18.\"AnEssayUponLiterature\"(1726). 19.\"MereNatureDelineated\"(1726). 20.\"ConjugalLewdness\"(1727). 21.\"APlanoftheEnglishCommerce\"(1728). 22.\"TheTrue-BornEnglishman:ASatyr\"(1701). 23.\"HymntothePillory\"(1703). SamuelRichardson(1689-1761) BorninDerbyshire,Richardsonwasoneofninechildrenofajoiner,orcarpenter.Afterhiswritingabilitywasknown,he begantohelpothersinthecommunitywriteletters.Inparticular,Richardson,attheageofthirteen,helpedmanyof thegirlsthatheassociatedwithtowriteresponsestovariousloveletterstheyreceived.Hebecameanapprentice printertoJohnWildeandlearnedhistradewellfromthathardmasterfor7years.Afterservingas\"Overseerand Corrector\"inaprintinghouse,hesetupshopforhimselfinSalisburyCourt,FleetStreet,in1720,wherehemarried, livedformanyyears,andcarriedonhisbusiness.Within20yearshehadbuiltuponeofthelargestandmostlucrative printingbusinessesinLondon.Althoughhepublishedawidevarietyofbooks,includinghisownnovels,hedependedupon theofficialprintingthathedidfortheHouseofCommonsforanimportantsourceofincome.Inhisfinalyears, RichardsonreceivedvisitsfromArchbishopSecker,otherimportantpoliticalfigures,andmanyLondonwriters.Bythattime, heenjoyedahighsocialpositionandwasMasteroftheStationers'Company.AfterJune1758,Richardsonbegantosuffer frominsomnia,andinJune1761,hewasafflictedwithapoplexy.Fiction,includingthenoveltoldinletters,hadbecome popularinEnglandbeforeSamuelRichardson'stime,buthewasthefirstEnglishnovelisttoperfecttheforminwhichhe chosetowork.Richardsonchosetofocushisattentiononthelimitedproblemsofmarriageandoftheheart,mattersto betreatedwithseriousness.Insodoing,however,healsoprovidedhisreaderswithanunparalleledstudyofthesocial andeconomicforcesthatwerebringingtherising,wealthyEnglishmerchantclassintoconflictwiththelanded aristocracy.SamelRichimicomwrotethelongernovelintheEnglishlanguage,Clarissa,or,nt&millionwordsHeisfirm EnglishtheHistoryScreenshothasbeensavedtoPictures/Screenshotmodernnovewomen,tisamspistolarynovel-
composedentirelynotmen.ofletterswrittenbythecharacters.Theselettersrevealplot,conflict,characterization. andthemesofthenovel.ThestoryisofClarissaandtheyoungmanLovelacewhosedesperationtomarryClarissaand nothersistercompelshimtoabductherhopingshe'llconsenttomarryhim.Itisastoryoflove,abduction,rape, revengewritteninwhatmanyconsidertobeendless,tediousletters. Notableworks 1.\"Pamela;or,VirtueRewarded\"(1740). 2.\"LetterswrittentoandforParticularFriends,onthemostOccasions\"(1741). 3.\"Clarissa;or,TheHistoryofaYoungLady\"(1747-1748). 4.\"TheHistoryofSirCharlesGrandison\"(1753-1754). 5.\"Theapprentice'svademecum\"(1733-1734). 6.\"Aseasonableexaminationofplayhouses\"(1735). HenryFielding(1707-1754) TheEnglishauthorandmagistrateHenryFieldingwasoneofthegreatnovelistsoftheXVIIIthcentury.Hisfiction, plays,essays,andlegalpamphletsshowhewasahumaneandwittyman,withapassionforreformandjustice.Henry FieldingwasanEnglishnovelistanddramatistknownforhisrichearthyhumourandsatiricalprowess,andastheauthor ofthenovelTomJones.
Asidefromhisliteraryachievements,hehasasignificantplaceinthehistoryoflaw-enforcement,havingfounded(with hishalf-brotherJohn)whatsomehavecalledLondon'sfirstpoliceforce,theBowStreetRunners,usinghisauthorityas amagistrate.Hisyoungersister,Sarah,alsobecameasuccessfulwriter.FieldingwasbornatSharphamandwaseducated atEtonCollege.Afteraromanticepisodewithayoungwomanthatendedinhisgettingintotroublewiththelaw,he wenttoLondonwherehisliterarycareerbegan.In1728,hetravelledtoLeidentostudyclassicsandlawatthe University.However,duetolackofmoney,hewasobligedtoreturntoLondonandhebeganwritingforthetheatre, someofhisworkbeingsavagelycriticalofthecontemporarygovernmentunderSirRobertWalpole.TheTheatrical LicensingActof1737isallegedtobeadirectresponsetohisactivities.TheparticularplaythattriggeredtheLicensing Actwas\"TheGoldenRump\",butFielding'ssatireshadsetthetone.Fielding,therefore,retiredfromthetheatreand resumedhiscareerinlawand,inordertosupporthiswifeCharlotteCradockandtwochildren,hebecameabarrister.His lackoffinancialsensemeantthatheandhisfamilyoftenenduredperiodsofpoverty,buthewashelpedbyRalphAllen, awealthybenefactorwholaterformedthebasisofSquireAllworthyinTomJones.AfterFielding'sdeath,Allen providedfortheeducationandsupportofhischildren.Fieldingneverstoppedwritingpoliticalsatireandsatiresof currentartsandletters.His\"TragedyofTragedies\"ofTomThumbwas,forexample,quitesuccessfulasaprintedplay. Healsocontributedanumberofworkstojournalsoftheday.HewroteforToryperiodicals,usuallyunderthenameof \"CaptainHerculesVinegar\".Duringthelate1730sandearly1740sFieldingcontinuedtoairhisliberalandanti-Jacobite viewsinsatiricalarticlesandnewspapers.Fieldingtooktowritingnovelsin 1741andhisfirstmajorsuccesswas\"Shamela\",ananonymousparodyofRichardson'smelodramaticnovel.Hefollowedthis upwith\"JosephAndrews\"(1742),anoriginalworksupposedlydealingwithPamela'sbrother,Joseph.Althoughbegunasa parody,thisworkdevelopedintoanaccomplishednovelinitsownrightandisconsideredtomarkFielding'sdebutasa seriousnovelist.In1743,hepublishedanovelintheMiscellaniesvolumeIII(whichwasthefirstvolumeofthe Miscellanies).Thiswas\"TheHistoryoftheLifeoftheLateMrJonathanWildtheGreat\".Thisnovelissometimes thoughtofashisfirstbecausehealmostcertainlybegancomposingitbeforehewrote\"Shamela\"and\"JosephAndrews\". ItisasatireofWalpolethatdrawsaparallelbetweenWalpoleandJonathanWild,theinfamousgangleaderand highwayman.HeimplicitlycomparestheWhigpartyinParliamentwithagangofthievesbeingrunbyWalpole,whose constantdesiretobea\"GreatMan\"(acommonepithetforWalpole)shouldculminateonlyintheantithesisofgreatness: beinghanged. Hisanonymously-published\"TheFemaleHusband\"(1746)isafictionalizeaccountofanotoriouscaseinwhichafemale transvestitewastriedfordupinganothewomanintomarriage.ThoughaminoriteminFielding'stotaloeuvre,thesubject consistentwithhisongoingpreoccupationwithfraud,sham,andmasks.Hisgreatestworkwas\"TomJones\"(1749),anovel tellingtheconvolutedandhilarioustaleofhowafoundlingcameintoafortune.
Notableworks 1.\"TheMasquerade\",apoem(Fielding'sfirstpublication). 2.\"LoveinSeveralMasques\",play(1728). 3.\"RapeuponRape\",play(1730).AdaptedbyBernardMilesasLockUpYourDaughters!in1959,filmedin1974. 4.\"TheAuthor'sFarce\".play(1730). 5.\"TheLetterWriters\".play(1731). 6.\"TheTragedyofTragedies;or,TheLifeandDeathofTomThumb\",play(1731). 7.\"Grub-StreetOpera\",play(1731). 8.\"TheModernHusband\",play(1732). 9.\"TheLotterry\",play(1732). 10.\"TheCoventGardenTragedy\".play(1732). 11.\"TheIntriguingChambermaid\",play(1734). 12.\"Pasquin\",play(1736). 13.\"EurydiceHiss'd\",play(1737). 14.\"TheHistoricalRegisterfortheYear1736\",play(1737). 15.\"AnApologyfortheLifeofMrs.ShamelaAndrews\",novel(1741). 16.\"TheHistoryoftheAdventuresofJosephAndrewsandhisFriend,Mr.AbrahamAbrams\",novel(1742). 17.\"TheLifeandDeathofJonathanWild,theGreat\",novel,ironictreatmentofJonathanWild,themostnotorious underworldfigureofthetime.PublishedasVolume3ofMiscellanies(1743). 18.\"Miscellanies\",collectionofworks,containedthepoemPartofJuvenal'sSixthSatire,ModernizedinBurlesqueVerse (1743). 19.\"TheFemaleHusbandortheSurprisingHistoryofMrsMaryaliasMrGeorgeHamilton,whowasconvictedofhaving marriedayoungwomanofWellsandlivedwithherasherhusband,takenfromherownmouthsinceherconfinement\", pamphlet,fictionalizedreport(1746). 20.\"TheHistoryofTomJones,aFoundling\",novel(1749). 21.\"AJourneyfromthisWorldtotheNext\",(1749).22.\"Amelia\",novel(1751). 23.\"TheCoventGardenJournal\",periodical(1752).
24.\"JournalofaVoyagetoLisbon\",travelnarrative(1755). 25.\"TheFathers:Or,theGood-Natur'dMan\",play,firstpublishedin1778. LaurenceStern(1713-1768) LaurenceSternewasborn24November1713inClonmel,CountyTipperary.Hisfather,RogerSterne,wasanEnsignina BritishregimentrecentlyreturnedfromDunkirk.Atage10,SternewassenttoschoolatHipperholme,nearHalifax, wherehisuncle.RichardSterne,whoseestatewasnearby,couldlookoutforhim.SterneattendedJesusCollege, Cambridge,onascholarship.AtcollegehemethisgreatfriendJohnHall-Stevenson(Eugeniusinhisfiction)andalso sufferedhisfirstseverehemorrhageofthelungs.Hehadincurabletuberculosis. AftergraduatinghetookholyordersandbecamevicarofSutton-on-the-Forest,northofYork.Hesoonbecamea prebendary(orcanon)ofYorkMinsterandacquiredthevicarageofStillington,SternefellinlovewithElizabethLumley, acousintoElizabethMontagu,thebluestocking.Theymarriedin1741.Accordingtotheaccountofanacquaintance, Sterne'sinfidelitieswereacauseofdiscordinthemarriage.Externally,hislifewastypicalofthemoderately successfulclergy.ButElizabeth,whohadseveralstillbornchildren,wasunhappy.Onlyonechild,Lydia,lived.
In1759,tosupporthisdeaninachurchsquabble,SternewroteAPoliticalRomance(latercalledTheHistoryofaGood WarmWatch-Coat),aSwiftiansatireofdignitariesofthespiritualcourts.Atthedemandsofembarrassedchurchmen,the bookwasburned.Thus,Sternelosthischancesforclericaladvancementbutdiscoveredhisrealtalents;untilthe completionofthisfirstwork,\"hehardlyknewthathecouldwriteatall,muchlesswithhumoursoastomakehis readerlaugh\".Havingdiscoveredhistalent,attheageof46,heturnedoverhisparishestoacurate,andgavehimselfup totheexerciseanddelightofhumorwritingfortherestofhislife.HebeganTristramShandy.Hewroteasfastashe possiblycould,composingthefirst18chaptersbetweenJanuaryandMarch1759. ByMarch1760,whenhewenttoLondon,TristramShandywastherage,andhewasfamous.Sternereturnednorth joyfullytosettleatCoxwoldinhisbeloved\"ShandyHall\",acharmingoldhousethatisnowamuseum.Hebeganto writeatShandyHallduringthesummers,goingtoLondoninthewintertopublishwhathehadwritten.In1767he publishedthefinalvolumeofTristramShandy.SoonthereafterhefellinlovewithElizaDraper,whowashalfhis agandunhappilymarriedtoanofficialoftheEastIndiaCompany.Theycarriedonanopen,sentimentalflirtation,but ElizawasunderapromisetoreturntoherhusbandinBombay.Aftershesailed,SternefinishedASentimentalJourney ThroughFranceandItaly,byMr.Yorick,publishedittoacclaimearlyin1768,andcollapsed. LyinginhisLondonlodgings,heputuphisarmasthoughtowardoffablow,saying,\"Nowitiscome,\"anddied.Soonafter burialatLondon,Sterne'sbodywasstolenbygraverobbers,takentoCambridge,andusedforananatomylecture. Someonerecognizedthebody,anditwasquietlyreturnedtothegrave.Thestory,onlywhisperedatthetime,was confirmedin1969:Sterne'sremainswereexhumedandnowrestinthechurchyardatCoxwold,closetoShandyHall. Notableworks 1.\"TheCaseofElijahandtheWidowofZarephathConsidered\",charitysermon,novel(1747). 2.\"TheUnknownWorld.VersesOccasionedbyHearingaPass-Bell\",poem(1743). 3.\"ASentimentalJourney\",novel(1768). 4.\"APoliticalRomanceorTheHistoryofaGoodWarmWatch-Coat\",satirenovel(1759). 5.\"AFragmentintheMannerofRabelais\",pieceontheartofpreaching(1759). 6.\"TheSermonsofMr.Yorick\",anovel(1760-1766).
VII.THEAGEOFJOHNSON(1750–1784)SamuelJohnson.Burke.OliverGoldsmith.RichardSheridan.James Boswell,\"LifeofJohnson\",1791.ThisperiodmarksthetransitiontowardtheupcomingRomanticismthoughtheperiodis stilllargelyNeoclassical.MajorwritersincludeDr.SamuelJohnson,Boswell,andEdwardGibbonwhorepresentthe Neoclassicaltendencies. SamuelJohnson(1709-1784) NextonlytoWilliamShakespeare,SamuelJohnsonisperhapsthemostquotedofEnglishwriters.Thelatterpartofthe XVIIIthcenturyisoften(inEnglish-speakingcountries,ofcourse)called,simply,theAgeofJohnson.Johnsonwasborn inLichfield,Staffordshire,England,in1709.Fromhisnursehecontractedatubercularinfectioncalledscrofula,which lefthimdeafintheleftear,almostblindinthelefteye,anddimofvisionintherighteye.Italsoleftscartissue whichdisfiguredhisface,asdidalaterchildhoodboutwithsmall-pox.YoungJohnsonrespondedtohisdisabilitiesby fiercedeterminationtobeindependentandtoaccepthelpandpityfromnoone.Throughouthislife,hefearedthatill healthwouldtempthimtoself-indulgenceandself-pity,andbentoverbackwardstoresistthetemptation.Whenhe waseightyearsold,hestoppedgoingtochurch,andabandonedhisreligion.Afewyearslater,however,hebegantothink thatitwaswrongofhimtodosowithoutinvestigatingthematter,andthepangsofguilthehadovernothavingread theologybeforerejectingitbroughthimtotheconclusionthattheremustbeaMoral Law(elsewhatisguiltabout?)andhenceaLawgiver.Asayouth,hedevelopedafondnessfordisputation,andoften,as headmits,chosethewrongsideofthedebatebecauseitwouldbemorechallenging.InOctober,1728Johnsonentered PembrokeCollege,Oxford.,butafteroneyearwasforcedtodropoutduetoabsenceofmoney.Hewroteashortpoem. TheYoungAuthor,dealingwiththedreamsofgreatnessofsomeonejuststartingtowrite,andthealmostcertain destructionofthosedreams.Themoralis:\"Donotletyourselfhopeformuch,andyouwillbethelessdisappointed\". OutofOxford,withnohopeoftheacademiccareerforwhichhisnativetalentssuitedhim,Johnsonsankfortwoyears intoadeepdepression.Hefearedthathewasfallingintoinsanity,andconsideredsuicide.Hedevelopedconvulsivetics, jerks,andtwitches,thatremainedwithhimfortheremainderofhislife,andoftencausedobserverswhodidnotknow himtothinkhimanidiot.In1735JohnsonmarriedElizabethPorter.Thereiseveryindicationthatitwasalovematchon bothsidesOnherside,thelovewasreinfocedbytheperceptionof
Notableworks 1.ADictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage(1755).Poetry 2.\"Messiah\"(1728). 3.\"London\"(1738). 4.\"PrologueattheOpeningoftheTheatreinDruryLane\"(1747). 5.\"TheVanityofHumanWishes\"(1749).ANeoclassicalplay(atragedy) 6.\"Irene\"(between1726and1749).Novellas 7.\"ThehistoryofRasselas,PrinceofAbissinia”(1759).Biography,criticism 8.\"LifeofMr.RichardSavage\"(1744). 9.\"MiscellaneousObservationsontheTragedyofMacbeth\"(1745). 10.\"TheplaysofWilliamShakespeare\"(1765). 11.\"TheLivesoftheEnglishPoets\"(1779-1781).Essays,pamphletsandperiodicals 12.\"BirminghamJournal\"(1732-1733). 13.\"TheRambler\"(1750-1752). 14.\"TheAdventurer\"(1753-1754). 15.\"TheLiteraryMagazine,orUniversalReview\"(1756). 16.\"TheIdler\"(1758-1760). 17.\"TheFalseAlarm\"(1770). 18.\"ThoughtsontheLateTransactionsRespectingFalkland'sIslands\"(1771). 19.\"ThePatriot\"(1774). 20.\"AJourneytotheWesternIslandsofScotland\"(1775).21.\"TheBeautiesofJohnson\"(1781).
RichardBrinsleySheridan(1751-1816) TheBritishplaywrightandoratorRichardBrinsleySheridanwrotetwocomicmasterpiecesforthestage,TheRivals andTheSchoolforScandal.Inhisowntime.SheridanwasequallycelebratedasagreatWhigorator.RichardBrinsley SheridanwasborninDublin,Ireland,onOctober30,1751.Hisfather,Thomas,wasanactorandtheatermanager;his mother,Frances,wastheauthorofnovelsand.plays.ThefamilymovedtoLondonin1758,andSheridanwaseducatedat Harrow(1762-1768).AftersixyearsatHarrowhewenttolivewithhisfatherinBath.InMarch1772Sheridanelopedto FrancewithayoungwomancalledElizabeth Linley.Amarriageceremonywascarriedoutbutsoonafterwardsthecouplewerecaughtbythegirl'sfather.Asaresult ofthisbehaviour,Sheridanwaschallengedtoaduel.Thefighttookplaceon2ndJuly1772,duringwhichSheridanwas seriouslywounded.However,Sheridanrecoveredandafterqualifyingasalawyer,Mr.Linleygavepermissionforthe coupletomarry.Sheridanbeganwritingplaysandon17thJanuary,1775,theCoventGarden
Theatreproducedhiscomedy.TheRivals.Afterapoorreceptionitwaswithdrawn.Arevisedversionappearedsoonafter anditeventuallybecomeoneofBritain'smostpopularcomedies.TwootherplaysbySheridan,StPatrick'sDayandThe Duenna,werealsosuccessfullyproducedattheCoventGardenTheatre.In1776Sheridanjoinedwithhisfather-in-law topurchasetheDruryLaneTheatrefor£35,000.Thefollowingyearheproducedhismostpopularcomedy,TheSchool forScandal.In1776SheridanmetCharlesFox,theleaderoftheRadicalWhigsintheHousofCommons.Sheridannow decidedtoabandonhiswritinginfavourofapoliticalcareer. On12thSeptember,1780,SheridanbecameMPforStafford.SheridanwasafrequentspeakerintheHouseofCommons andsoonobtainedareputationasoneofthebestoratorsinBritain.SheridanwasastrongcriticofLordNorth'sAmerican policyandsupportedtheresistanceofthecolonists.CongresswassogratefulforSheridan'ssupportthathewas offeredarewardof£20,000.Underattackfordisloyaltytohiscountry,Sheridandecidednottoacceptthegift. In1782theMarquisofRockinghamappointedSheridanashisundersecretaryforForeignAffairs.Sheridanretainedhis radicalpoliticalbeliefsandin1794defendedtheFrenchRevolutionagainstitscriticsintheHouseofCommons.Despite hisdisapprovalofsomeaspectsofthenewregime.SheridanarguedthattheFrenchpeoplehadtherighttoformtheir ownformofgovernmentwithoutoutsideinterference.Sheridanwasalsoastrongsupporterofanuncensoredpressand arguedstrenuouslyagainstattemptstousethelibellawstopreventcriticismofthegovernment. SheridanopposedtheActofUnionwithIrelandandlaterlostoffice.SheridanremainedadevotedfollowerofCharles Fox,untilhisdeathin1806.Hislastyearswereharassedbydebtanddisappointment.Hesatinparliamentfor Westminsterin1806-1807.Atthegeneralelectionof1807hestoodagainforWestminsterandwasdefeated,butwas returnedasmemberforIlchester.In1812SheridanattemptedtowinhisoldseatofStafford,butunabletoraisethe moneytopaythenormalfeeoffiveguineaspervoter,hewasdefeated.Sheridanhadseriousfinancialproblemsandin August,1813wasarrestedfordebt.Sheridanwasonlyreleasedwhenhiswealthyfriend,SamuelWhitbreadhandedover thesumrequired.RichardBrinsleySheridandiedingreatpovertyon7thJuly1816,andwasburiedwithgreatpompin WestminsterAbbey. Notableworks 1.\"TheRivals\"(1775). 2.\"StPatrick'sDay\"(1775).3.\"TheDuenna\"(1775). 4.\"ATriptoScarborough\"(1777). 5.\"TheSchoolforScandal\"(1777). 6.\"TheCamp\"(1778).
7.\"TheCritic\"(1779). 8.\"TheGloriousFirstofJune\"(1794).9.\"Pizarro\"(1799). OliverGoldsmith(1730-1774) Anglo-Irishmanofletters,poetandplaywrightwroteTheVicarofWakefield(1766).Goldsmithstoodaloneanddid notsubscribetonorstartanyschool.Hediedatforty-sixaphilosopheratheart,akindoldsoulandfriendtomany includingDr.SamuelJohnson. GoldsmithwasthesonoffarmerandIrishclergymantoKilkennyWest,CharlesGoldsmith,born10November1730. ThereissomecontradictoryinformationregardinghisbirthplacebutthelocationnotedinhisepitaphisPallas,or Pallasmore,avillagenearBallymahon,incountyLongford,Ireland.Hehadfivesiblingswhosurvivedtoadulthood. Hiseducationstartedearlyathomewitharelative,thenatagesevenhewassenttothevillageschoolrunbyanex- soldier,ThomasByrne.EarlyonheexpressedaninterestinCelticmusicandculture.YoungOliverwasshyandreticent, andduetohissmallandawkwardstatureandfacialscarringfromsmallpoxhewithoutadoubtsufferedthe consequencesfromtheschoolbullies.Muchtotheseemingdelightofhisheadmastershewasattimestreated mercilesslyfortheduncetheytoldhimhewas,corporeallyusedasanexamplefortheotherboysonhownotto behave.HoweveritissaidthatevenundersuchharshcircumstancesGoldsmithwasalreadywritingwithsuchpoeticsand
charmthatwouldlatergiveTheVicarofWakefieldhighaccolades.HereadOvid,Horace,LivyandTacitus.In1774he enteredTrinityCollege,Dublin,asizar,payingnothingtowardshistuitionorfoodbutinreturnperformingmenialtasks. Hisintemperanceandtendencytodressinbrightcolours,playmusicandgamblegothimintotroublenumeroustimesand hewouldgraduateundistinguished;hisnamethatheetchedontoawindowpaneisstillpreserved. GoldsmithwentontoattemptnumerousprofessionsincludinglawandmedicineatEdinburghandLeidenuniversities,and wasturneddownforordination.In1756heembarkedontravelsthroughFrance,Germany,ItalyandSwitzerland;ifhis fiction,especiallyTheTraveller(1764)istogiveanyindicationofhisownlife'sexperiences,it'spossibleheamusedthe localswithhisfluteplayinginreturnforfoodandlodgingandcontinuedhisdubiousadventuresamongbeggarsand thieves.Healsotookshort-termpositionsbeforeturningtoacareerinwritingwhileliving,amongotherplaces,inatiny roomatthetopoftheBreak-neckSteps'inLondon.Thereheproducedarticles andessaysofcriticismforvariousnewspapersandmagazinesincludingTheBee.TheMonthlyReviewandTheLiterary Magazine.HealsotranslatedJeanMarteilheofBergerac'sMemoirs.EnquiryintothePresentStateofPoliteLearningin Europe(1759)isoneofhismorewidelyknownworksduringthisperiod. ThereleaseofTheCitizenoftheWorld(1762),acollectionofwhimsicalandsatiricalessays,recognizedhimasaman ofletters.HisphilosophicpoemTraveller:or.aProspectofSociety,dedicatedtohisbrotherHenryGoldsmith(whodied in1768)waspublishedin1764.Theautobiographicalcoupletscharminsimplisticverseandreflectonmanyhappymemories. Itissaidthathewaspaid£21forit,butitwasdefinitelyasuccess,andgeneratedinterestinhispreviousworks.Now becomingsettledwithhiswritingandcircumstances,GoldsmithtookroomsoffofFleetStreetthenmovedtothe TemplewherehewroteTheVicarofWakefield(1766),thoughhewasstillplaguedbytendenciestodrinkandgamble thatwouldsendhimoffintofinancialstraits.Histaleofthecountryparsonisawarmandhumorouslookattypical Englishlife.Whilemelodramaticithasanendearingqualityofhumanitythattranscendstimeandisstillincirculation today. Theironicpoem,AnElegyontheDeathofaMadDog(1766),usesthedogasfiguretoupholdsensibilityanddecencyin man'ssociety.AremarkableturninGoldsmith'scareerwashismuchwelcomedcomedicplayTheGood-Natur'dMan(1768) andthefarcicalSheStoopstoConquer(1773),whichwereinsharpcontrasttothethenpopularsentimentaldramasof thetimeandfilledtheplayhouses.Healsoproducedsomeschooltexts,andwhilesomewhatmisinformedtheyprovided ahealthyboosttohisincome.HealsowrotepoetryincludingTheDesertedVillage(1770).
ThoughGoldsmithwasneverblessedwithsocialgraceandeloquence,heenjoyedthefriendshipof,amongmanyothers oftheliteratiandsocialsceneofLondon,SamuelJohnson,whowouldmorethanoncedefendhisfriend'scareerand character.Hebecameamemberofthe\"Club\"orwhatwaslaterknownasthe\"TheLiteraryClub\"(stillexisting)in1764. JoshuaReynolds,painter,andEdmundBurke.authorandparliamentarianwereothersupporterstotheend.Goldsmith entertainedlavishlyandlivedbeyondhismeansandwhileheworehisheartonhissleevehecouldneverbeaccusedof maliceorboastfulness.\"Iloveeverythingthat'sold,-oldfriends.oldtimes,oldmanners,oldbooks,oldwine\".Inthe lateryearsofhislife,owingtothousandsof£'sworthofdebt,hishealthandspiritweresoonaffectedandhe sufferedfromanervousfeveraccompaniedbyakidneyinfection. JamesBoswell(1740-1795) JamesBoswellwasalawyer,diarist,manoflettersandbiographerofDr.Johnson.BoswellwasborninEdinburgh,East CoastofScotland,UK.HestudiedatEdinburghHighSchoolandEdinburghUniversity(1753-1758),thenstudiedcivillaw atGlasgowUniversity,buthisambitionwasliteraryfame.At18hebeganhisoftenscandalousjournal(onlypublishedin theXXthcentury),andin1760ranawaytoLondon,whereheledadebauchedlife.HefirstmetSamuelJohnsonin1763, andtookhimonthememorablejourneytotheHebrides.HisJournalofa\"TourtotheHebrides\"(1785)appearedafter Johnson'sdeath.Itssuccessledhimtoplanhis masterpiece,the\"LifeofSamuelJohnson\"(1791).Whenthe\"LifeofSamuelJohnson\"waspublishedin1791itatonce commandedtheadmirationthatBoswellhadsoughtforsolong.Itsstylewasuniqueinthat,unlikeotherbiographiesof thatera,itdirectlyincorporatedconversationsthatBoswellhadnoteddownatthetimeforhisjournals.Healso includedfarmorepersonalandhumandetailsthanthosetowhichcontemporaryreaderswereaccustomed.Insteadof writingarespectfulanddryrecordofJohnson'spubliclife,inthestyleofthetime,hepaintedavividportraitofthe completeman.Itisstilloftensaidtobethegreatestbiographyeverwritten.Itwasaroundthreemonthsafterhisfirst encounterwithJohnsonthatBoswelldepartedforEuropewiththeinitialgoalofcontinuinghislawstudiesatUtrecht University.ButstillBoswellwasunsuccessfullawyer.Hestudiedthereforayearandthenspenttwoyearstravelling aroundthecontinent.DuringthistimehemetJean-JacquesRousseauandmadeapilgrimagetoRome.
BoswellalsotravelledtoCorsicatomeetoneofhisheroes,theindependenceleaderPasqualePaoli.Hiswell- observeddiariesofthistimehavebeencompiledintotwobooks\"BoswellinHolland\"and\"BoswellontheGrand Tour\".BoswellreturnedtoLondonin1766.HewasamajorsupporteroftheCorsicanRepublic.Followingtheisland's invasionbyFrancein1768BoswellattemptedtoraisepublicawarenessandrallysupportfortheCorsicans.James Boswellmarriedhiscousin,MargaretMontgomerie,inNovember1769.Hewasaveryunfaithfulman.Throughouthislife, fromchildhooduntildeath,hewasbesetbysevereswingsofmood.Bythelate1770s,Boswelldescendedfurtherand furtherintoalcoholismandgamblingaddiction.BoswellwaspresentatthemeetingoftheCommitteefortheAbolition oftheSlaveTradeinMay1787setuptopersuadeWilliamWilberforcetoleadtheabolitionmovementinParliament. Boswell'smostprominentdisplayofsupportforslaverywashis1791poem\"NoAbolitionofSlavery;ortheUniversal EmpireofLove\". AfterJohnson'sdeathin1784,BoswelltriedhisluckattheEnglishBar,buthiscareerwasunsuccessful.Healso offeredtostandforParliamentbutfailedtogetthenecessarysupport,andhespentthefinalyearsofhislifewriting his\"LifeofJohnson\".Duringthistimehishealthbegantofailduetovenerealdiseaseandhisyearsofdrinking.Boswell diedinLondonin1795. Notableworks 1.\"TheCubatNewmarket\",poem,publishedbyJamesDodsley(1762). 2.\"Dorando,aSpanishTale\",prose-narrativeallegory,anonymously(1767). 3.\"AccountofCorsica\",partlyanunoriginalsynthesisofgeographyandhistory,partlythejournalofhistour(1768). 4.\"TheHypochondriack\",amonthlyseriesintheLondonMagazine(1777-1783). 5.\"TheJournalofaTourtotheHebrides\",journal(1785). 6.\"LifeofSamuelJohnson\",biography(1791). 7.\"NoAbolitionofSlavery\",poem(1791).
EdmundBurke(1729-1797) EdmundBurkewasanAnglo-Irishstatesman,author,orator,politicaltheorist,andphilosopher,whoservedformanyyears intheBritishHouseofCommonsasamemberoftheWhigparty.HeischieflyrememberedforhissupportoftheAmerican coloniesinthestruggleagainstKingGeorgeIIIthatledtotheAmericanRevolutionandforhisstrongoppositiontothe FrenchRevolutioninReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrance(1790).ThelattermadeBurkeoneoftheleadingfigures withintheconservativefactionoftheWhigparty(whichhedubbedthe\"OldWhigs\"),inoppositiontothepro- revolutionary\"NewWhigs\",ledbyCharlesJamesFox.EdmundBurke'sideasinfluencedthefieldsofaestheticsand politicaltheory.Hisearlyworkonaesthetics,PhilosophicalEnquiryintotheOriginofOurIdeasoftheSublimeand Beautiful(1757),exploredtheoriginsofthesetwofundamentalconcepts,relatingthemrespectivelytofearofdeath andtoloveofsociety.InAVindicationofNaturalSociety:AViewoftheMiseriesandEvilsArisingtoMankind,which appearedin1756,heattackedsocialphilosophy,especiallythatofRousseau. BurkewastakenupbytheliteraryandartisticcirclesofLondon,andhispublisherencouragedhimtotryhishandat history,buthishistoricalworkwasnotpublishedduringhislifetime.Soonafterwardheenteredpolitics,andasaMember ofParliamentheproducedanumberoffamouspoliticalpamphletsandspeechesonpartypolitics,includingThoughtson theCauseofthePresentDiscontents(1770)andhisspeechonConciliationwithAmerica(1775),andonfinancialreform andonthereformofBritishIndia,SpeechonMr.Fox'sEastIndiaBill(1783).BurkealsofoundedtheAnnualRegister,a politicalreview.HeisoftenregardedasthefatherofAnglo-Americanconservatism.Burke'sfirstpublishedwork,A VindicationofNaturalSociety:AViewoftheMiseriesandEvilsArisingtoMankind(1756),attackedsocialphilosophy, especiallythatofRousseau,andwasfraudulentlyattributedtoLordBolingbroke.Itwasoriginallytakenasaserious treatiseonanarchism.Yearslater,withagovernmentappointmentatstake. Burkeclaimedthatithadbeenintendedasasatire.Manymodernscholarsconsiderittobesatire,butotherstake Vindicationasaseriousdefenseofanarchism(aninterpretationnotablyespousedbyMurrayRothbard).Whetherwrittenas asatireornot,itwasthefirstanarchistessay,andwastakenseriouslybylateranarchistssuchasWilliamGodwin.In 1757BurkealsomarriedJaneNugent.DuringthisperiodinLondon,Burkebecamecloselyconnectedwithmanyofthe leadingintellectualsandartists,includingSamuelJohnson,DavidGarrick,OliverGoldsmith,andJoshuaReynolds.
Notableworks 1.\"AVindicationofNaturalSociety:AViewoftheMiseriesandEvilsArisingtoMankind\"(1756).Thisarticle,outlining radicalpoliticaltheory,wasfirstpublishedanonymouslyand,whenBurkewasrevealedasitsauthor,heexplainedthatit wasasatire. 2.\"APhilosophicalEnquiryintotheOriginofOurIdeasoftheSublimeandBeautiful\"(1757),begunwhenhewasnineteen andpublishedwhenhewastwenty-seven. 3.\"ReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrance\"Burke,asupporteroftheAmericanRevolution,wrotetheReflectionsin responsetoayoungcorrespondentwhomistakenlyassumedthathewouldsupporttheFrenchRevolutionaswell.Itwas addressedtoananonymousFrenchnoblemanwhoseidentityhasbeenthesubjectofmanyrumors. EdwardGibbon(1737-1794) EdwardGibbon,thesonofacountrygentlemaninSurrey,wasbornin1737.FromWestminsterSchoolhepassedatthe ageoffifteentoOxford.Ill-healthandthewretchedstateofinstructionattheuniversitymadehisresidencethere, accordingtohisownexaggeratedaccount,largelyunprofitable,butheremainedforlittlemorethanayear;for, continuingthereadingoftheologicalworks,inwhichhehadbecomeinterestedasachild,hewasconvertedto Catholicism,andwashurriedbyhisfathertothecareofaProtestantpastorinLausanne,Switzerland.Thepastor reconvertedhiminayear,butbothconversionsweremerelyintellectual,sinceGibbonwasofallmenthemost incapableofspiritualemotion.Laterinlifehebecameaphilosophicsceptic.InLausannehefellinlovewiththegirlwho lateractuallymarriedM.Necker,ministeroffinanceunderLouisXVI,andbecamethemotherofthefamousMme. deStacl;buttoGibbon'sfatheraforeignmarriagewasasimpossibleasaforeignreligion,andtheson,again,obediently yielded.Heneveragainentertainedthethoughtofmarriage.InhisfiveyearsofstudyatLausanneheworkeddiligently andlaidthebroadfoundationoftheknowledgeofLatinandGreekwhichwastobeindispensableforhisgreatwork.His maturelife,spentmostlyonhisancestralestateinEnglandandatavillawhichheacquiredinLausanne,wasas externallyuneventfulasthatofmostmenofletters.HewasforseveralyearsacaptainintheEnglishmilitiaand lateramemberofParliamentandoneoftheLordsofTrade;allwhichpositionswereofcoursepracticallyusefulto himasahistorian.Hewroteabriefandinterestingautobiography.whichhelpstorevealhimassincereandgood-hearted, thoughcoldandsomewhatself-conceited,aratherformalmannotofalargenature.Hediedin1794.
ThefirstsourceofthegreatnessofGibbon'sworkishisconscientiousindustryandscholarship.Withunweariedpatience hemadehimselfthoroughlyfamiliarwiththegreatmassofmaterials,consistinglargelyofhistoriesandworksof generalliteratureinmanylanguages,belongingtothefourteenhundredyearswithwhichhedealt.Buthehadalsothe constructivepowerwhichselects,arranges,andproportions,thefacultyofclearandsystematicexposition,andthe interpretativehistoricalvisionwhichperceivesandmakesclearthebroadtendenciesintheapparentchaosofmere events. MuchnewinformationhasnecessarilybeendiscoveredsinceGibbonwrote,buthelaidhisfoundationsodeepandbroad thatthoughhisworkmaybesupplementeditcanprobablyneverbesuperseded,andstandsintheopinionofcompetent criticswithoutanequalinthewholefieldofhistoryexceptperhapsforthatoftheGreekThucydides.Hisonegreat deficiencyishislackofemotion.Byintellectualprocessesherealizesandpartlyvisualizesthepast,withitsdramatic scenesandmoments,buthecannotthrowhimselfintoit(evenifthematerialaffordedbyhisauthoritieshadpermitted) withthepassionatevivifyingsympathyoflater,romantic,historians.Thereareinterestandpowerinhisnarrativesof Julian'sexpeditionintoAssyria,ofZenobia'sbrilliantcareer,andofthecaptureofConstantinoplebytheTurks,butnot thestirringpowerofGreenorFroudeorMacaulay.Themostunfortunateresultofthisdeficiency,however,ishislack ofappreciationoftheimmensemeaningofspiritualforces,mostnotoriouslyevidentinthecoldanalysis,inhisfifteenth chapter,ofthereasonsforthesuccessofChristianity.Hisstylepossessesmuchofthesamevirtuesandlimitationsashis substance.Hehasleftitonrecordthathecomposedeachparagraphmentallyasawholebeforecommittinganypartof ittopaper,balancingandreshapinguntilitfullysatisfiedhissenseofunityandrhythm.Somethingofformalityand ponderousnessquicklybecomesevidentinhisstyle,togetherwitharathermannereduseofpotentialinsteadofdirect indicativeverbforms:howhisstylecompareswithJohnson'sandhowfaritshouldbecalledpseudo-classical,are interestingquestionstoconsider.Oneappreciativedescriptionofitmaybequoted:\"ThelanguageofGibbonneverflags; hewalksforeverastotheclashofarms,underanimperialbanner;amilitarymusicanimateshismagnificentdescriptions ofbattles,ofsieges,ofpanoramicscenesofantiquecivilization\". Alongereulogisticpassagewillsumuphisachievementasawhole:\"Thehistorianofliteraturewillscarcelyreachthe nameofEdwardGibbonwithoutemotion.Itisnotmerelythatwiththisnameisassociatedoneofthemostsplendid workswhichEuropeproducedintheXVIIIthcentury,butthatthecharacteroftheauthor,withallitslimitationsand evenwithallitsfaults,presentsuswithatypicalspecimenofthecourageandsingleheartednessofagreatmanof letters.Whollydevotedtoscholarshipwithoutpedantry,andtohisartwithoutanyofthepettyvanityoftheliterary artist,thelifeofGibbonwasonelongsacrificetothepurestliteraryenthusiasm.Helivedtoknow,andtorebuildhis knowledgeinashapeasdurableandasmagnificentasaGreektemple.Hewascontentforyearsandyearstolieunseen. unheardofwhileyoungermenrosepasthimintorapidreputation.Nounworthyimpatiencetobefamous,nosenseof uncertaintyoflife,nowearinessorterroratthelengthorbreadthofhisself-imposedtask,couldinducehimatany momentofweaknesstogivewaytohasteordiscouragementinthepersistentregularcollectionanddigestionofhis materialorintheharmoniousexecutionofeverypartofhisdesign....Nomanwhohonorstheprofessionofletters,or regardswithrespectthehigherandmoreenlightenedformsofscholarship,willeverthinkwithoutadmirationofthe noblegeniusofGibbon.ItmaybeaddedthatGibbonisoneoftheconspicuousexamplesofamanwhosesuccesswas madepossibleonlybythepossessionandproperuseofinheritedwealth,withtheleisurewhichitbrings\".(EdmundGosse, \"HistoryofEighteenthCenturyLiterature\",p.350)
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