u1ea7u. Lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ea3i tr\u1ea3i qua tai ho\u1ea1 c\u1ee7a 2 cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 t\u00e0n ph\u00e1 kh\u1ee7ng khi\u1ebfp. Trong chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t : 8 tri\u1ec7u binh s\u0129 b\u1ecb ch\u1ebft, 15 tri\u1ec7u ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb th\u01b0\u01a1ng n\u1eb7ng, trong \u0111\u00f3 7 tri\u1ec7u ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb t\u00e0n ph\u1ebf su\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eddi , \u0111a s\u1ed1 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y l\u1ea1i \u0111ang \u1edf \u0111\u1ed9 tu\u1ed5i thanh xu\u00e2n, l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng lao \u0111\u1ed9ng ch\u00ednh. Chi\u1ebfn tranh c\u00f2n g\u00e2y ra n\u1ea1n \u0111\u00f3i, b\u1ec7nh t\u1eadt v\u00e0 d\u00e2n th\u01b0\u1eddng c\u0169ng ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ecbu th\u1ea3m ho\u1ea1 . N\u1ebfu k\u1ec3 c\u1ea3 d\u00e2n th\u01b0\u1eddng th\u00ec chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi I \u0111\u00e3 g\u00e2y th\u01b0\u01a1ng vong cho kho\u1ea3ng 33 tri\u1ec7u ng\u01b0\u1eddi k\u1ec3 c\u1ea3 binh l\u00ednh v\u00e0 d\u00e2n th\u01b0\u1eddng. Thi\u1ec7t h\u1ea1i v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t kho\u1ea3ng 260 t\u1ec9 USD. Chi ph\u00ed qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc tham chi\u1ebfn kho\u1ea3ng 208 t\u1ec9 USD. M\u1ee9c t\u0103ng tr\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u b\u1ecb chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi I l\u00e0m ch\u1eadm l\u1ea1i kho\u1ea3ng 8 n\u0103m. T\u00e1c h\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi II c\u00f2n l\u1edbn h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u . H\u01a1n 60 tri\u1ec7u ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ebft trong \u0111\u00f3 : Li\u00ean X\u00f4 27 tri\u1ec7u, Trung Qu\u1ed1c 13,5 tri\u1ec7u, Ba Lan 6 tri\u1ec7u, \u0110\u1ee9c 7,3 tri\u1ec7u, Nh\u1eadt 2,1 tri\u1ec7u, Nam T\u01b0 1,6 tri\u1ec7u... 6 tri\u1ec7u ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i b\u1ecb b\u1ecdn ph\u00e1t x\u00edt \u0110\u1ee9c t\u00e0n s\u00e1t. V\u1ec1 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t, c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc tham chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u00e3 chi kho\u1ea3ng 1384 t\u1ec9 USD. Thi\u1ec7t h\u1ea1i do chi\u1ebfn tranh t\u00e0n ph\u00e1 to\u00e0n th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi th\u00ec kh\u00f4ng t\u00ednh n\u1ed5i. Ri\u00eang Li\u00ean X\u00f4 1710 th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1, 70000 l\u00e0ng, 32000 nh\u00e0 m\u00e1y b\u1ecb t\u00e0n ph\u00e1 ho\u1eb7c thi\u00eau hu\u1ef7. \u1ede Nh\u1eadt, 70 th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 b\u1ecb kh\u00f4ng qu\u00e2n M\u0129 oanh k\u00edch trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 2 th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 b\u1ecb n\u00e9m bom nguy\u00ean t\u1eed. Thi\u1ec7t h\u1ea1i do b\u1ecdn ph\u00e1t x\u00edt \u0110\u1ee9c g\u00e2y ra \u1edf Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u kh\u00f4ng th\u1ed1ng k\u00ea n\u1ed5i. Nh\u1eefng thi\u1ec7t h\u1ea1i v\u1ec1 v\u0103n ho\u00e1, v\u0103n minh c\u0169ng r\u1ea5t n\u1eb7ng n\u1ec1. Qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a b\u1ecdn ph\u00e1t x\u00edt Hitle gi\u1ebft ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c man r\u1ee3. Sau hai cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u1ea1i ph\u1ea3i tr\u1ea3i qua h\u01a1n 40 n\u0103m c\u0103ng th\u1eb3ng c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi k\u00ec \u201cchi\u1ebfn tranh l\u1ea1nh\u201d v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c ch\u1ea1y \u0111ua v\u0169 trang c\u1ef1c k\u00ec t\u1ed1n k\u00e9m. Trong v\u00e0 sau th\u1eddi k\u00ec \u201cchi\u1ebfn tranh l\u1ea1nh\u201d, nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh khu v\u1ef1c nh\u01b0 chi\u1ebfn tranh Tri\u1ec1u Ti\u00ean, chi\u1ebfn tranh Vi\u1ec7t Nam, chi\u1ebfn tranh Trung \u0110\u00f4ng, chi\u1ebfn tranh v\u00f9ng V\u1ecbnh... v\u1eabn n\u1ed5 ra. \u0110\u1ea5y l\u00e0 ch\u01b0a k\u1ec3 nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh s\u1eafc t\u1ed9c, chi\u1ebfn tranh t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf Ch\u00e2u Phi. \u201cChi\u1ebfn tranh l\u1ea1nh\u201d ch\u1ea5m d\u1ee9t \u0111\u00e3 h\u01a1n 10 n\u0103m nh\u01b0ng \u1edf nhi\u1ec1u n\u01a1i v\u1eabn ch\u01b0a ng\u01b0ng ti\u1ebfng s\u00fang.An ninh c\u1ee7a to\u00e0n nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i v\u1eabn c\u00f2n lu\u00f4n b\u1ecb \u0111e do\u1ea1 b\u1edfi m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ee7 lo\u1ea1i v\u0169 kh\u00ed gi\u1ebft ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u00e0ng","lo\u1ea1t. B\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 ho\u00e0 b\u00ecnh, b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh v\u1eabn lu\u00f4n l\u00e0 m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau chung c\u1ee7a nh\u00e2n d\u00e2n to\u00e0n th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi.","III. V\u0103n minh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi n\u1eefa sau th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XX 3.1. Ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng KHKT l\u1ea7n 2 : T\u1eeb nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 40 c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX, lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111ang b\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0o m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc k\u0129 thu\u1eadt l\u1ea7n 2. Cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng n\u00e0y t\u1edbi nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 70 c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 di\u1ec5n ra do nh\u1eefng l\u00ed do sau : Do nh\u1eefng nhu c\u1ea7u v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t v\u00e0 tinh th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00e0ng ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng t\u0103ng cao, d\u00e2n s\u1ed1 t\u0103ng nhanh, trong khi \u0111\u00f3 c\u00e1c ngu\u1ed3n t\u00e0i nguy\u00ean thi\u00ean nhi\u00ean c\u1ee9 v\u01a1i c\u1ea1n d\u1ea7n, \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ea3i t\u00ecm ra c\u00e1c ngu\u1ed3n n\u0103ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng m\u1edbi, c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u m\u1edbi. Trong chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi II, c\u00e1c b\u00ean tham chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ec1u t\u00ecm c\u00e1ch t\u0103ng t\u00ednh c\u01a1 \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a binh l\u00ednh, t\u0103ng kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng theo d\u00f5i \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u01b0\u01a1ng... \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 c\u0169ng g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y khoa h\u1ecdc k\u0129 thu\u1eadt ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n. Nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc k\u0129 thu\u1eadt th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XIX c\u0169ng t\u1ea1o ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1 cho cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc k\u0129 thu\u1eadt l\u1ea7n n\u00e0y. N\u1ebfu cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc k\u0129 thu\u1eadt th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XVIII di\u1ec5n ra ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu v\u1edbi n\u1ed9i dung c\u01a1 kh\u00ed ho\u00e1, th\u00ec cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc k\u0129 thu\u1eadt l\u1ea7n n\u00e0y di\u1ec5n ra trong m\u1ecdi ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n v\u00e0 trong m\u1ecdi l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng. \u0110\u1eb7c \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc k\u0129 thu\u1eadt l\u1ea7n n\u00e0y l\u00e0 c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 g\u1eafn b\u00f3 ch\u1eb7t ch\u1ebd gi\u1eefa khoa h\u1ecdc v\u1edbi k\u0129 thu\u1eadt. Khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111i tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1edf \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng cho s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t. Kho\u1ea3ng c\u00e1ch t\u1eeb ph\u00e1t minh khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng ph\u00e1t minh \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0o s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ec3 thu hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 kinh t\u1ebf ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng r\u00fat ng\u1eafn. T\u1eeb nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 70 c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX, cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc k\u0129 thu\u1eadt l\u1ea7n n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7. C\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 bao h\u00e0m c\u1ea3 k\u0129 thu\u1eadt, c\u00e1c k\u0129 n\u0103ng qu\u1ea3n l\u00ed, t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c, kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn th\u00f4ng tin, kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng t\u00e0i ch\u00ednh, kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng ti\u1ebfp th\u1ecb... Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta th\u1ed1ng nh\u1ea5t c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n qua 4 n\u1ed9i dung sau : \u2022 Ph\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft b\u1ecb ( c\u01a1 s\u1edf h\u1ea1 t\u1ea7ng, thi\u1ebft b\u1ecb m\u00e1y m\u00f3c...) \u2022 Ph\u1ea7n con ng\u01b0\u1eddi (\u0111\u1ed9i ng\u0169 nh\u00e2n l\u1ef1c \u0111\u1ec3 v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh, \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n, qu\u1ea3n l\u00ed thi\u1ebft b\u1ecb...) \u2022 Ph\u1ea7n th\u00f4ng tin ( kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng thu th\u1eadp, x\u1eed l\u00ed th\u00f4ng tin ) \u2022 Ph\u1ea7n qu\u1ea3n l\u00ed, t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c ( c\u00e1c ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1ea1o l\u1eadp m\u1ea1ng l\u01b0\u1edbi, tuy\u1ec3n d\u1ee5ng nh\u00e2n l\u1ef1c, tr\u1ea3 l\u01b0\u01a1ng...) 3.2. Nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u c\u1ee7a c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 n\u1eeda sau th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX : Cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u k\u00ec di\u1ec7u trong m\u1ecdi ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n v\u00e0 trong m\u1ecdi l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng, r\u00f5 n\u00e9t nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 trong c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eed-tin h\u1ecdc, n\u0103ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng m\u1edbi, v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u m\u1edbi, c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 sinh h\u1ecdc, k\u0129 thu\u1eadt lade, khoa h\u1ecdc v\u0169 tr\u1ee5. M\u00e1y t\u00ednh v\u00e0 r\u00f4b\u00f4t l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u c\u1ee7a c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eed-tin h\u1ecdc. T\u1eeb nh\u1eefng chi\u1ebfc m\u00e1y vi t\u00ednh (compute) \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean ra \u0111\u1eddi v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1946 \u0111\u1ebfn nay, m\u00e1y t\u00ednh \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1ea3i qua b\u1ed1n th\u1ebf h\u1ec7. T\u1eeb nh\u1eefng chi\u1ebfc m\u00e1y t\u00ednh \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eed \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng b\u00f3ng \u0111\u00e8n \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eed ch\u00e2n kh\u00f4ng, r\u1ed3i ch\u1ea5t b\u00e1n d\u1eabn, vi m\u1ea1ch (m\u1ea1ch t\u00edch h\u1ee3p IC - Integrated Circuit), vi m\u1ea1ch v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ed9 t\u00edch h\u1ee3p cao. T\u1eeb m\u00e1y t\u00ednh \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eed d\u1eabn t\u1edbi s\u1ef1 k\u1ebft n\u1ed1i","Internet, t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ea1ng th\u00f4ng tin to\u00e0n c\u1ea7u v\u1edbi kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng trao \u0111\u1ed5i th\u00f4ng tin c\u1ef1c nhanh, gi\u00e1 r\u1ebb. \u0110\u1ed9i ng\u0169 r\u00f4b\u00f4t c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng \u0111\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea3o, th\u00f4ng minh h\u01a1n v\u00e0 l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c tham gia ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111ang ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng. Nhi\u1ec1u lo\u1ea1i v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u m\u1edbi ra \u0111\u1eddi trong ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u thi\u00ean nhi\u00ean ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng v\u01a1i c\u1ea1n d\u1ea7n. Nh\u1eefng lo\u1ea1i v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u m\u1edbi n\u00e0y c\u00f2n c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng t\u00ednh n\u0103ng h\u01a1n h\u1eb3n v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean nh\u01b0 si\u00eau b\u1ec1n, si\u00eau c\u1ee9ng, si\u00eau nh\u1eb9...T\u00ean c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u m\u1edbi nh\u01b0 composit, polyme, silic, s\u1ee3i c\u00e1p quang... ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng tr\u1edf n\u00ean ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn. Nhi\u1ec1u lo\u1ea1i n\u0103ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng m\u1edbi \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c con ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ec3 bi\u1ebfn th\u00e0nh \u0111i\u1ec7n n\u0103ng nh\u01b0 n\u0103ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng nguy\u00ean t\u1eed, n\u0103ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng M\u1eb7t Tr\u1eddi, n\u0103ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng gi\u00f3... Tia lade (laser) m\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t minh ra t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 60 c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u1ebfn nay \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng trong nhi\u1ec1u l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c, t\u1eeb qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1, thi\u00ean v\u0103n, y h\u1ecdc, c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 in, th\u00f4ng tin li\u00ean l\u1ea1c... C\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 sinh h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nhi\u1ec1u th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u \u0111\u00e1ng kinh ng\u1ea1c, th\u1eadm ch\u00ed \u0111\u00e1ng s\u1ee3. C\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 sinh h\u1ecdc t\u1eadp trung v\u00e0o b\u1ed1n l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c : c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 gien, c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 t\u1ebf b\u00e0o, c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 vi sinh, c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 enzim. Nh\u1edd c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 sinh h\u1ecdc, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra nhi\u1ec1u gi\u1ed1ng c\u00e2y, con m\u1edbi v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1eb7c t\u00ednh \u01b0u \u0111i\u1ec3m kh\u00e1c h\u1eb3n c\u00e1c gi\u1ed1ng trong t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean; nhi\u1ec1u lo\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ea9m m\u1edbi ra \u0111\u1eddi, nhi\u1ec1u lo\u1ea1i ch\u1ea5t x\u00fac t\u00e1c m\u1edbi xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n... Trong nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u0169 tr\u1ee5, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 ti\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng b\u01b0\u1edbc d\u00e0i m\u00e0 \u0111i \u0111\u1ea7u l\u00e0 hai n\u01b0\u1edbc Li\u00ean X\u00f4 v\u00e0 M\u0129. C\u00e1c t\u00e0u v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean X\u00f4 v\u00e0 M\u0129 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111i th\u0103m d\u00f2 nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh tinh xa x\u00f4i ngo\u00e0i Tr\u00e1i \u0110\u1ea5t. Li\u00ean X\u00f4, M\u0129 v\u00e0 gi\u1edd \u0111\u00e2y \u0111ang th\u00eam nhi\u1ec1u n\u01b0\u1edbc kh\u00e1c \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00f3ng c\u00e1c v\u1ec7 tinh nh\u00e2n t\u1ea1o \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng nhu c\u1ea7u truy\u1ec1n h\u00ecnh, th\u00f4ng tin to\u00e0n c\u1ea7u, \u0111i\u1ec1u tra t\u00e0i nguy\u00ean, d\u1ef1 b\u00e1o th\u1eddi ti\u1ebft, m\u1ea1ng \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1ecb qua v\u1ec7 tinh...","K\u1ebeT LU\u1eacN L\u1ecbch s\u1eed v\u0103n minh nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n li\u00ean t\u1ee5c t\u1eeb th\u1ea5p t\u1edbi cao, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p c\u1ee7a r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c, nhi\u1ec1u qu\u1ed1c gia. C\u00f3 nh\u1eefng d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c ng\u00e0y nay kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i v\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch m\u1ed9t d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp, h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb ho\u00e0 tan trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh l\u1ecbch s\u1eed, nh\u01b0ng d\u1ea5u \u1ea5n m\u00e0 t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean h\u1ecd \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i t\u1edbi ng\u00e0y nay, nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 qu\u00ean, nh\u01b0 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng ch\u1eef vi\u1ebft A,b, g...c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00eanixi. Kh\u00f4ng d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c n\u00e0o tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi kh\u00f4ng h\u1ecdc h\u1ecfi, ti\u1ebfp thu nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u0103n minh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c kh\u00e1c. Giao l\u01b0u, trao \u0111\u1ed5i, h\u1ecdc h\u1ecfi nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u0103n minh l\u1eabn nhau l\u00e0 qui lu\u1eadt chung c\u1ee7a t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c. Th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n g\u1ea7n nh\u01b0 \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, m\u1ed7i d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c c\u0169ng c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 ti\u1ebfp thu nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u0103n minh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c kh\u00e1c. Ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft, ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh r\u1ef1c r\u1ee1 so v\u1edbi th\u1eddi k\u00ec \u0111\u00f3, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u0103n minh h\u1ecd ti\u1ebfp thu t\u1eeb ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ai C\u1eadp, L\u01b0\u1ee1ng H\u00e0 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i r\u1ed3i kh\u00e1i qu\u00e1t, ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n l\u00ean. T\u1edbi th\u1eddi Trung \u0111\u1ea1i, d\u00f9 kh\u00f4ng th\u00edch ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ar\u1eadp nh\u01b0ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y c\u0169ng v\u1eabn ph\u1ea3i ti\u1ebfp thu c\u00e1c ch\u1eef s\u1ed1 m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ar\u1eadp s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng, v\u1eabn ph\u1ea3i h\u1ecdc c\u00e1ch l\u00e0m gi\u1ea5y t\u1eeb ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ar\u1eadp...( m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 tr\u00ean ch\u1eef s\u1ed1 tr\u00ean m\u1eb7t c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed3ng h\u1ed3 l\u1edbn \u1edf nh\u00e0 th\u1edd ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y th\u00ec v\u1eabn s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ch\u1eef s\u1ed1 La M\u00e3). Xu th\u1ebf ho\u00e0 nh\u1eadp, ti\u1ebfp thu nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u0103n minh l\u1eabn nhau l\u00e0 qui lu\u1eadt s\u1ed1ng c\u00f2n c\u1ee7a m\u1ed7i d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c. Trong th\u1eddi k\u00ec c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc th\u1ef1c d\u00e2n ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y \u0111i x\u00e2m chi\u1ebfm c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc ch\u1eadm ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n, v\u0103n minh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 c\u1ea7m quy\u1ec1n th\u1ef1c d\u00e2n \u0111\u1ec1 cao. Sau n\u00e0y, c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi phong tr\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea5u tranh \u0111\u00f2i \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c, nhi\u1ec1u gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u0103n minh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y b\u1ecb l\u00ean \u00e1n, b\u1ecb cho l\u00e0 th\u1ee7 ph\u1ea1m c\u1ee7a l\u1ed1i s\u1ed1ng th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng, suy \u0111\u1ed3i, m\u1ea5t g\u1ed1c. C\u00e1c c\u1ee5 nh\u00e0 Nho tr\u01b0\u1edbc kia c\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1eedi m\u1eafng n\u1eb7ng l\u1eddi con ch\u00e1u d\u00e1m c\u1eaft t\u00f3c ng\u1eafn...Nh\u01b0ng ch\u1ec9 sau khi gi\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp v\u00e0i ch\u1ee5c n\u0103m, nhi\u1ec1u n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 xu h\u01b0\u1edbng nh\u1eadn ra r\u1eb1ng, n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c s\u1ebd r\u1ea5t h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ecbu ti\u1ebfp thu nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb h\u1ee3p l\u00ed c\u1ee7a v\u0103n minh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y. Trong v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0y, b\u00e0i h\u1ecdc Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t t\u1ea5m g\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u1ec3 ta suy ngh\u0129. Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n tr\u01b0\u1edbc kia v\u1ed1n c\u0169ng ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng n\u1eb7ng n\u1ec1 c\u1ee7a v\u0103n minh Trung Hoa, nh\u01b0ng v\u0103n minh Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n \u0111\u00e3 s\u1edbm bi\u1ebft ph\u00e1 v\u1ee1 t\u00ednh bi\u1ec7t l\u1eadp, s\u1eb5n s\u00e0ng ch\u1ecbu ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb h\u1ee3p l\u00ed c\u1ee7a v\u0103n minh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y. Nh\u1edd v\u1eady, Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ed7 \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u00e1ng n\u1ec3 tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 XX. Kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m v\u0103n minh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0110\u00f4ng v\u00e0 v\u0103n minh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 mang t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t r\u1ea5t t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i. Nhi\u1ec1u gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a v\u0103n minh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y c\u00f3 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c t\u1eeb ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0110\u00f4ng v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i. Ng\u00e0y nay \u0111i t\u00ecm m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh n\u00e0o ch\u1ec9 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n do d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c \u0111\u00f3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng n\u00ean c\u0169ng kh\u00f3 nh\u01b0 \u0111i t\u00ecm m\u1ed9t d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c n\u00e0o thu\u1ea7n ch\u1ee7ng. Trong cu\u1ed9c giao l\u01b0u, c\u1ecd x\u00e1t n\u00e0y, c\u00e1c n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c c\u00f3 c\u01a1 h\u1ed9i giao l\u01b0u v\u1edbi nhau, ti\u1ebfp thu th\u00e0nh qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a nhau. Khi xem x\u00e9t m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c n\u00e0o, ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1eb7t n\u00f3 trong m\u1ed1i li\u00ean quan v\u1edbi c\u00e1c n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh m\u00e0 n\u00f3 c\u00f3 quan h\u1ec7, nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 khu v\u1ef1c quan h\u1ec7 \u0111\u00f3 l\u1ea1i n\u1eb1m trong v\u00f9ng \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh l\u1edbn. Trong xu th\u1ebf to\u00e0n c\u1ea7u ho\u00e1 hi\u1ec7n nay th\u00ec s\u1ef1 ho\u00e0 nh\u1eadp gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec1u t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu. S\u1ef1 ho\u00e0 nh\u1eadp n\u00e0y l\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y nhanh b\u1edfi c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n giao th\u00f4ng hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi m\u1ea1ng th\u00f4ng tin to\u00e0n c\u1ea7u. M\u1ed9t v\u00e0i ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef \u0111ang ng\u00e0y tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn, d\u00f9ng chung cho c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c nh\u01b0 ti\u1ebfng Anh, Ph\u00e1p, T\u00e2y Ban Nha, \u1ea2r\u1eadp. Ti\u1ebfng Nga, Trung Qu\u1ed1c, Hindu tuy ch\u01b0a mang t\u1ea7m c\u1ee1 b\u1eb1ng nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng n\u00ean c\u0169ng c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t t\u1ea7m quan tr\u1ecdng \u0111\u00e1ng k\u1ec3. Nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u c\u1ee7a v\u0103n minh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ng\u00e0y nay l\u00e0 k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 chung nh\u1eefng tri th\u1ee9c m\u00e0 c\u1ea3 lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng, t\u00edch lu\u1ef9 qua bao th\u1ebf h\u1ec7. V\u0103n minh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng nh\u1eefng n\u00e9t chung nh\u1ea5t m\u00e0 m\u1ed7i qu\u1ed1c gia, m\u1ed7i d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ec1u ti\u1ebfp thu v\u00e0 v\u1eadn d\u1ee5ng n\u00f3 v\u00e0o cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c m\u00ecnh. Do nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean v\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n l\u1ecbch s\u1eed kh\u00e1c nhau, gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u0103n ho\u00e1 c\u1ee7a m\u1ed7i d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng n\u00e9t kh\u00e1c nhau, c\u00f3","nh\u1eefng s\u1eafc th\u00e1i ri\u00eang bi\u1ec7t. V\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 \u0111\u1eb7t ra l\u00e0 l\u00e0m th\u1ebf n\u00e0o \u0111\u1ec3 ti\u1ebfp thu nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 h\u1ee3p l\u00ed, t\u00edch c\u1ef1c, h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 ti\u00eau c\u1ef1c. D\u00e2n t\u1ed9c Vi\u1ec7t Nam kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i b\u00e2y gi\u1edd m\u1edbi \u0111\u1ee9ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc th\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c khi ph\u1ea3i ti\u1ebfp x\u00fac v\u1edbi c\u00e1c n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh kh\u00e1c. D\u00e2n t\u1ed9c ta n\u1eb1m gi\u1eefa hai n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a Ch\u00e2u \u00c1 l\u00e0 \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 v\u00e0 Trung Hoa. Trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh l\u1ecbch s\u1eed, b\u00ean c\u1ea1nh vi\u1ec7c ti\u1ebfp thu nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb t\u1eeb v\u0103n minh \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 v\u00e0 Trung Hoa, ch\u00fang ta v\u1eabn gi\u1eef nh\u1eefng b\u1ea3n s\u1eafc v\u0103n ho\u00e1 ri\u00eang c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 c\u00f3 th\u1eddi gian h\u00e0ng ng\u00e0n n\u0103m b\u1ecb \u0111\u00f4 h\u1ed9, b\u1ecb c\u1ed1 t\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ed3ng ho\u00e1. Trong th\u1eddi k\u00ec b\u1ecb th\u1ef1c d\u00e2n Ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c M\u0129 x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c, b\u00ean c\u1ea1nh vi\u1ec7c ti\u1ebfp thu nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a v\u0103n minh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y ch\u00fang ta c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf s\u1ee9c s\u1ed1ng d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c v\u00e0 b\u1ea3n l\u0129nh v\u0103n ho\u00e1 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 ti\u1ebfp thu m\u00e0 c\u00f2n \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u00e0o v\u0103n minh nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i. Nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 v\u0103n ho\u00e1 c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta nh\u01b0 L\u00ea Qu\u00ed \u0110\u00f4n, Nguy\u1ec5n Tr\u00e3i, H\u1ed3 Ch\u00ed Minh... l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn v\u00e0 c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn. Trong xu th\u1ebf h\u1ed9i nh\u1eadp t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu ng\u00e0y nay, d\u00f9 mu\u1ed1n hay kh\u00f4ng ch\u00fang ta v\u1eabn ph\u1ea3i tham gia, ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u1ec3 m\u00e0 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i v\u00e0 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n. B\u00ean c\u1ea1nh nh\u1eefng c\u01a1 h\u1ed9i m\u1edbi, ch\u00fang ta c\u0169ng g\u1eb7p ph\u1ea3i r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u th\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c m\u1edbi. H\u00e0ng ng\u00e0n n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc, d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c ta c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u00f3 v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng th\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i v\u00e0 d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c Vi\u1ec7t Nam v\u1eabn gi\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ed7 \u0111\u1ee9ng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh tr\u00ean b\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ed3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. M\u1ed7i th\u1ebf h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng th\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c ri\u00eang c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. L\u1ecbch s\u1eed \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng minh, d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3ng c\u1eeda \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00ecm c\u00e1ch t\u1ef1 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 l\u00e0 th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i. Trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh h\u1ed9i nh\u1eadp hi\u1ec7n nay, ch\u00fang ta c\u1ea7n ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u s\u1ef1 \u0111a d\u1ea1ng v\u1ec1 v\u0103n ho\u00e1 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c kh\u00e1c, ti\u1ebfp thu nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u0103n minh chung c\u1ee7a nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec3 g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n nh\u1ecf b\u00e9 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u00e0o m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau d\u00e2n gi\u00e0u, n\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1ea1nh, x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i c\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng, v\u0103n minh v\u00e0 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7, ph\u00e1t huy nh\u1eefng tinh hoa c\u1ee7a v\u0103n ho\u00e1 d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c."]