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ISSUE 7 : OCTOBER 1998The Journal ofSustainable Product Design Re-THINK Re-FINE Re-DESIGN Re-PAIRISSN 1367–6679

‘Light-plant’ ‘Kind of Blue’ chair,a functional construction detailreminder ofresource use Analysis page 41Innovation,page 52 Re-THINK Re-FINE Re-DESIGNTruncated two-way actuators Arc lamp Analysis, page 26 Analysis page 41Re-PAIRSketch of sevenpart plywood jigGallery, page 37

ISSUE 7 : OCTOBER 1998 The Journal of Sustainable Product Design 5 Editorial Martin Charter, Joint Editor, The Journal of Sustainable Product Design Analysis 7 Eco-innovations – a novel phenomenon? Glenn Johansson and Thomas Magnusson, PhD students, International Graduate School of Management and Industrial Engineering, Linköping University, Sweden 19 Eco-effective product design: the contribution of environmental management in designing sustainable products Dr Michael Frei, Environmental Officer, ABB Power Generation Ltd, Switzerland 30 Active disassembly Joseph Chiodo, Research Scientist, Cleaner Electronics Research, Brunel University, UK; Professor Eric Billett, Chair in Design, Brunel University, UK; and Dr David Harrison, Lecturer in the Department of Design, Brunel University, UK Gallery 41 Sustainable furniture Interview 54 Peter James, Director, Sustainable Business Centre, UK Martin Charter, Joint Coordinator, The Centre for Sustainable Design, UK Analysis 42 Experiments in sustainable product design Stuart Walker, Associate Professor, Faculty of Environmental Design, The University of Calgary, Canada Innovation 57 The ‘eco-kitchen’ project – using eco-design to innovate Chris Sherwin, Dr Tracy Bhamra and Professor Stephen Evans, Cranfield University, UK© 1998 The Centre for Sustainable Design. O2 news All written material, unless otherwise stated, is the copyright of The Centre 60 Sustainable design website: linking people, ideas and tools for Sustainable Design, Surrey, UK. Martin Charter, Joint Coordinator, The Centre for Sustainable Design, UK Views expressed in articles and letters are those of the contributors, and not 61 Reviews necessarily those of the publisher. ISSN 1367–6679 63 Diary of events

GENERAL INFORMATIONEditors Editorial Board Dr Diana Montgomery Head of Environment, AutomobileMartin Charter: Articles, Interview, Africa Association (UK)O2 News and Journal marketing. Gary Owen CEO, ResponseAbility Alliance (Zimbabwe) Professor Jeremy MyersonAnne Chick: Gallery, Reviews, Contemporary Design,Diary and Journal production. Australasia De Montfort University (UK) Professor Chris RyanThe Journal of Sustainable Product Design Director, Centre for Design, Royal Jonathan Smalesencourages response from its readers to Melbourne Institute for Technology CEO, The Earth Centre (UK)any of the issues raised in the journal. (Australia)Entries for the Diary of events and material Sam Towleto be considered for review should all be Europe Head of Environmental Audit,sent to the Editors at the address below. Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel The Body Shop International Plc (UK) Director, Industry and Environment, UNEPAll articles published in the Analysis (France) Dr Hans van Weenensection are assessed by an external Director, UNEP Working Grouppanel of business professionals, Hans Peter Becker on Sustainable Product Design,consultants and academics. Managing Director, Wilkhahn (UK) Ltd. (UK) International Centre, University of Amsterdam (Netherlands)Subscription rates Professor Eric Billett Warden, Brunel University College (UK) Professor Jan-Olaf WillumsThe Journal of Sustainable Product Design Director, Foundation for Business andis a quarterly journal appearing in the Professor Dr Michael Braungart Sustainable Development (Norway)months of April, July, October and January Fachhochschule Nordostnierasacheneach year. Subscription rates for one year (Germany) Dr Jonathan Williams(four issues) are £90.00 (UK) and £100 Director, Group for Environmental(non-UK) for the paper-based version, and Professor Han Brezet Manufacturing (UK)£50.00 for the online version. Special Director, Section of Environmental Productsubscription rates for developing countries Development, Faculty of Industrial Design USand students are available on application. Engineering, Delft University of Technology Dr Brad AllenbyCheques should be made payable to The (Netherlands) Director, Environmental,Surrey Institute in £ sterling and sent to: Health & Safety, AT&T (US) Ian DumelowThe Journal of Sustainable Product Design Dean, Faculty of Design, Professor Patricia DillonThe Centre for Sustainable Design Surrey Institute of Art & Design (UK) The Gordon Institute, Tufts University (US)Faculty of DesignThe Surrey Institute of Art & Design Professor Dr Guenter Fleischer Ralph Earle IIIFalkner Road Director, Instit fuer Technischen President, The Assabet Group (US)Farnham Umweltschutz, Technische UniversitatSurrey GU9 7DS Berlin (Germany) Professor John EhrenfeldUK Director, Technology, Business andtel +44 (0)1252 892772 Peter James Environment Program, Massachusettsfax +44 (0)1252 892747 Director, Sustainable Business Institute of Technology (US)email: [email protected] Centre (UK)internet: http://www.cfsd.org.uk Dr Joseph Fiksel Iris van de graaf de Keijser Senior Director, Strategic Environmental, Director, Kiva Product Ecology Health & Safety Management, Battelle (Netherlands) Memorial Institute (US) Professor Karl Lidgren James Hartzfeld Director, The International Institute for Vice President, Interface Research Industrial Environmental Economics, Corporation (US) Lund University (Sweden) Professor William McDonough Dorothy MacKenzie Dean, Faculty of Architecture, Director, Dragon (UK) University of Virginia (US) Professor Ezio Manzini Jacquelyn Ottman Director, Facolta di Architettura, President, J Ottman Consulting Inc (US) Unita di ricerca Progetto, Prodotto, Ambiente, Politecnico di Milano (Italy) Dr Stefano Marzano Head of Corporate Design, Philips International (Netherlands)4 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

EDITORIALWelcome to the seventh issue ofThe Journal of Sustainable Product Design Martin CharternJoint Editor, The Journal of Sustainable Product DesignProcess to product to a certain point, eg. eco- debate currently being design, but unless the benefits of progressed by the CommissionA number of countries are the initiative are translated into on Sustainable Development starting to explore environ- business benefits to key internal (CSD) and the United Nationsmental policies based on prod- and external stakeholders eg. Environment Programmeucts rather than processes – this product managers, marketing (UNEP):was highlighted in a recent managers, customers and suppli-report commissioned by DGXI ers, then projects will go no · market creationon Integrated Product Policy further. For example, an(IPP). The report defined IPP as: excellent eco-design will fail if · product innovation.‘Public policy which explicitly the designer cannot sell it to theaims to modify and improve the product manager. To create markets for more eco-environmental performance of efficient products will requireproduct systems.’ (SPRU, Ernst Good communications are the development of greenerand Young, 1998) essential. Environmental markets through the increasing management is the driving force specification of environmentalHowever, as yet the EU does not behind eco-(re)design (existing criteria in domestic, ‘businesshave a clear position on what products) and eco-innovation to business’, retailer and govern-IPP means for European business (new products) with information ment procurement policies.and how/if or when it will be percolating down to designers However, there is an ‘Action-implemented. Different (engineers) through checklists, Awareness’ gap particularlyEuropean countries will have guidelines and software (Charter amongst domestic customers;different levels of preparedness and Clark, 1996). At present, why? premium pricing? qualityfor the shift of the policy focus there generally appears to be concerns? poor distribution? arefrom process, eg.waste minimisa- little ‘buy-in’ to the process all issues. In addition, under-tion and cleaner production to from other internal stakeholders. researched products/markets areproduct, eg. eco-design. However, if there is not ‘buy-in’ also key factors in the lack of from other key business market penetration. In domesticGreen walls functions eg. marketing, then markets, retailers have consider- eco-design is unlikely to be able power. In ‘business toTo enable eco-design and SPDD integrated into mainstream business’ markets the need forwill require solutions to ‘soft’ as product development. involvement of role playerswell as ‘hard’ problems, eg. throughout the supply chain isorganisational and technological. Innovation and creativity often ignored however engage-Hitting the Green Wall' is a ment of all internal and externalconcept formulated by Rob A number of the issues high- stakeholders in the process willShelton of Arthur D. Little. It lighted in the IPP report relate be essential for successful eco-suggests that organisations can to the sustainable consumption efficient product or serviceprogress environmental projects development. There is a clear need for market education. 5OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

EDITORIALNortel (Prentis, 1998) are design process and management localised consumption andapproaching this issue by organ- system implications. Whereas production view of SPDD withising environmental presenta- South Eastern Asian companies a range of practical industrialtions within customer seem to be looking at LCA and design cases. Sherwin, Bharmaworkshops. This provides a dual quick-fix software solutions, a and Evans of Cranfield Universitypurpose involving both market- mix of longer-term and immedi- (UK) give an interesting insighting and customers in the green ate-term thinking. European into the application of eco-debate. An example, of where companies may find experientally innovation principles to kitchenthis approach might be useful is that the bias to action, may design using an example of awith purchasing managers. A generate more appropriate project undertaken withstudy (see JSPD 6, p19) recently systems and tools to enable Electrolux (p57). The interviewindicated that IT buyers saw the progressive eco-(re)design and with Peter James of theinclusion of recycled materials in eco-innovation. A key common Sustainable Business Centre (UK)products as lowering the prod- focus for the development of draws together some of theucts’ value. There is an education eco-design internationally might current thinking over thejob to be done of informing be an international standard, complexities surrounding thecustomers that recycled can be as similar to ISO 14001. role of products and servicesgood as virgin material. If these within the sustainable consump-issues are addressed in the idea And finally… tion and production debategeneration/concept development (p54). Finally, the O2 pages (p60)phase of product development This issue of the journal draws highlight a number of newthrough involvement of key together articles that illustrate developments in France andstakeholders then it is more the potential of eco-innovationlikely that greener products or from both a macro and micro the Netherlands. •services will be successful from perspective. The article bya business perspective. Johansson and Magnusson of References Linköping University (Sweden)New tools examines the relationship SPRU at the University of between innovation theory and SussexEven allowing for the economic eco-innovation using examples and Ernst & Young Ltd,problems in South East Asia, of shifts occurring in the car and ‘Integrated Product Policy’,there appears to be growing lawn-mower sectors (p7). Frei commissioned by Europeaninterest in LCA as a strategic from ABB (Switzerland) high- Commission: DGXI, March 1998means to determine the environ- lights that there is a needmental impact of products. for clear goals for eco-effective Charter, M. and Clark, T.,However, a range of European product design and to be success- ‘Design for Environment’ survey,companies seem to be moving ful it should be integrated into The Centre for Sustainabletowards the need for simpler product development (p16). Design, UK, December 1996.tools to enable quicker decision-making. It is unlikely that design- The article on ‘active disassem- Prentis, E., ‘Customers – theers want to be seen as specialists bly’ (p30) by Chiodo, Billett and forgotten stakeholder’, Towardsin environmental issues, but they Harrison of Brunel University Sustainable Product Design, 3rdneed the right information. In (UK) illustrates the potential for International Conference, 26–27Europe there seems to be a re-thinking disassembly using October 1998, London, UK,growing interest in the eco- smart materials. Walker's article organised by The Centre for (p42) gives an illustration of a Sustainable Design, UK.6 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSIS Eco-innovations – a novel phenomenon? Glenn Johansson and Thomas Magnussonn PhD students, International Graduate School of Management and Industrial Engineering, Linköping University, Sweden Glenn Johansson holds an MSc in It has generally been accepted that participation of many different Mechanical Engineering from Chalmers in order to reach sustainability, actors including governments University of Technology, Gothenburg. significant changes will have to and communities, consumers andHe also holds a Licentiate of Engineering take place. Eco-innovations ie. new individuals, corporations and products and processes providing enterprises; creativity and inno- degree; title of the licentiate thesis: customer value, while using less vation is needed at every level ‘Design for Disassembly – A resources and resulting in reduced of society (Jackson, 1996). The environmental impacts, are there- importance of technological Framework’. Glenn’s current research fore of great importance. On the innovation in this transforma-focuses on how to integrate and manage basis of selected parts of the tion process has been underlinedeco-design in industrial product develop- existing innovation theory, this by many authors (see eg. Stahel,ment. Before becoming a PhD student at article explores the eco-innovation 1996; Fussler and James, 1996; phenomenon. The theory is used Jackson, 1996). Eco-innovations, the International Graduate School of to analyse two examples of eco- ie. ‘new products and processesManagement and Industrial Engineering, innovation; the struggle between which provide customer and Linköping University, he spent a year at steel and aluminium to the applica- business value but significantly tion of light weight car bodies, and decrease environmental impacts’ the Swedish Institute of Production the development of lawn mowers (James, 1997), have attracted Engineering Research. He has also two with improved environmental increased attention both in years of industrial experience designing performance. The analysis shows industry and academia. The that innovation theory is useful for purpose of this article is to equipment and construction parts creating a better understanding of explore existing innovation for paper and board machines. the concept and development of theory in relation to the eco- eco-innovations. It is therefore innovation phenomenon. The Thomas Magnusson holds an MSc in concluded that the innovation questions are whether existing Industrial Management and Economics theory should be part of the frame innovation theory is applicable of reference when analysing and and if it is useful for creating a with specialisation in Innovation managing eco-innovations. better understanding of the Management. He has two years of concept and development of experience within the field of eco- Introduction eco-innovations. design, completing applied research at the Swedish Institute of Production In 1987, the World Commission The eco-innovation concept Engineering Research. After that he on Environment andjoined the International Graduate School Development (1987) introduced Technological innovations can the concept of sustainable devel- contribute to reduced environ- of Management and Industrial opment. The transformation mental impact. For example, theEngineering at Linköping University. As a towards sustainability requires new high voltage generator PhD student tied to the division of Industrial Management, he is currentlyfocusing his research on eco-design and eco-innovation as a strategy for incre- mental and radical change. 7OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSIScalled the Powerformer recycling), and service extension. the parts of the theory whichdeveloped by Asea Brown Boveri These six dimensions can be provide managerial implicationssignificantly reduces environ- used to assess innovations for individual companies bymental impact compared to according to their environmental studying innovation and tech-existing alternatives. The merit. For example, the develop- nology as phenomena in anefficiency is improved compared ment of lead-free tin solders industrial context.to existing generators and the reduces health and environmen-life cycle assessments (LCAs) tal risks by eliminating the toxic The introduction begins with theconducted on it have shown lead, the development of light ‘S-curve model’ (Foster, 1986)clear advantages. Another exam- and energy efficient compact which describes the develop-ple is the durable printer drums cars reduces the energy intensity, ment of, and competitionin laser printers developed by and the application of ‘design for amongst, technologies. TheKyocera Electronics. The durable recycling’ guidelines improves model provides a picture of howprinter drum eliminates material the revalorisation dimension. technical performance isand energy consumption used in Innovations should be assessed improved over time and howthe production of replacement in all dimensions to ensure that discontinuities arise as a resultdrums (Fussler and James, 1996). the environmental merit in one of the entrance of new tech-A third example is the dimension is not counter- nologies. Following the S-curveSentricon™ Colony Elimination balanced by increased environ- model, the model of AbernathyControl System for termite mental impacts in another and Utterback (1978) suggestscontrol. This system uses one dimension. The Eco-compass is how the patterns of innovationten thousandth of the amount useful to make this assessment change as an industry sectorof active chemicals present in visual and is easy to understand. matures and how companies maystandard termite barriers (Fussler It is also useful to identify change themselves to fosterand James, 1996). possibilities for improvements innovation. The ‘Transilience and to stimulate environmental map’ (Abernathy and Clark, 1985)However, innovation does not creativity. The ‘Eco-design provides a more dynamic modelalways reduce the energy and strategy wheel’ (Brezet et al, which can be used to analyse thematerial intensity or pollution. 1997) and the concept of competitive implications ofInnovation can offer profit at the ‘Material Intensity per Unit of innovations. Finally, the conceptexpense of increased environ- Service’ (Schmidt-Bleek, 1996) of ‘technological bandwagons’mental burdens. Therefore, it is are other examples of tools (Wade, 1995) helps to illustrateimportant to assess the environ- which can be used in a similar how the market success of amental consequences, positive as way as the Eco-compass. technology or a design arises.well as negative, of every inno-vation. The ‘Eco-compass’ devel- Innovation theory Altogether the models presentedoped at Dow is a simple tool for in this section highlight twoassessing environmental To be able to analyse the essential determinants of innova-improvements which can be used question as to whether existing tion, namely the technology andto encourage the development innovation theory is applicable market aspects. As innovation,of eco-innovations (Fussler and and useful for creating a better by definition, deals with both theJames, 1996). The Eco-compass understanding of the eco-inno- novelty of the technology andhas six dimensions, all represent- vations it is necessary to present the commercial use of it (see foring relevant environmental a framework for the analysis. example Dussauge et al, 1996),issues: health and environmental This section gives a brief intro- these aspects are central to inno-risk, resource conservation, duction to selected parts of vation theory. The selected partsenergy intensity, materials innovation theory, which will of the innovation theory can beintensity, revalorisation serve as a basis for the analysis in used for developing an under-(remanufacturing, reuse and the next section. The focus is on standing of these aspects and this is vital for the ability to manage8 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISinnovation. evolves over time as an industry Technical sector matures. Companies tend progressS-curves and patterns to develop and adapt to fit the is not onlyof innovation different phases in the innova- characterised tion pattern. In the first phase, by incrementalAccording to Foster (1986) tech- the ‘fluid pattern’, the innova- improvements,nology develops over time in a tions are mostly radical, while but also bypattern which can be illustrated the innovations become more discontinuousas an S-curve. The initial phase and more incremental as the advance. Theseof the development of a tech- company develops from a small technologicalnology is characterised by entrepreneurial unit to a large- discontinuitiesknowledge acquisition and scale producer. The development constitutelimited effectiveness of the new of a dominant product design rare and radicaltechnology. As knowledge is typically relates to a shift from innovationsbuilt up, the technological radical to incremental product which involveperformance is improved. The innovation. In the fluid pattern fundamentallydevelopment is driven by product innovation dominates, different waysnumerous incremental innova- but process innovation becomes of doingtions, which continuously increasingly influential as the business.improve the performance of the industry sector matures. Thetechnology until its technical companies are typically technol-limit is approached. However, ogy-based and flexible, workingtechnical progress is not only in great uncertainty with smallcharacterised by incremental incentives for large investments.improvements, but also by Later on, in the second phasediscontinuous advance (Tushman denoted as the ‘transitionaland Rosenkopf, 1992). These pattern’, where the uncertaintiestechnological discontinuities about markets and targets areconstitute rare and radical reduced, companies make largerinnovations which involve investments in R&D and theyfundamentally different ways of can be described as science-doing business. A technological based. In the third and lastdiscontinuity can be seen as a phase, the ‘specific pattern’,‘jump’ between two S-curves the companies become fullyrepresenting alternative and specialised and focused on costcompeting technologies. The reductions. As an industry sectordistinction between incremental becomes more and moreinnovation (which refine and specialised, the companiesimprove existing products and become tied to the technologyprocesses) and radical innova- on which their production istion (which introduce totally based. Therefore, major productnew concepts) is a central changes that originate fromnotion in innovation theory within a specialised company(Dussauge et al, 1996). tend to be rejected. Instead major product changes tend toComplementary to the S-curve originate from companiesmodel, Abernathy and Utterback outside the established industry(1978) use a model to explain sector.how the pattern of innovation 9OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSISImpact on technology is introduced the addition of new and promising technologyand competition new community members which fulfils the requirements produces a bandwagon effect and of a radical eco-innovation.The notion about incremental thus the position of the newversus radical innovation is taken technology is strengthened. In response to the demand forone step further by Abernathy light weight car bodies, steeland Clark (1985) introducing the The development of producers are developing‘Transilience map’. Transilience eco-innovations materials which are lightermeans the capacity of an innova- than existing steel, while stilltion to influence the companies Is the framework provided by having all the other propertiesexisting resources, skills and the existing innovation theory requested. In the UltraLight Steelknowledge. These authors relevant for eco-innovations? Auto Body (ULSAB) project, 35challenge Shumpeter’s (1942) As a basis for this discussion the companies within the steelview of innovation as the example of the struggle between industry have co-operated toprocess of creative destruction steel and aluminium in the appli- develop high strength steeland argue that although tech- cation to light weight car bodies which reduces the weight of thenological innovation imposes is used. Additionally, examples car (Recycling, 1998). The devel-change, this change need not be of eco-innovation derived from opment and use of high strengthdisruptive for a company. They an analysis of the development steel may be seen as an incre-claim that innovations may of lawn mowers with improved mental eco-innovation builteither disrupt or entrench exist- environmental performance are upon established technologies.ing competencies. Whereas discussed (Bragd, 1997).radical innovations disrupt and Today it is not possible tomake existing competence Steel technology versus analyse if steel has the potentialobsolete, incremental innova- aluminium technology to reduce environmental impacttions conserve and entrench the The emissions from cars and be competitive to alumin-existing competence. In the contribute to, among other ium. However, the struggle‘Transilience map’ these two things, the ‘greenhouse effect’ between steel and aluminiumopposites are applied on two and should therefore be car bodies illustrates somedifferent dimensions: the tech- minimised. Consequently, reduc- interesting aspects of the devel-nology/production and the ing a car’s petrol consumption opment of eco-innovations.markets/customer linkage. Four during use has become of greatquadrants representing different importance, and a key issue in · The aluminium technology iskinds of innovation are distin- this effort is to reduce the car’s in its infancy in the applicationguished, ‘Architectural’, weight. Because of aluminium’s to car bodies but it may‘Revolutionary’, ‘Regular’ and low density, the use of challenge steel technology in‘Niche Creation’, each having aluminium in car body designs relation to its environmentaldifferent competitive impact and may provide an opportunity to performance. The reactioneach requiring different organi- reduce the emissions produced. of the steel producers is tosational and managerial skills. Some car producers have shown protect their position by interest in using aluminium car making improvements to theirRegarding the development bodies and thus the aluminium technology which illustrates aof a technology, Wade (1995) producers see potential to reach common response fromdiscusses the concept of ‘tech- new markets. The quality of the companies that rely onnological bandwagons’. This material needs to be further established technologies (asconcept suggests that the support developed, but the potential described by Utterback, 1996).a technology achieves in the seems to be substantial.technological community is Aluminium in the car body · If car producers decide todecisive for its success and its application can be seen as a shift to aluminium technologydiffusion. As a new technology it may be seen as ‘jump’ to a new S-curve. This jump would illustrate a radical innovation10 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSIS in the car body design with the environmental aluminium technology new S-curve representing the performance development of the aluminium technology. shteigehl tsetcrhennogltohgy· Although some attempts have steel technology been made to use aluminium instead of steel, the ‘band- time wagon effect’ as described by Wade (1995) cannot yet be Figure 1: The aluminium technology challenging the steel technology in the identified. Nevertheless, the application of light weight car body designs (after Utterback, 1996). concept of ‘technological bandwagons’ seems relevant. influence the company’s odour and the amount of harm- If the aluminium technology is resources, skills and knowledge ful substances emitted into the accepted, a community of car can be understood. As discussed air. In addition the general producers using aluminium may above, the ‘Transilience map’ environmental profile of the be established and the ‘band- illustrates four different kinds of products has been improved. wagon effect’ may arise. innovations, each having specific Because the environmental competitive impact, each performance of the combustion· The development of high influencing the technology/ engine has been improved the strength steel entrenches exist- production and markets/ applicability of the company’s ing competencies in car body customer linkages differently, existing knowledge has been design and manufacturing, but and each requiring specific reinforced. However, the a shift to aluminium technol- organisational and managerial catalytic converter has not ogy may destroy existing skills. affected the way the lawn competencies. Although some mowers are used and thus the car producers have shown Through many years of experi- customers have not needed to interest in aluminium car ence in the engineering industry, re-learn how to use the lawn bodies, the breakthrough for Husqvarna AB developed compe- mowers. The improved environ- aluminium may take quite a tence in mechanical engineering. mental performance combined while (if it ever happens) The company’s lawn mowers had with no changes in customer use because it may not only traditionally been based on the has resulted in strengthened ties destroy the competence among combustion engine technology, with established customers and steel producers, but among the which is regarded as a dominant improved service in the estab- car producers as well. design in the gardening industry. lished application. Because the Husqvarna AB developed several catalytic converter has strength-The discussion in point 1 and 2 applications of the catalyst ened the existing technologicalis illustrated in Figure 1. technology for small engines. competencies and customer The application of the catalytic linkages it can be classified as aGreen lawn mowers converter improved the combus- regular innovation in the tion technology by reducing the ‘Transilience map’.In an analysis of the develop-ment of green lawn mowers atHusqvarna AB the importance ofmarket differentiation andmarketing strategy for greenproducts was identified (Bragd,1997). If Bragd’s results arecombined with the ‘Transiliencemap’ (Abernathy and Clark,1985), the capacity of differentkinds of eco-innovations to 11OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSISHusqvarna AB has also developed In addition to the battery- distribution that fit the require-a new battery-powered lawn powered lawn mower, ments of the product’s charac-mower with positive environ- Husqvarna AB developed a solar teristics. From a marketingmental features such as no lawn mower, which is a robot perspective the solar mowerexhaust fumes and low noise that mows at random without should not have been treatedlevels. The battery-powered human intervention (Bragd, as a mainstream product, but asmower represented a completely 1997). The product originated a special product in communica-new technology for the company from a prototype presented by tion and selling tactics. Relatingand demanded new technologi- an inventor at a trade fair in 1991. the solar mower to thecal skills. This was recognised by The technology of using day- ‘Transilience map’ it is clear thatthe management and the light as fuel totally eliminates the product was seen as arequired competence was the emissions produced during ‘revolutionary innovation’, ie.acquired externally. However, use and can therefore be charac- the solar technology was newthe dimension of the terised as a radical step towards to the company, but the product‘Transilience map’ focusing on environmentally sound products. was not treated differently inthe influence on markets and To Husqvarna AB the solar relation to market linkage.customer linkages was not technology was an entirely new However, like the battery-recognised. Existing distribution technology outside of existing powered lawn mower the solarnetworks and traditional market- competencies and this required mower had the characteristics ofing strategies were used and the new expertise. As a result of the an ‘architectural innovation’ andproduct’s potential to attract innovativeness of the project, should clearly have been treatedenvironmentally conscious several external consultants and differently from a marketingcustomer groups was not distributors wanted to participate perspective.identified. The analysis by Bragd in the generation of the tech-(1997) shows that the new prod- nology. Offering a completely In Figure 2, the examples of theuct required new knowledge of different way of mowing grass lawn mower with catalyticthe customers and thus re- the solar mower required converter, the battery-powerededucation of the customers was customers to change their lawn mower, and the solarneeded. Furthermore, the distri- perceptions of how to cut grass. mower are illustrated in thebution network had to learn new The analysis performed by Bragd ‘Transilience map’. The solarpractices and the demands of (1997) shows that the marketing mower and the battery-poweredthe service and the after market had to be based on symbolic lawn mowers represent the samesupport changed substantially. aspects, which had to be visible kind of innovation (architecturalApplying the ‘Transilience map’ to the customer ie. modern and innovation) but the solar moweron this example, it is clear that futuristic. Another lesson learned has more radical impacts on thethe battery-powered lawn from the introduction of the technology dimension as well asmower was treated as a revolu- solar mower was that the the market/customer dimension.tionary innovation which marketing department tried todisrupted existing technological cover too many markets at the Discussion and conclusionscompetencies, but maintained same time. Market researchthe existing market and customer should have been conducted It seems that eco-innovationslinkages. However, the product before the launch, to identify follow the same pattern ashad the characteristics of an market segments to focus on, illustrated in Abernathy and‘architectural innovation’, with and the product should have Utterback’s model (1978) whichthe ability to disrupt the existing been tested on a reference states that major product changescustomer linkages and attract market. Another finding by Bragd rarely originate within maturenew markets. (1997) is the importance of industry sectors. The solar finding suitable forms of mower is an example of this phenomenon, because the12 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISniche creation disrupt existing/ architectural The battery- create new linkages powered lawn mower markets/customer linkage the solar mower as it should illustrates that have been considered a company in an established the battery-powered industry sector lawn mower as it should can benefit have been considered from new technicalconserve/entrench technology/production optionsexisting competence to develop disrupt obselete radical eco- existing competence innovations. lawn mowers with the battery-powered the solar mower as catalytic converter lawn mower as it was it was considered consideredregular conserve/entrench revolutionary existing linkagesFigure 2: The lawn mower with catalytic converter, the battery-powered lawnmower, and the solar mower placed in the ‘Transilience map’ (after Abernathyand Clark, 1985).product originated from an solar mower illustrates that ainventor outside the mature radical eco-innovation can begardening industry. The solar exploited by a company within amower also illustrates the resis- mature industry sector.tance among companies based Husqvarna saw the new solaron established technologies to technology as an opportunity toadopt new technologies, because create an image of the companywhen the product's inventor as being innovative (Bragd, 1997).presented the prototype at a The solar mower, being slightlytrade fair, the whole industry less radical than the battery-laughed and argued that there powered lawn mower, illustrateswas no market for such a thing that a company in an established(Bragd, 1997). industry sector can benefit from new technological options toHowever, Abernathy and Clark develop radical eco-innovations.(1985) argue that companies and The aluminium car body isindustry sectors can de-mature as another example, where thea result of changes such as new aluminium industry, due totechnological options, changes environmental demands fromin customer demands, and the car producers, has seen thegovernment policy. Although opportunity to move to morerejected when first presented, the radical modes of innovation. 13OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSISNew technological options, envi- influence the company’s existing companies (as discussed by Hart,ronmental customer demands resources, skills and knowledge. 1997), but it may also result inand government policies result The battery-driven lawn mower major threats for establishedin changed conditions for the and the solar mower exemplifies industry sectors. The strugglecompanies. Those who learn to that classifying eco-innovations between the steel and theanticipate, interpret and corre- according to the ‘Transilience aluminium technologiesspond to these changes will be map’ may be useful when plan- illustrates this, as the need forable to create competitive advan- ning for the launch of the prod- lighter car bodies and thetage. A company can either ucts. These products were viewed introduction of new light-weightadopt a re-active position and by the management as ‘revolu- materials threatens to disrupt thejust achieve minimum demands, tionary innovations’, but should competence of the establishedor choose a pro-active position have been seen as ‘architectural steel industry.in order to exceed or push innovations’ emphasising thedemands. An empirical study by need for new market linkages. The concepts of ‘organisationalBianchi et al (1997) revealed that The market dimension of new communities’ and ‘technologicalcompanies adopting a re-active eco-innovations is very impor- bandwagons’ (Wade, 1995)position usually develop incre- tant as discussed by Bragd (1997). deepen the understanding of themental eco-innovations in order Bragd’s analysis of the two lawn diffusion patterns for new tech-to comply with specific external mower examples shows that nologies. The lesson to bedemands, whereas pro-active understanding the market learned is that organisationalcompanies accomplish incre- dimension and the buying support is just as important asmental as well as radical eco- behaviour of the existing and technological superiority. So,innovations. Adopting a pro- potential customers is very even though environmentallyactive position seems to be a key important when introducing sound products and services mayfactor for companies in estab- environmentally sound products. be desperately needed, superiorlished industry sectors if they are This is congruent with Abernathy environmental performance isto accomplish radical eco-inno- and Clark’s (1985) statement that not enough. Organisationalvations. In order to achieve ‘architectural innovation’ support is necessary to gaincompetitive advantage managers demands unique insight about market acceptance. Awarenessin pro-active companies commit- user needs combined with the of this should mean that pro-ted to environmental issues ability to see the application of active companies can createshould support the development the technology in a new way. bandwagons of environmentallyof eco-innovations, for example, Thus, it is clear that the aware- sound technologies.by implementing environmental ness of the kinds of innovationpolicies, promoting environmen- the company is managing is This article has shown that thetal sound ethics, and shaping critical, as this awareness is a existing innovation theoryreward systems which support prerequisite for being able to provides a useful framework forenvironmental creativity. adjust the organisation and the creating a better understanding management practises accord- of the concept and the develop-The successful pursuit of differ- ingly. ment of eco-innovations. Forent kinds of innovation require example, the theory providesdifferent kinds of organisational This article also has shown that insight into the competitionand managerial skills. Classifying radical eco-innovation may between technologies, factorsthe eco-innovations according to disrupt existing competence affecting market diffusion andthe ‘Transilience map’ may and make it obsolete. The need market success and the impactsprovide insight into different for products with significantly of different innovations on aaspects of eco-innovation and improved environmental company’s skills, and knowledge.help to better understand the performance may provide major Hence, it can be concluded thatcapacity of eco-innovations to opportunities for pro-active innovation theory can and should be part of the frame of14 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISreference when analysing and tion concept. Consequently, it is elaborated. One such question ismanaging eco-innovations. The not possible to state that the how to relate the environmentalmodels and tools provided by framework represented by exist- dimension of innovations, ie.the innovation literature can ing innovation theory helps to the environmental performance,serve as support for the fully understand all aspects of to traditional performancecompanies when managing eco-innovation. On the contrary, measures such as price,eco-innovations. the discussion in this article functionality, and technical reveals many interestingThis paper has only ‘scratched questions that need to be further performance. •the surface’ of the eco-innova-References Foster, N. ‘Timing Technological Stahel, W. R. ‘Conditions of demand Transitions’, in Horwitch, M. (ed.) and supply with dematerialisation asAbernathy, W. J, Clark K. B. ‘Technology in the Modern a key strategy’, in AFR-report 136,‘Innovation: Mapping the winds of Corporation: A Strategic (Stockholm, 1996)Creative Destruction’, in Research Perspective’, (Pergamon Press, Inc.,Policy, Number 14, (1985), pp 3-22 1986) Tushman, M. L., Rosenkopf, L. ‘Organisational Determinants ofAbernathy, W. J, Utterback, J. M. Fussler, C., James, P. ‘Driving eco- Technology Change: Towards a‘Patterns of Industrial Innovation’, in innovation -A breakthrough disci- Sociology of Technology Evolution’,Technology Review, (June/July pline for innovation and sustainabil- in Research in Organisational1978), pp. 41-47 ity’ (London, Pitman Publishing, 1996) Behaviour, Vol. 14, (JAI Press, 1992), pp. 311-347Bianchi, R., Noci, G., Pozzi, C., Hart, S. L. ‘Strategies for a sustain-Priano, A. ‘Analysing basic patterns able world’, in Harvard Business Utterback, J. M. ‘Mastering theof environmental innovation within Review, (January-February 1997), pp Dynamics of Innovation’, (Boston,value chains’, Proceedings of the 4th 66-76 Massachusetts, Harvard BusinessInternational Product Development School Press, 1996)Management Conference, Jackson, T. ‘Material concerns -(Stockholm, 1997) Pollution, profit and quality of life’, Wade, J. ‘Dynamics of (London/New York, Routledge, 1996) Organisational Communities andBragd, A. ‘Learning from the intro- Technological Bandwagons: anduction of green products: two case James, P. ‘The Sustainability Circle: Empirical Investigation of Communitystudies from the gardening industry’ a new tool for product development Evolution in the Microprocessorin The Journal of Sustainable and design’, in The Journal of Market’, in Strategic ManagementProduct Design, Issue 3, (July 1997), Sustainable Product Design, Issue 2, Journal, Vol. 16, (1995), pp. 111-133pp 7-17 (July 1997), pp 52-57 World Commission on EnvironmentBrezet, H et al ‘ECODESIGN – a Recycling, Nummer 3, (Helsingborg, and Development, ‘Our Commonpromising approach to sustainable Indufa Förlag AB, 1998) Future’, (Oxford University Press, UK,production and consumption’, 1987)(United Nations Publication ,UNEP, Schmidt-Bleek, F. ‘Dematerialisation1997) -From Concept to Practise’, in AFR- report 136, (Stockholm, 1996)Dussauge, P., Hart, S., Ramanantsoa,B. ‘Strategic Technology Schumpeter, J. A. ‘Capitalism,Management’, (Chichester, John Socialism and Democracy’,Wiley & Sons, 1996) (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1942) 15OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSIS Eco-effective product design: the contribution of environmental management in designing sustainable products Dr Michael Frein Environmental Manager, ABB Power Generation Ltd, Switzerland Dr Michael Frei worked In research, as in practice, there is environmental performance can be as a research fellow in the often a weak link between environ- improved. Many companies are Eco-Performance group at the mental management and product starting to recognise this, but thereInstitute for Industrial Engineering design. To solve this problem, are few examples of the systematic and Management (BWI) of the environmental aspects should be integration of environmental Swiss Federal Institute of integrated into the earliest design aspects in product design. Technology (ETH) in Zurich, phases. Eco-effective product design Switzerland. His main research aims to systematically establish and The goal of eco-effective product implement goals in product design design is to close the gap between field was environmental with the aim of improving environ- environmental management and management and sustainable mental performance. These goals product design (Frei 1998). To product design (SPD), resulting should be based on significant enable this various goals should environmental aspects of the be set eg. the avoidance of in a PhD on eco-effective products and take into account hazardous materials, reduction of product design. environmental requirements. The emissions during manufacture or paper includes a case study as an increased eco-efficiency. Eco- Since July 1998 he has been example of eco-effective product effective product design focuses the Environmental Manager at design. on the systematic development and usage of these goals in ABB Power Generation Ltd. Introduction sustainable product design (SPD) (Switzerland). (Figure 1). C ompanies increasingly have to consider the environmental In environmental management and aspects of their activities in order SPD the term ‘eco-efficiency' is to improve their environmental often used. However, it is impor- performance. For a company tant to make a distinction between which designs products, design effectiveness and efficiency. activity plays an important part in Effectiveness can be defined as a this task. Design defines the prod- measure of goal achievement and uct’s environmental impact over efficiency as the amount of its total life cycle and any resources used to reach the goal. improvement in the product Therefore ‘eco-effectiveness' can design process will mean that be defined as the systematic derivation and usage of goals to16 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

environmental environmental aspects into product design. Most management aspects of products of the companies studied had a significant level of environmen-environment- eco-effective early design tal consciousness and theoriented goals product design phases relevant technical knowledge to design more sustainable product design products. However, only a few companies have definedFigure 1: The goal of eco-effective product design is to integrate environmental environmental goals for productmanagement and the environmental aspects of products in the design process design and have a process in place which integrates suchenvironmental orientation of product design pre-condition: 40 100 not certified goals. product design 100 planned to certify 100 certified The research indicated that environmental there are significant differences consciousness 92 between those companies which 94 have achieved ISO 14001, those applying for the certificate and significance of sustainable 30 those which have not achieved it design recognised (Figure 2). The latter has a low 85 environmental consciousness 82 and SPD is accordingly less important. Companies which technical knowledge 30 intend to apply for a certificate available show about the same level of 77 environmental consciousness 76 and knowledge as certified companies. The weak point is env.-oriented 20 the development and usage of goals defined 15 environmental goals in product design, even amongst ISO 14001 53 certified companies. Only about 50% of the certified companies process with integrated 0 define such goals, and less than env.-oriented goals 0 20% show a product design process which systematically 18 integrates these goals. This result is somewhat of a surprise, 0 20 40 60 80 100 because ISO 14001 requires that number of companies (%) goals be defined based on the number of companies (%) significant environmental aspects 100% are equivalent with: of the products (ISO 14001, chapter 4.3.3; cf. Frei et al. 1998).· 17 certified companies· 13 companies who plan to certify Basics of sustainable· 10 not certified companies product designFigure 2: Missing environmental orientation of product design in practice Sustainable product design(Frei and Waser 1998) (SPD): a systemic approach SPD is part of a socio-technicalimprove environmental however products are not beingperformance (Frei 1998). improved. A study was carried out in the Autumn of 1997The missing environmental amongst 42 Swiss companies,orientation of product design producing electrical and mechanical products (FreiIncreasingly, companies are and Waser 1998). The resultsimproving the environmental reinforce the problem ofperformance of processes, translating environmental 17OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

Figure 3: SPD in an organisational context On the other hand, the function often already definessystem (Figure 3). It is important significant environmental the most significant environ-to remember that product design aspects of any new product. mental impact of a product eg.defines the physical product the emissions of a car becausesystem which causes environ- It is also important to be aware of its petrol consumption.mental impacts and which may of the role that ‘the environ-contribute to environmental ment' plays within the company. · Consideration of the wholeproblems. These results are For eco-effective product design product system: the productperceived by internal and exter- to progress it is crucial that the system describes the productnal stakeholders, which results in company sees environmental life cycle (cf. ISO 14040).requirements for product design. aspects of products as an impor- The basis of SPD is life cycleOnly sustainable products which tant means for cost savings or engineering – limitation onhave a high customer acceptance marketing. only one or a few phases, likecan replace less sustainable recycling – is not acceptable.products. Five principles of sustainable product design · Consider environmental impacts:Product design also defines the SPD has to consider the poten-product system covering the For SPD to be successful, the tial environmental impact ofwhole product life cycle. For above mentioned systemic any new product – based onexample, material and energy c0nsiderations have to be taken the product function and theinputs and outputs in the into account. The main conclu- whole product system. Theproduct system cause key envi- sions can be summarised in five necessary knowledge can beronmental impacts. These principles (Frei 1998): gained by analysing existingimpacts contribute to environ- products. General checklists aremental problems like global · Concentration on the product of no help in this situation.warming, which are perceived function: the task of productand assessed by different stake- design is to develop functions · Considering environmentalholders. The designer has to eg. the car's function is to requirements from stakeholders andmake the ‘right' green decisions provide a transport solution. the company: sustainableduring the design process – and Therefore, environmental products have to be credibletherefore should be aware of the impact always has to be related to stakeholders, eg. customers. to the product's function (cf. Therefore, environmental functional unit in ISO 14040). requirements of internal and external stakeholders must be considered. · Integration into the design process: SPD can only be successful if environmental aspects are systematically integrated into the regular design process (cf. Lenox and Ehrenfeld 1997). For this integration, environmental goals are crucial. The previously mentioned research study highlighted that the problem lies in the application of these principles within organisations.18 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISThe concept of eco-effective Figure 4: The concept of eco-effective product design (Frei 1998).product design Derivation of environmental environmentally-orientedThe integration of environmental requirements stakeholder requirements. Quiteaspects at the very beginning of often this strategy is not formu-the design process is essential. Stakeholders have diverse lated explicitly. EnvironmentalEnvironmental aspects – like the requirements concerning policy, environmental reports,petrol consumption of a car – products. The question is, how environmental programmes asshould be taken into account in does the company perceive its well as the general strategy –the list of requirements. In these environmental situation and especially the product-market-early phases the main decisions how does it deal with the strategy – can give some input.are made, which also define stakeholders’ environmentalpotential environmental impacts requirements? The answer lies Evaluation of the significant(Frei 1998). in the firm’s environmental environmental aspects of strategy which, for products the reference productEco-effective product design might be based on:focuses on the systematic devel- · reactive problem-solving Apart from the environmentalopment and usage of environ- · reacting to immediate pressures requirements, it is important tomental goals in product design. · legal compliance know the significant environ-These goals should be based on · risk avoidance mental aspects of the productthe significant environmental · cost reduction itself. These are two differentaspects of the product. The · environment as a marketing viewpoints, with two differentprocedure can be structured in results.four main steps (Figure 4): consideration · systematic improvement of In order to evaluate the· Derivation of environmentally- significant environmental aspects oriented requirements from internal the environmental performance of a product it is not enough to and external stakeholders. of products. consider only materials. In addi- tion, the product function and· Evaluation of the significant The environmental strategy gives the whole product system have environmental aspects of the new the framework for eco-effective to be taken into account. A lot product: a reference product – product design by defining an existing product similar to the one being planned – should be selected and its environ- mental impact analysed.· Product planning: the environmentally-oriented requirements and the signifi- cant environmental aspects of the new product must be integrated with all other requirements and product ideas. The result is recorded in the list of requirements.· Design: the list of requirements is the basis for the design. The requirements are applied and the greeness of the product should be reviewed. 19OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSISabove Figure 5: Flushing system (Source: Geberit Ltd.)right Figure 6: The ‘environmental learning cycle' to determine the significant environmental aspects of products (Frei and Zust 1997) The of products cause their main · Definition of the function: the environmental environmental impact during cycle starts by defining func- strategy gives their usage (so-called ‘active' tions of the reference product. the framework products) because, eg. of their The function has to be seen energy consumption. from the customer's point of for eco- view. Therefore, a functional effective The integration of environmental unit, which is a measure of the product design aspects into the design process. performance of the functional by defining poses a problem. In the early output of the product system,environmentally phases – where the most must be defined (ISO 14040). -oriented important decisions are made – stakeholder only little knowledge is available · Modelling the product system: requirements. about the potential environmen- based on its function, the tal impact of the product. To product system has to be solve this problem, the environ- modelled. For related products, mental aspects of a reference all product life phases must be product should be evaluated considered. against various technical, envi- ronmental and economic criteria. · Material and energy flows: every The reference product must be product system generates essentially similar to the new material and energy flows and product with regard to its the inputs and outputs of the function and attributes. system have to be evaluated. To evaluate the significant · Environmental impact: the material environmental aspect of a and energy flows have an product the ‘environmental impact on the environment. learning cycle' can be used (Frei These flows must be described and Zust 1997), which is based in terms of elementary flows on the principles of Life Cycle into the environment (ISO Assessment (LCA) (cf. ISO 14040). 14040). The ‘environmental learning cycle' represents a cycle · Impact assessment: the environ- of six steps (Figure 6). mental impact must be assessed against its influence on envi- ronmental problems. The20 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSIS definition of environmental Figure 7: The relative environmental impacts of three representative products of a problems is not only influenced sanitary company over their product life cycle (Frei 1998, data from Gerber 1997). by the environment but also by society, customers and the company. In addition, environ- mental problems can change over time and according to location – a fact which has to be taken into account in impact assessment.· Causal analysis: the connection between environmental impact and the function or composition of a product must be investigated. The result of the causal analysis are the significant environmental aspects of the product.Example: flushing system function, the product system was Product planning modelled with around 45 The main internal and externalThe concept of the eco-effective processes over material deploy- environmental requirement of theproduct design is illustrated using ment, production, usage and flushing system is to minimisethe design of a new flushing disposal. To evaluate and assess water consumption during the usesystem (Figure 5). Key internal and the environmental impact, the phase. To minimise the waterexternal requirements that have to BUWAL method with ecopoints consumption, a technique whichbe taken into account include: (BUWAL 1990) and Eco-Indicator allows the user to select two· the reduction of the water '95 (Goedkoop 1995) was used. The different flushing quantities was result of the assessment shows added to the list of requirements. used for flushing that 95% of all environmental This resulted in about a 40%· the usage of Polyvinyl Chloride impact resulted from water reduction in water use. consumption during the usage of (PVC) – due to pressure group the flushing system (cf. Figure 7). Design concerns A second environmental aspect – Design can be structured into task· environmental considerations although less important – is the clarification, conceptual design, being a central marketing general supply of materials and embodiment design and detail feature for the new flushing their disposal. An additional factor design. In task clarification, the system. results from the use of brass when requirement was to reduce water assessed with Eco-Indicator ’95. consumption during its use phase.Evaluation of the significant To summarise, there are three During the conceptual design theenvironmental aspects significant environmental aspects significant environmental aspect of the flushing system: was addressed, eg. the functionThe ‘environmental learning circle' · water consumption in the of ‘flushing'. The embodiment andwas applied to evaluate the detail design dealt with, amongsignificant environmental aspects use phase others things, the mechanism forof a flushing system (Gerber 1997, · material intensity (weight) the two flushing quantities; and theFrei 1998). The function of the · use of brass. detail design of the flushing mech-product was defined as the anism included material selection.flushing of a toilet over 50 years.Therefore, not only the physicalproduct was considered, but alsothe water consumption during theusage phase. Based on this 21OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSISFigure 8: The relative environmental impacts of cables over their product Product planning: definitionlife cycle (Frei 1998, data from Seipelt 1998). of the eco-effectivenessIn a case study, the ‘environ- and power cables were analysed During product planning, eco-mental learning cycle' was (Seipelt 1998, Frei 1998). The effectiveness is defined by draw-applied to analyse the significant results could be clustered in ing up a list of requirements.environmental aspects of the three groups (Figure 8): This list defines how the internalwhole product spectrum of a and external environmentalsanitary company (Gerber 1997, · ‘signal cables’ for data requirements and the significantFrei 1998; Figure 7). Twelve transmission (with the environmental aspects of thereference products were defined. significant environmental reference products should beThe figure shows the relative impact in material deployment) taken into account. In a firstenvironmental impacts for three step, the requirements arerepresentative reference prod- · ‘power cables’ (with the biggest collected, in the second, theucts over their life phases. The impact through energy loss in product life cycle is brieflyresult shows the biggest environ- the usage of the cable) modelled and in the third, themental impact was during mater- result is fixed in the list ofial deployment for the water · ‘moved cables’, eg. built into requirements (Figure 9).pipe, during the usage phase for cars, trains or aircraft (whichthe flushing system (because of increase the energy consump- · Collecting environmentalthe water consumption) and tion of the vehicle because requirements: internal andover the whole production chain of their weight). external stakeholders and thefor the installation system idea of the product itself define(mainly because of transporta- This example illustrates that environmental requirements.tion). Overall, the impacts from certain measures, eg. dematerial-the production phase were small isation, can be appropriate in · Modelling the product life cycle: thecompared to the product's whole some cases (‘signal cables’) and goal of the second step is alife cycle. The case clearly shows inappropriate in others (‘power systematic check of require-how concentrating on the cables’) eg. dematerialisation ments. To achieve this, theproduction would have been the would increase power losses. It product life cycle is brieflywrong strategy for improving the is especially important to distin- modelled and theenvironmental performance of guish between ‘active' products, consequences of different vari-this company. ie. products which cause envi- ations assessed against ronmental impacts during their technical, environmental andIn a second case study, the usage (like ‘power cables’ and economic criteria. Using thisenvironmental impacts of signal ‘moved cables’), and ‘passive' process, the environmental products, which have no impact impacts of all requirements are in the usage phase. considered – not only the environmental elements. The basis for the modelling of the product life cycle is the ‘environmental learning cycle'. · Drawing up the list of requirements: the results of the previous step are recorded in the list of requirements. The significant environmental aspects of the product therefore build an integral part of the list of requirements and should be22 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISautomatically taken intoaccount in the design process.Design: translating Figure 9: Product planning with the steps ‘Collecting environmentally-orientedeco-effectiveness requirements', ‘Modelling and optimisation of the product life cycle' and ‘Drawing up the list of requirements' (Frei 1998)To achieve eco-effectivenessvarious design strategies, such as · individual experiences are products.prolonging product life, demate- brought into the organisationrialisation or recycling can be and are discussed; the ‘local · The goal should be to integrateused. It is, however, essential theory' on SPD changes environmental aspects into thethat these design strategies are product design process – eg.not an end in themselves but · knowledge gained is used to defining environmentally-conceived to fulfil the above- design new structures, tools orientated goals for everydefined goals (cf. Alting and etc. in order to improve the product in all relevant designLegarth 1995). The aim of design design of sustainable products, phases. The goal definitionshould be to translate eco- process has to include all stake-effectiveness efficiently. · the institutional knowledge holders involved in the process. (corporate culture) of the By confronting these peopleApplying eco-effective organisation influences, in its with different views, theproduct design turn, individual action and change process related to the experience. ‘local theory' can be stimu-To apply eco-effective product lated. The new, common ‘localdesign, a process of change Based on these reflections on theory’ should build the basiswithin the company is necessary. organisational learning (espe- for the goal definition.‘The environment' has to be cially on Baitsch et al. 1996) andrecognised as strategically ‘systems engineering' (Zust 1997) · The organisation, tools and theimportant. SPD is not primarily a procedure to apply eco- deployment of the employeesa technical task, but a new effective product design has been involved in an eco-effectivecapability which concerns the developed (Frei 1998; Figure 10). product design should beorganisation as a whole (cf. planned. The initial planningLenox and Ehrenfeld 1997). · Complete an analysis of the steps can be repeated several design process, internal and times.The organisation’s ability to external stakeholders,learn is essential for the applica- environmental requirements, · In the final stages of eco-tion of eco-effective product environmental problems effective product design,design. Therefore, value systems, resulting in the significant special attention has to be paidso called ‘local theories’ – the environmental aspects of theway people involved in theprocess think about environmen-tal topics – plays a crucial role.Organisational learning is theresult of changes of ‘localtheory' that result from theinterplay between the individualand organisation on one hand,and action and learning on theother (Baitsch et al. 1996; Muller-Stewens and Pautzke 1994);· designers learn about SPD through their actions 23OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

to the training of employees.· The implementation of a eco- effective product design process, should already include recommendations about the further development of the design process.Conclusion Figure 10: Procedure to apply the eco-effective product design (Frei 1998).There appears to be a gap environmental performance of stakeholders should always bebetween environmental manage- products. These goals are based considered. Increasingly,ment and product design. The on the environmental require- technological, environmental,empirical study shows that this ments of all stakeholders and on economic and social aspectsis true even amongst environ- the significant environmental have to be integrated in SPD.mental leaders. The goal of the aspects of the products. Therefore, it is important toconcept of eco-effective product develop integrated organisationaldesign is to close this gap and The environmental impact of systems to manage thisshould be based on a systemic the product, as well as theapproach to SPD and its five perception of its impact by process. •principles.Eco-effective product designtakes environmental aspects intoaccount in the early phases ofdesign. Its focus is on thesystematic development andusage of goals in product design.The aim is to improve the24 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ReferencesAlting, L. and Legarth, J. (1995). Life Frei, M. and Waser, M. (1998). ISO 14001 (1996).Cycle Engineering and Design. In: Umweltmanagement und umwelt- Umweltmanagementsysteme –CIRP Annals – Manufacturing gerechte Produktentwicklung in der Spezifikation mit Anleitung zurTechnology. Vol. 44/2/1995. Hallwag, Praxis – Resultate einer Umfrage Anwendung. EN. ISO 14040 (1998).Bern, 569-580. unter okologisch fuhrenden Umweltmanagement – Produkt- Unternehmen der Schweizer ökobilanz – Prinzipien und allge-Baitsch, C., Knoepfel, P. und Eberle, Maschinen-, Elektro- und meine Anforderungen. EN.A. (1996). Prinzipien und Instrumente Metallindustrie. Betriebswissen-organisationalen Lernens. In: schaftliches Institut (BWI) der Lenox, M., and Ehrenfeld, J. R.Organisationsentwick-lung, 3, 4-21. ETH Zürich, Zürich. (1997). ‘Organizing for Effective Environmental Design’, BusinessBUWAL (1990). Methodik fur Frei, M. and Züst, R. (1997). The Strategy and the Environment, 6, (4),Oekobilanzen auf der Basis ökologis- Eco-effective Product Design – 1-10.cher Optimierung. Ein Bericht der The Systematic Inclusion ofArbeitsgruppe Oeko-Bilanz. Environmental Aspects in Defining Müller-Stewens, G. and Pautzke, G.Schriftenreihe Umwelt, Abfälle Nr. Requirements. In: Krause, F.-L. and (1994). Fuhrungskräfteentwicklung133, Bern. Seliger, G. (Eds.) Life Cycle und organisatorisches Lernen. In: Networks, 4th CIRP Seminar on Life Die lernende Organisation: KonzepteFrei, M. (1998). Die öko-effektive Cycle Engineering. Chapman & Hall, fur eine neue Qualität der Unter-Produktentwicklung – Der Beitrag London, 163-173. nehmensentwicklung. Sattelberger,des Umweltmanagements zur T. Gabler, Wiesbaden, 183-205.Entwicklung umweltgerechter Gerber, R. (1997). Bestimmen derProdukte. Dissertation Nr. 12593 bedeutenden Umweltaspekte der Seipelt, D. (1998). Bestimmen derder ETH Zürich, Zürich. Produkte der Firma Geberit. bedeutenden Umweltaspekte von Unveröffentlichte Diplomarbeit. Energie- und Signalkabel der FirmaFrei, M., Dannheim, F. and Schott, Betriebswissenschaftliches Institut Huber+Suhner. UnveröffentlichteH. (1998). Neuer Fokus des (BWI) der ETH Zürich, Zürich. Diplomarbeit. Betriebswissen-Umweltmanagements – Die zentrale schaftliches Institut (BWI) der ETHRolle der Produktentwicklung in der Goedkoop, M. (1995). The Eco- Zürich, Zürich.Umsetzung des Indicator 95. Weighting method forUmweltmanagementsystems nach environmental effects that damage Züst, R. (1997). Einstieg ins SystemsISO 14001. In: QZ, 7. ecosystems or human health on a Engineering – Systematisch denken, European scale. Pre consultants, handeln und umsetzen. Verlag Amersfoort, Netherlands. Industrielle Organisation, Zürich. 25OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSIS Active disassembly Joseph Chiodo is a Research Joseph Chiodo, Professor Eric Billett and Dr David Harrisonn Scientist at Cleaner Electronics Research, Brunel University, UK, Research Scientist, Cleaner Electronics Research, Brunel and doing a PhD in ‘Design for University, UK; Chair in Design, Brunel University, UK; and Lecturer in the Department of Design, Brunel University, UK Environment with ActiveDisassembly’. He graduated in 1994 Industrial recycling is a practice of disassembly’. This research is growing importance and impending observing a hierarchical/variable from Manchester Metropolitan European ‘take-back’ legislation and temperature triggering regime and itsUniversity with an Industrial Design economic pressures are increasing product design implications (Chiodo, this. In addition, landfill sites have Billet, Harrison and Harvey, 1998). Masters degree in ‘Environmental become problematic and therefore Optimization through Industrial industry needs novel approaches to The aim of this initital project was to Design’. Since 1988 Joseph has recycling pre and post consumer test a novel form of disassembly on waste. As a result, recyclers are the casings of consumer electronicworked intermittently as a freelance working on broadening the range of products. This form of disassembly is product designer in the UK and reusable components from the waste called ‘active disassembly’. Ideally, Canada and he teaches under- stream. However, cost constraints products designed with ‘active limit the number of different products disassembly’ in mind have theirgraduate, MA and MBA modules in that can be recycled. Future trends in internal designs altered minimally so environmentally sensitive design. product design engineering point releasable fasteners and actuators towards recycling as an integral part made from ‘smart materials’ can be Professor Eric Billett holds the of the life cycle of electronic incorporated into their assembly. Chair in Design at Brunel consumer products. As the amount These smart materials consist of University, UK. From his and diversity of electronic products shape memory metals or ‘shape increases dramatically, current memory alloy’ (SMA) and shape appointment in 1989 through to models of production and memory plastic or polymer (SMP). 1997 he was Head of the dismantling seem outdated. These smart material releasable fasteners and actuator devices have Department of Design, and under A unique project entitled ‘Active the ability to dynamically change his leadership the Department disassembly using smart materials’ shape at specific temperatures and was funded by a ‘Blue Skies’ thereby ‘split’ their host candidate developed into the leading design Engineering Physical Sciences products’ macro assemblies. department in the UK, rated 5 in Research Council (EPSRC, UK) 1992 and 5* in 1996. Prior to his grant at the Faculty of Technology, Throughout the paper the releasable appointment at Brunel University, Department of Design at Brunel fasteners and actuators made from Professor Billett was head of University in the UK. The first phase smart materials shall be refered to as Chemistry at St Mary’s College, of the project was completed in 1997 ‘devices’. When these devices are Strawberry Hill, Twickenham. and further funding has been granted inside candidate products and enter for the second phase. This new two the dismantling line at the recycler's David Harrison is a Lecturer in year EPSRC project started in late facility, the product's ‘active’ or self- the Department of Design, Brunel spring 1998 and is investigating disassembly can be triggered by University, UK. He holds a BSc in ‘Design principles for active appropriate temperatures. Engineering Science from Exeter University and a PhD in Robotics from Portsmouth Polytechnic. He has held a Westminster Fellowship in the Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology.26 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISIntroduction Background – the Figure 1: Candidate product fitted sustainable society with a triggered 1-way actuatorT his paper reports initial results in the application of In order to move towards a Figure 2: Triggered NiTi actuatorSMA and SMP smart material sustainable society which is displacement for product separationdevices to the active disassembly within the carrying capacity ofof assembled consumer elec- the planet, a drastic revaluation Figure 3: After successful disassemblytronic products. The smart mate- of the throw away ‘consumer experimentsrials considered in this study are society’ is required (Henderson,alloys of Nickel-Titanium (NiTi), 1996). Crucial to this move Figure 4: Before experiment, actuatorsCopper-Zinc-Aluminium towards sustainability is the inside semi-transparent product(CuZnAl) and SMP made from reduction of extraction andpolyurethane. In this novel form processing of resources, particu-of disassembly, two distinct larly raw materials and energyapproaches can be taken when derived from fossil fuels.planning the eventual disman- Predictions of the necessarytling of a product. The devices factors of improvement varycan either be incorporated into extensively from four to twentyexisting product designs (retro- (Chiodo, Ramsey, Simpson,fitted) or incorporated in the 1997). Achieving these largeproduct during the design phase factors will require a combina-(design for active disassembly). tion of lifestyle changes,Since this was an initial significant breakthroughs ininvestigation, the feasibility of technology and different designretrofitting the devices to processes for problem solving.assembled products has been Designers have a key role toexplored. The design of the play in Factor ‘X’ reductionsdevices, cost effectiveness, range in material and energy use.of permissible ambient tempera-tures and triggering temperatures A typical design process rangesare each considered key parame- from the early stages of conceptters to be improved in future generation to the later stages ofresearch. In this work, general refinement. In the early stagesheat sources (vector air and there are opportunities forsteam jet) between 60–100˚ C significant improvements,(140–212˚F) were employed to whereas the later stages canraise the devices above their focus on incremental improve-triggering temperatures. After ment. This later stage is typicallythe full run of experiments, accomplished by engineers.observations were made detailingoutline design guidelines as a The importance of recyclingstarting point to the currentwork. The entire process is best Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) haslabelled as ‘active disassembly demonstrated that in manyusing smart materials’ (ADSM). products, the disposal phase contributes significantly to the overall environmental impact 27OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSIS The EU draft ‘take back’ directive states that 70–90% by weight of ‘end of life’ electrical and Figure 5: Truncated two-way actuators placed in calculator before experiment electronic equipment will have to be recycled.Figure 6: Full two-way actuators placed in second calculator before experimentof the product (Hawken, 1993). (AEA Technology, 1997), whichThis is particularly the case represents approximately 1% ofwhere a product contains toxic the total EU solid waste streammaterials (ECTEL, 1997), scarce (ECTEL, 1997).or valuable materials, or materi-als with a high energy content. This problem is common in the‘Waste from Electrical and G7 countries and is leading toElectronic Equipment’ (WEEE) various ‘take back’ laws such asoften combines all three of these obligatory return for large andsituations; for example, toxic small appliances in thelead solder, cadmium batteries, Netherlands in 1999 and 2000precious metals and quality plas- respectively (Boks, Nilsson,tics. Furthermore, the quantity Keijiro, Suzuki, Rose, Burton,of this waste is rapidly increasing 1998). The draft EU ‘take back’as the number of electronic directive states that 70–90% byproducts in our lives grows weight (depending on the typedramatically. In 1998 the EU was of waste) of ‘End of Life’ electri-expected to produce 6.5 to 7.5 cal and electronic equipmentmillion tonnes per year of WEEE will have to be recycled (EU, 1998). In Japan, the ‘Appliance28 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISRecycling Law’ is to be ratified disassembly was developed that EOL (perhaps 15 years later)in 1998 with ‘take back’ to be was not product specific. Ideally the product contains all theimplemented on TVs, refrigera- such a process would be initiated necessary information andtors, washing machines and air- by a simple triggering incident mechanisms to disassembleconditioning systems in 2001 and which would lead to an orderly itself following a single genericcomputers in 5–10 years (Boks sequence of disassembly events. triggering event such as heat.et al, 1998). Ultimately, this would result in It will not be necessary for the the separation of the product dismantler to have a record,These changes will oblige manu- into its separate components nor plans of the design for thefacturers to dispose of their grouped by material type. This EOL disassembly.products at ‘end of life’ (EOL), paper considers smart materialsand therefore, create an incen- as the basis for the implementa- Shape Memory Alloytive to manage this as efficiently tion for this strategy. or Metal (SMA)as possible. Smart materials SMA is a small group of metalsDesign for disassembly made up of two or more metallic The family of smart materials elements with particularlySerious research into disassembly which lend themselves to ‘active remarkable shape change andbegan in the early 1990s. disassembly’ include shape force provision properties. AsCurrently, the only options are memory metals or alloys (SMA) the temperature crosses orhand disassembly and robotic and shape memory plastics or changes across a critical value,disassembly or the combination polymers (SMP). Below a certain known as a transformationof the two. Both approaches ‘transformation temperature’ temperature (Tx) they undergohave had only limited success. (Tx) (Gilbertson, 1994) they a large and predictable shapeThere are profitable and versatile behave as relatively standard change or so called ‘Shapedismantling facilities using hand engineering materials and can be Memory Effect’ (SME).disassembly with simple mechan- used in all normal ways; aboveical aids such as hammers and this critical temperature SMAs were invented by thedrills. However, the proportion however, they undergo a very American military and are nowof each product recycled is rarely specific shape change that can used in a variety of applicationsvery high and there are technical (if required) be reversible if the such as spectacle wire frames,and physical limitations on the temperature is lowered again. It submarine and fighter jetsize, speed and safety of the is this change of shape above a couplings, military circuit boardprocess (Boks, Templeman, critical temperature which can connector sockets, space station1997). Robotic solutions have form the basis of active disas- connector components, cellproven to be costly and sembly. phone antennas, teeth bracesinflexible, requiring product and some medical applications.specific programming, object The major difference between Because of an increasing enve-orientation and vision recogni- the metals and plastics in this lope of uses, prices have and aretion systems. Moreover, the context is that the metals can continuing to drop and there-speed of disassembly is not generate a significant force as fore, exciting new opportunitiessignificantly improved from they change shape whereas the exist for inexpensive actuatorsmanual disassembly. However, plastics do not. On the other and fasteners in a range ofrobotic disassembly is still under hand the metals are more expen- electronic consumer products.serious investigation, particularly sive at present. Both materialsin Japan. are described below. The important qualities of SMA from a design perspective is thatConsequential advantages would By incorporating smart materials they are corrosion resistant andbe realised if a rapid and simple early in the design process, the in many ways resemble stainlessgeneric process for product designer can ensure that at the steel. They have the mechanical 29OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSIS Figure 8: SMP compression sleeve inserted inside injection moulded form bolt acceptor inside the BT telephoneFigure 7: SMA descriptions and results of preliminary disassembly experiments. Figure 9: Slightly undersized boltThese tables describe the characteristics of the SMA devices and the candidate inserted inside SMP compression sleeveproducts used in the experiments. Additionally, the results of these experiments within injection mould assembly boltare described in terms of the forces provided from the SMA devices as well as acceptor inside the BT telephonethe success of the same trials.30 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISstrength to form reliable fasten- many different ways and by vary- Figure 10: Showing various stages ofers yet upon exposure to a high ing degrees. As described in the the SMP disassembly experiment withtransformation temperature, they SMA and SMP sections above, a standard BT telephonewill change form. The critical their SMEs are quite unique. SMPtemperature can be placed is generally a multi-way effectaccording to the designer’s and SMA is generally a one andchoice somewhere between –190 two-way effect. These uniqueto +190˚C (-310 to +374˚Fº ). These characteristics offer designerslimits are due to the current new solutions to products previ-state of development of SMA. ously requiring dynamics such as movement and force provisions.Shape memory polymer By using smart materials, partor plastic (SMP) reduction is plausible as these materials provide movement,SMP is a very small group of shape change and force with oneplastics that can be formed by material. Previously, more partsthe normal processes including would have been required forinjection moulding and with the same function. It must beproperties similar to those found noted that SME is impossiblein Polyurethane, Polypropylene without the temperature expo-and ABS (Acrylonitrile- sure, therefore the product willButadiene-Styrene). not experience SME if the smart material specified has a Tx aboveSMP was invented in Japan and normal operating temperatures.has become commercially avail-able in the last couple of years. One-way SMECurrently SMP is used in thedesign of automatic carburettor Materials that recover to thechokes and utensils handles. original form one or more timesMedical and many other after exposure to heat. In one-applications are becoming way effects, the material wouldrecognised as SMP becomes more have to be forcibly re-shaped infully commercially exploited. order to recover again.‘Shape Memory Effect’ (SME) in Two-way SMESMP is different from in SMA.Plastics above their transforma- Materials that can recover manytion temperature or glass times to the original form andtransition temperature (Tg) loose deform again to a secondarytheir mechanical strength and form after exposure to a specificreturn to their originally formed temperature or stimulus repeat-shape. Unlike the metals, the edly. The amount of successfulplastics do not provide times the material can recoversignificant force accompanying and reform again dependsthis triggering procedure. primarily on the material, extent of deformation and the extent ofShape Memory Effect (SME) heat. The designer has many options with two-way devicesSME can be categorised three since the devices can take theways; one, two and multi-way place of switches or moreSME. The ‘effect’ happens in complex mechanisms requiring more than one moving part. The 31OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSISCuZnAl SMA SMP before SME Experiments with Shape before SME SMP during SME Memory Alloy (SMA) ActuatorsCuZnAl SMA Smart during SME material device A number of experiments were allowances conducted with SMA devices, NiTi SMA applying them to the active disas- after SME sembly of electronic products. NiTi SMA The initial experiments investi- before SME gated releasing socketed Integrated Circuits (ICs) fromFigure 11: General outline guidelines for design for active disassembly Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) and a PCB sub-assembly. A furtherexternal stimulus for the trans- shapes such as is the case for series of experiments attemptedformation is temperature change SMPs. One could view the vari- the disassembly of product(heat). able nature of SME in SMP as housings. Both 1- and 2-way SME metamorphic (Spillman, Sirkis, SMAs were used, alloys ofMulti-way SME Gardiner, 1996). This characteris- Nickel-Titanium (NiTi) andHere the material acts the same tic provides the most exciting Copper-Zinc-Aluminiumas in the two-way states except possibility for designers as SMP (CuZnAl) respectively.the material may be formable to could be considered a ‘live’more shapes depending on the material. A smart material with SMA resultsextent of the external stimuli the ability to take on different(heat and force). Sometimes in forms on demand. Figures 1, 2 and 3 indicate thethis case the material may be NiTi 1-way SMA actuators whilstaltered infinitely into different Figures 4, 5 and 6 indicate the CuZnAl 2-way actuators. The results are summarised in Figure 7 (Chiodo, Anson, Billett, Harrison, Perkins, 1997). In initial experiments to eject chips from PCBs, it proved impossible to develop sufficient forces with the actuators to over- come the frictional forces. This was primarily because of the limited size of actuator which could be positioned below the chips. NiTi rod actuators worked successfully to disassemble small electronic products including a personal organiser and calcula- tors. These 0.5 gram actuators provided very high forces (62– 64 N) over a displacement of 5mm. Therefore for further trial purposes, it was decided to32 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISAfter manually disassembling and incorporating devices into the test products, examinations were made foran outline of general methodology for design modifications. It was found that the test products would bestincorporate ‘active disassembly using smart materials’ (ADSM) when designing with the generalconsiderations below:· avoid alloys / combination materials · standard grab points · accessibility· controlled break points· over-specification reduction · compression hinges · modularity· hierarchy of subassemblies· vinculum strength reduction · general simplification · miniaturisation· isolation of costly materials· component/material type reductions · reusable components · separate materials · toxic material elimination · eliminate adhesives · undamaged component disassembly · reversible fasteners · moulding material fastenersAlthough the above considerations are useful for active and other disassembly methods, there are a numberof specific factors relating to ADSM. These include:· actuators should be placed in and around the fastening element· actuators should be placed such that the actuator temperatures correspond to hierarchy of sub-assemblies· location specific force provision· force provision must surpass tensile force in fastening elements of the constituent assemblies· vectorial passage for ambient temperatures are necessary to induce SME· average to tight tolerancing for memory devices· locators and seats for memory devices· passage for clean separation· temperature/time balance affects the structural integrity of the product and the disassembly procedure· trigger temperatures must be specified for a timely active disassembly· use of a non-specific disassembly line would optimise the potential of ADSM· design of memory devices depend on product applications for best disassembly results; some standardisation can be investigated however· generally, SMA actuators and SMP releasable fasteners would be in the low temperature state in a product in use at a typical ambient temperature range of -50 to approx. +90˚C.Figure 12: Outline design guidelines checklist for design for active disassemblyemploy lower cost, lower force- active disassembly of various methods. All experiments provedactuators. Cu-based helical products. The initial experiments disassembly within seconds of(spring shape) actuators also investigated the releasing of being exposed to Tg (SMP trans-provide sufficient force to PCBs and housing assemblies of formation temperature) oractively disassemble calculator product housings. higher > +55˚ºC (+131˚F) . It iscases. envisaged that higher SMP results temperatures outside of normalExperiments with Shape operating temperatures wouldMemory Polymer Releasable Initial experiments to release need to be used for manyFasteners PCBs from opened product hous- applications. ing assemblies proved successful.Numerous experiments were The SMP holding brackets SMP experiments shown inconducted with SMP releasable replaced the screw assemblies Figures 8, 9 and 10 are thosefasteners applying them to the used in current production employed in the second set of experiments. These SMP sleeves 33OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSIS With future were placed inside the bolt permit a cheaper fasteningdevelopment, assembly with the bolt slightly mechanism (see Figures 11 and undersized. This was an applica- 12). Design for conventional and the average tion to trial smart material active disassembly use similar product usage with absolutely minimum design outline guidelines and changes to current manufactur- require only minimal changes to disassembly ing methods. existing designs. SMA and/or SMP times could devices or actuators could be be reduced SMP releasable fasteners in the implemented surrounding a to less than form of compression sleeves snap-fastened assembly. The one second. worked successfully to disassem- bottom mould would have incor- ble large product housings such porated air allowances near the as the BT telephone (see Figures actuator/snap fastener assembly. 8 and 9). This disassembly appli- This would ideally encourage cation provided releases between actuation of the devices on a 15 and 135 seconds (see Figure dismantling line upon the EOL. 10). All experiments were The product could travel in one performed at room temperature; direction through a ‘heat’ cham- +22 to +23.5˚Cº (+72 to +74˚F). A ber being exposed to increased heating probe, +100˚Cº (+212˚ºF), actuation or transformation was applied to the single bolt temperature. This type of assembly. The assembly bolt disassembly leaves undamaged temperature was between 43˚ºC components. The whole process (+109˚ºF) and 45˚Cº (+113˚Fº ) after encourages the separation of disassembly. The 15–135 second dissimilar materials. For ‘Outline disassembly time range is Design Guidelines’, see Figures 11 attributed to the reforming of and 12. the SMP compression sleeve used. More accurate reforming Costs would significantly reduce this range in time. Current SMA prices are a relevant issue for cost effective disassem- With future development, the bly. The high volume prices per average product disassembly gram for the SMAs used here times could be reduced to less were for NiTi approximately 20¢ than one second! US (£0.15 UK), for CuZnAl 4¢ US (£0.03 UK). Each gram of Design implication CuZnAl provided up to 5 Newtons (N) with a reasonably The experiments showed that, in optimised actuator design. The principle, smart materials could NiTi provided slightly over 142 N be used to actively disassemble per gram at five times the cost small electronic products. without optimising the design. Working prototypes of a variety Here, Cu-based devices cost 0.8¢ of component ejectors and per N whilst NiTi costed 0.1408¢ releasable fasteners were per N at the time of testing. produced, and used successfully in disassembly trials. Small order SMP prices are at about $60 US (£37.50) a kilo but, In all cases, optimised designs would use less material and34 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISvolume purchasing would lower would create a larger role for work is now under way.this price to the same as typical them in the life cycle ofengineering polymers. consumer electronics. As ‘take ConclusionsFurthermore, prices of smart back’ legislation becomes EU lawmaterials are coming down as (within the next one to five years Active disassembly would widenproduction and applications time depending on the member the range of recyclable electronicincrease. Future work will state), a wider reaching recycling consumer products, it wouldexplore the optimisation of the technology makes more sense. As significantly increase the volumedesign of actuators in active recycling becomes an integral of recycled material used indisassembly observing cost and a part of the product life cycle, a manufacturing new products andmore detailed application on a generic recycling process is most potentially reduce recycling costrange of consumer electronic likely to be the most profitable and cost per new product.products including communica- way forward. With the amounttion products. and diversity of electronic prod- Most of the ‘active disassembly’ ucts increasing dramatically, devices are cheap and couldThis investigation produced a current models of production prove to be a very valuablenovel and fundamentally differ- and dismantling are cost heavy. investment. Additionally, theent product disassembly tech- The changes to the product that smart material actuators andnique which provided a new will allow active disassembly devices are highly re-usable,means of dismantling a variety of create either little or no cost costs too would divide everyconstituent product assemblies. increases. This provides an excel- time the devices are re-used.Current disassembly practice is lent driver for manufacturers andlargely by hand. Usually about recyclers. As product design engi- In ‘active disassembly’ the cost80% of the cost of such disas- neering points towards recycling added to some products may besembly is attributed to labour. as an integral part of the life a few cents/pence but, mostRobotic disassembly research is cycle, active disassembly provides products’ costs would notcurrently under development, a considerable cost advantage change significantly in volumebut has so far been shown to be over current dismantling manufacturing.very expensive as it requires schemes.dedicated dismantling facilities. The generic nature of the processThis condition makes recycling Active disassembly addresses all would mean that a singleprohibitive and difficult in a low of these issues and has revealed dismantling centre could acceptprofit margin industry. the potential for non-specific products from a variety of manu- dismantling. Therefore, there is factures in a single disassemblyRole of recyclers potential for the associated lower line. This would mean that the costs of a generic disassembly transportation costs of returningRecyclers currently recycle a facility such as that used in the products to the manufactur-range of consumer products ADSM. A third-party dismantler ers could be minimised. This lastsalvaging precious metals from could recycle a variety of compa- aspect is very important as aPCBs and ICs. Some further nies’ consumer products at the journey of more than adismantling is done on larger end of their useful life cycle. few miles can consume morematerial/value intensive products Products could then be economi- resources than are saved bysuch as large appliances, comput- cally recycled as their dissimilar recovering the materialsers and their cathode ray tubes and contaminated materials are embodied in the product.(CRT). However, cost constraints separated. The success of thisstill limit the number of different project has led to a patent (UK ‘Environmental Impactproducts that can be recycled 2,320,277). A small group of elec- Reduction’ (EIR) and cost reduc-profitably. Broadening this range tronic consumer product manu- tion/efficiency are obviously thewould significantly increase profit facturers have expressed interest key issues in LCA. As legislationfor recyclers and consequently in testing potential applications; points towards producer respon- sibility, recycling as an integral part of the life cycle of 35OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSISelectronic consumer products discharging the product in say, electrical and electronic equip-becomes a more attractive Europe or North America. For ment locally would significantlypossibility. example, it would not be envi- reduce the environmental impact ronmentally beneficial to discard and cost. Active disassemblyFor a successful reverse logistics an automobile or computer by could provide this and becomeinfrastructure to be developed it bringing them back to Japan after an important driver to a moreis important that a manufacturer a 15 year life in Europe or US. environmentally responsiblein say, Japan, should be able todiscard the responsibility of Recycling resources from form of product stewardship. •References AEA Technology, ‘Recovery of WEEE: Boks, C.B., & Tempelman, E., ‘Future Economic and Environmental Disassembly and RecyclingChiodo, J. D., Billett, E. H., Harrison, Impacts. Final Report A report Technology for the Electronics andD. J., and Harrey, P. M., produced for the European Automotive Industry’, (The‘Investigations of Generic Self Commission DG XI’, (EU, June, 1997). Netherlands: Internal documentDisassembly Using Shape Memory code K370, Faculty of IndustrialAlloys: 1998 IEEE Int’l Symposium on The European Trade Organisation for Design Engineering, Delft UniversityElectronics and the Environment – the Telecommunications and of Technology, April 1997), pp. 9–16.ISEE – 1998’ (Oak Brook, Chicago, Il, Professional Electronics IndustryUSA., 4–6 May 1998), pp. 82–87. (ECTEL) ‘End-of-Life Management of R.G. Gilbertson, ‘Muscle Wires Cellular Phones – an industry Project Book’ (Mondo-tronics, Inc.:Henderson, H., ‘Building a Win-Win perspective and response’ (England: San Anselmo, CA., 1994), pp. 2–7.World: Perfecting Democracy’s industry publication, 1997), p. 23, 39.Tools’ (San Fransisco: Berrett- Chiodo, J. D., Anson, A.W., Billett, E.Koehler, 1996), p. 247. Boks, C.B., Nilsson, J., Keijiro, M., H., Harrison, D. J., and Perkins. M., Suzuki, K., Rose, C. and Burton, H. L., ‘Eco-Design for Active DisassemblyChiodo, J.D., Ramsey, B.J. and ‘An International Comparison of Using Smart Materials: Int’lSimpson, P., ‘The Development of a Product End-of-Life Scenarios and Conference on Shape Memory andStep Change Design Approach to Legislation for Consumer Electronics: Superelastic Technologies’ (PacificReduce Environmental Impact 1998 IEEE Int’l Symposium on Grove, CA, USA., 2–6 March 1997), p.through Provision of Alternative Electronics and the Environment – 272.Processes and Scenarios for ISEE – 1998’ (Oak Brook, Chicago, Il,Industrial Designers: ICSID’97 The USA., 4–6 May 1998), p. 20. Spillman Jr. W. B., Sirkis, J. S. andHumane Village Congress’ (Toronto, Gardiner, P. T., ‘Smart materials andON, Canada, 23–27 August, 1997), in WEEE-7/8/98, EU: Second Draft, structures: what are they: Smartpress. Proposal for a Directive on Waste Materials & Structures, V. 5, no. 3, from Electrical and Electronic (Istitute of Physics Publishing, JuneHawken, P., ‘The Ecology of Equipment Council Directive of 7 1996) p. 248.Commerce – A Declaration of August 1998.Sustainability’ (New York: HarperCollins,1993), pp. 45–46. Boks, C.B., Nilsson, J., Keijiro, M., Suzuki, K., Rose, C. and Burton, H. L.,The European Trade Organisation for ‘An International Comparison ofthe Telecommunications and Product End-of-Life Scenarios andProfessional Electronics Industry Legislation for Consumer Electronics:(ECTEL) ‘End-of-Life Management of 1998 IEEE Int’l Symposium onCellular Phones – an industry Electronics and the Environment –perspective and response’ (England: ISEE – 1998’ (Oak Brook, Chicago, Il,industry publication, 1997), p.25. USA., 4–6 May 1998), p. 20.36 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

GALLERY Sustainable furniture Woodschool timber utilisation projectTop: Borderline chairs The Woodschool project is an example of a sustainable design service where the Below: River tables products are locally and sustainably grown, designed and manufactured using low grade and waste hardwoods. The project is a reflection of the need to optimise the use of woodland resources from sustainably managed forests. Oak, ash, elm and beech are made into innovative high ‘value added’ quality furniture. The Woodschool project was established under the umbrella of the Borders Forest Trust (BFT) initia- tive. BFT was formed in 1996 in response to sustained public commitment to native woodland restoration in the Scottish Borders. The diverse range of BFT projects reflects the growing recognition that native woodland is a land use, bringing tangible social, economic and environmental benefits to local communities in rural Scotland. Profits from Woodschool are covenanted to the Trust for the creation of new community woodlands and the development of other environmental projects across the region.Sketch showing general arrangement of seven part plywood Sustainable grown furniturejig used to control growth of seat 2 experimental structures Christopher Cattle, furniture designer Furniture designer, Christopher Cattle has been ‘growing’ wooden furniture for small scale production. He does this by using jigs to control the forms into which the young tree grows, and by grafting joints. Two experimental schemes are currently running in Britain, with the aim of investigating the viability of such a system. The scheme is examining such aspects as the suitability of various tree species and the structural integrity of the grafted joints. The key aim of the project is to find a commercially viable sustain- able production method which will be of benefit to rural communities in the Developed and Third Worlds. The ‘start up’ benefits of such a scheme are that it requires mechanisation of limited scale with the greatest investment required being land, time and manpower. 37OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

INTERVIEW Peter James, Director, Sustainable Business Centre, UK Martin Chartern Joint Coordinator, The Centre for Sustainable Design, UK Peter James describes himself as a Eco-efficiency is becoming which can help achieve it – such ‘virtual person’, an independent who a very popular idea with as ‘Local Exchange Tradingregularly works with the universities of business – what’s your view Systems’ (LETS) schemes or Bradford and Wolverhampton (where on this? sustainability-shaped car hire or leasing initiatives. Sticks means he holds visiting professorships in It’s fine as far it goes – which internalising environmentalenvironmental management), Ashridge tends to be a focus on getting costs, creating ‘economic better resource productivity in subsidiarity’ – a presumption by Management Research and the UK existing processes and products. governments, takeover authori- Centre for Environment and Economic But we should interpret it more ties and others that economic Development (UKCEED). He previously broadly. As Claude Fussler of activity should be conducted at worked in business schools in Britain Dow argues, the real long-term the lowest possible level – andand Ireland and as a science journalist, opportunities lie in eco-innova- also creating demand ‘ceilings’ tion – designing new products for some products. The US initially with BBC Television and and processes that meet experience of demand side subsequently as a freelancer. His consumer needs in different, management in electricity, co-authored publications include ‘The smarter ways and produce orders especially in California, has been Green Bottom Line: Environmental of magnitude improvement in interesting in showing how this eco-efficiency. Most companies could work – although its now Accounting in Business’ and also divorce eco-efficiency from breaking down as a result of ‘Environment under the Spotlight: the social dimensions of sustain- deregulation. Current Practice and Future Trends in ability. And, as road transport Environment-related Performance shows, you can become ever But perhaps most important isMeasurement’ (ACCA) as well as many more efficient but still increase changes in the big ‘field’, ie. the articles and papers on environmental overall impacts because values which drive our consump- performance evaluation, accounting, consumption continues to soar. tion. And the big target here is product development and sustainable mobility – as societies and indi-business. His current research includes How do you think we can viduals (including me!) we havea European project on the development achieve sustainable to put less emphasis on travel. consumption? Unfortunately, the problem is of eco-services created just as much by the and work with BT on tele- With difficulty – few companies apparently anti-establishment communications and Agenda 21. are ever going to voluntarily ‘Lonely Planets’ and ‘Rough restrict demand! So it has to be a Guides’ as by multinationals or combination of carrots and sticks the airline industry. I suspect – and the fields they grow in. that the solution will be more Carrots include support or virtual travel and that middle protected space for innovations38 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

INTERVIEWclass values may need to become – mainly energy, materials, Issue 2 (JSPD 2, July 1997) is oneless rather than more cosmo- hazardous substances and attempt to create such anpolitan. A slightly unpleasant sustainable resources. The approach.kind of ‘green regionalism’ may difficulties come when yoube necessary – our place is best consider how to measure, what You’re now working on eco-and we don’t want to know too kind of detail is required, the services – is a move to servicesmuch about yours because if we weightings you put on different the essence of sustainabledo we’ll want to travel. kinds of impact and extending it business? into the social dimensions ofWhat about social sustainability. And the answers Yes – and there is great potentialsustainability? depend upon your objectives. – but we need to be careful. Sometimes you want precise Some services can be eco-It’s difficult enough to get a ‘dial’ measures so that you can efficient but drive higherconsensus about environment control and fine tune. But in consumption. If you takebetween different countries, other cases we may want ‘can telecommunications-basedcultures and religions and this is opener’ measures that get us into services such as videoconferenc-even more pronounced on social a problem and help us to priori- ing or e-mail, for example, theyissues. I think the debate about tise and see the main issues but seem eco-efficient because theirsustainability and how we assess don’t always need a lot of preci- direct effect is to substituteit has been dominated to date by sion. One problem with LCA is information flows for physicalwestern and western-influenced that it often gives us a dial when resources. But their indirectgroups. A ‘world ethic’ of we need a can opener to reveal effects can be problematic –sustainability will need to be the broad pattern of impacts and because you need to see peopleconstructed from Asian and Latin help to prioritise action. less often you might relocate toAmerican, Islamic and Confucian a nice but remote area and makeroots as well as from a European/ The various LCA-based eco- fewer but longer trips so thatNorth American and Christian, points packages can also be valu- distance remains the same. And,Jewish or other secular positions. able for some specific purposes just as we now know that newThe implication is that designers but are often dangerous because road construction ultimatelyand others need flexible rather of their hidden assumptions. fuels demand for road transport,than rigid criteria that can How do you rate Polyvinyl so the building of informationaccommodate these differences. Chloride (PVC) for example? 'superhighways' might generateI suggested five of these – life Fairly benign according to one more rather than less travel. It'schances, basic needs, social popular package I’ve used – but nice – and profitable – to meetnorms, human capital and auton- of course very bad in the eyes of the new contacts around theomy and community – in a many environmentalists, because world made possible by e-mailrecent article for the Journal of the health concerns. The and lower phone costs. The same(JSPD 2, July 1997) but there’s outcome is what I call ‘spurious trends can also make it as easy tomuch scope for refinement and precision’ – apparent precision trade with – and transport goodsof course other good evaluation that underlies basic gaps in to and from – another continentschemes around. knowledge and/or disagreement as the next county. about what is known. So weHow can we measure need ways of measuring that, to So unless framework conditionssustainability issues in highlight rather than suppress are right – such as, in the case ofeco-design? uncertainty and disagreement. transport, adequate public trans- Qualitative rather than quantiti- port, internalising the full costsOn the environmental side, tative approaches can often be of pollution and some degree ofthere’s an emerging consensus best for this. The ‘Sustainability road pricing – I’d assume thaton what should be measured. Wheel’ which I wrote about in any service, however eco-Most of the schemes which are efficient, will tend to increasearound focus on the same areas 39OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

INTERVIEWconsumption in the longer term. social norms to highlight this And the design context in JapanMany eco-efficient services are issue. More broadly, I think that – crowded cities, small homes,also dependent upon intensive Asia and Japan in particular will an aesthetic appreciation ofdeployment of information and become much bigger influences fragility and the miniature, acommunication technologies. on eco-design and eco-services. high awareness of dependenceHence they increase society’s Not because of overt environ- on imported materials – iselectronic dependence – which mental action or awareness – perhaps more intrinsicallymay be OK but is certainly worth although, even with the current supportive of dematerialised andthinking about. economic crisis, I think overall smart products and services than Japan is no worse and possibly say America or Sweden. Because,The move to leasing or hiring ‘better off’ than other developed let’s face it, the future of theinstead of buying which much of countries. And other Asian coun- planet isn’t going to be deter-the eco-services literature has tries are no different than mined by what people value andfocused on is also interesting but European ones in similar stages buy in countries such as Canadapotentially problematic. There’s of development. But because of or Italy but in those such asa lot of consumer resistance – ‘uninentional sustainability’ – Brazil, China and India whichproducer goods may be a better environmental and social have high populations and legiti-bet for real change – and it’s not improvements which occur as mate expectations of a betteralways environmentally by-products of other changes. In life.beneficial. Hiring or leasing cars, environment, for example,for example, can lead them to Japanese society and business (as Are you optimistic orbeing driven more and harder with German society and busi- pessimistic about achievingthan when people own them. ness) still tends to have longer- sustainable development?We hope to get a better under- term perspectives – which is vitalstanding of all these issues in the for environmental improvement Both! Optimistic because one hasEuropean project we’re just – compared to say Britain or to be and also because it’sbeginning. America. I’d also say that the becoming clear that clever poli- historical values in Japanese soci- cies and new technologies andYou’ve stressed the need for ety are far more compatible with products can drastically reducea more international and sustainability than the west’s environmental impacts.diverse approach to sustain- generally nature-hostile Judaeo- Pessimistic – or at leastable business. What are Christian heritage. After all concerned – because theirthe implications of this for Tokugawa Japan – which pros- dependence on high technology,eco-design? pered while turning its back on particularly on information and foreign trade and subsisting on communications technologies,As I’ve said, more flexible criteria the country’s own carrying may create fairly atomised,– and also building the cultural capacity – is arguably the only stunted and unfair societies.issues into evaluation processes. example we’ve ever seen of a We’ll need good social design asIn the ‘Sustainability Wheel’, for large-scale sustainable society. well as eco-design to preventexample, there’s a category of them. •40 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSIS Experiments in sustainable product design Stuart Walkern Associate Professor, Faculty of Environmental Design, The University of Calgary, Canada Stuart Walker is Associate Professor Sustainable product design (SPD) ‘... design holds the potential to of Industrial Design in the Faculty of is being approached in many ways create, not new objects, but a newlyEnvironmental Design at The University but often, it seems, there is more responsible social order.’ of Calgary where he teaches industrial attention given to related but peripheral aspects, such as Alexander Manu, Designer, design technologies, drawing and technological innovations or Canada presentation techniques, sustainable analysis methodologies, ratherproduct design and design studio at the than to ‘designing’ itself. This lack I t is a fruitless task to try to graduate level. He is a member of the of emphasis on designing as a define SPD – there is nopublications committee of the Industrial process of exploration and common essence and it is Designers Society of America, guest discovery, and its relationship to inappropriate to try to find one. sustainability does a disservice to Sustainability, and hence SPD, editor of the Innovation journal and this vital, creative activity in which encompasses a great diversity of adviser to Alberta Education in design diverse and often disparate ideas approaches which will vary with find synthesis in material form. place, time, environment, studies. His work on sustainable culture and knowledge. No one product design has been presented The artefacts presented here knows what a sustainable society address various aspects of SPD and will look like – we can only and published in North America, form the basis of the discussion. speculate on possibilities from Europe and China. He holds an MDes They demonstrate that products our present standpoint. As we (RCA), the Diploma of Imperial College suited to local production (an work towards achieving aand a PhD from the University of Leeds. important facet of sustainability) sustainable society our knowl- are both feasible and can add a edge and understandings will richness to our material culture that increase, and so our vision of is lacking in much contemporary sustainability will evolve – the product design. These explorations goal posts will keep moving, as it start to show that environmental were. Sustainability is thus a and social concerns can be respon- fluid, dynamic, unfocussed goal – sibly addressed through design and and this is the way it has to be – that product aesthetics can begin any attempt to define a vision of to reflect the ethical core of a sustainable society will always sustainability. fall short. Similarly, any one approach to SPD will be incomplete. Some current approaches focus on 41OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSISThe following product life cycle assessment compete in today’s market place.examples are (LCA), others on product Rather, they are academic longevity or ‘design for disassem- explorations which, through the designs for bly’ or the use of activity of designing, examine everyday recycled materials. All these are possibilities for creating products functional important and can make a contri- for local use, repair and recycling products. bution but all are inadequate. The within a general notion of a author has attempted to translate sustainable community scenario. They utilise ideas about sustainability into commonly product prototypes and to inter- ‘Exploratory practical work (as pret the abstract, theoretical design research) is a good alternative available ideas in the creation of tangible, to conventional practice. I do not go materials, material objects which is the along with a view often promoted in off-the-shelf important aspect of investigative higher education that teachers of parts, simple design work. design have to be practitioners.’ tools and thenotion of local The designs presented here are Professor Nigel Cross, Open labour rather centred on the notion of local University, UK than highly production. Local production for mechanised local markets has many environ- The resulting designs are not production. mental and social benefits and readily classified. They are not has been identified by various typical product designs for authors as one of the main mechanised production – that is, features of a sustainable society industrial design. Nor are they (eg. Van Der Ryn and Cowan, craft designs – little or no 1996 and Hawken, 1993). Three traditional craft skills are crucially important guiding prin- required to produce them. These ciples of sustainability are: artefacts represent a kind of hybrid category which draws on · environmental stewardship elements of mass-production, semi-mechanised production and · social equity hand-fabrication. Mass-produced parts are combined with locally · development – rather than produced components, re-used growth (Roseland, 1992). items and/or recycled materials. Again, this seems appropriate These principles have been used when we talk about SPD. In by the author, together with working towards sustainability work done by Urban Planners in we should be drawing on many the development of ‘Sustainable existing procedures and tech- Community Scenarios’ to explore niques and modifying them and what sustainability means in adapting them, but not necessar- terms of product design. The ily rejecting them. Many of the following examples are designs negative consequences of our for everyday functional products. current, evidently unsustainable, They utilise commonly available approaches are not necessarily materials, ‘off the shelf’ parts, due to inherently harmful simple tools and the notion of methods but due to a lack of local labour rather than highly balance or moderation in their mechanised production. They are use. not conceived as commercially viable designs which can42 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISFigure 1: Arc Lamp – a task lamp from bamboo canes and reused componentsThe thesis of sustainability cultural and community identity product which bears the marksrecognises that labour is rela- – ‘community’ being an impor- of time and use and its owntively expensive but it also tant aspect of sustainability history could, potentially, have apoints out that current auto- (Nozick, 1992). richness lacking in squeaky cleanmated production methods fail products. However, in order toto include the so-called ‘exter- These designs therefore appreciate this richness we willnalities’ in the economics represent a shift in the way we have to readjust our value system(pollution, social consequences think about product manufactur- and our expectations of productof unemployment, etc.). Thus, ing in terms of our scales of aesthetics.the costs of current mass- production, the provision ofproduced products are kept fulfilling employment, social In these ‘experiments’ variousartificially low because aspects responsibilities and use of aspects of SPD have beenimportant to achieving sustain- materials. The resulting products explored:ability are not taken into also tend to challenge ouraccount. Local production (using preconceptions of aesthetics – Inventiveness of necessitylocal materials, producing prod- which, in contemporary productucts for local use) allows reduc- design, are closely linked to the Sustainability demands resource-tions in transportation and pack- notion of ‘newness’. SPD fulness and restraint. Newaging, facilitates recycling, explores reuse of materials, solutions have to be foundinverse manufacture and cyclic re-manufacturing and product which require less. In the Arcuse of materials and parts, local longevity. If we begin to create Lamp (Figures 1–3) the flexibilitymaintenance and repair. It also long lasting products made from of movement was attained usingallows products to be adapted to re-used materials and parts, then a simple arc of wire over alocal needs and to reflect local or we will have to reassess our fulcrum. The arc shifts theregional aesthetic preferences. ideas of products and the value balance point as the lamp-headThis, in turn, contributes to and place of the ‘new’, the is raised or lowered. The arc glossy and the ‘perfect’. A replaces the relatively complex 43OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSISFigure 2: Arc Lamp – raised position friction or spring mechanisms represents only one side of ourFigure 3: Arc Lamp – adjustment detail frequently used in task lamps. humanity. We can appreciate the The motion is wide ranging and precision but there is often little flowing – the action is delicate, or no sense of empathy or ‘reso- poised, bird-like. Construction is nance’. The intuitive gesture, the from bamboo garden canes, a spontaneous, the improvised – food tin (lamp shade), a water- all are driven by an energy, pipe and two corks (counter- vigour, momentum and enthusi- weight) and a cast concrete base. asm which are unavoidably lack- Electrical parts are standard, ‘off ing in fastidious, highly consid- the shelf’ components. ered work. And of course when a product is being put into produc- Improvisation and tion in the tens or hundreds of spontaneity thousands using expensive tool- ing and aimed at worldwide The constraints of limited markets, everything has to be resources – materials, processes carefully planned and controlled. and tools – combined with a realisation that most contempo- Here, then, is another reason for rary products are actually a phys- reconsidering our scales of ical manifestation of unsustain- production. Smaller scale able practices – can create a production for local markets liberating environment in which allows us to adopt approaches to to reconsider the nature of design and manufacturing which objects. The ‘Kind of Blue’ chair permit these aspects of design, (Figures. 4–6) is an exercise in and ourselves, to be re-intro- improvisation, spontaneity, duced. This helps ensure a ‘making-do’ and the inclusion of ‘wholeness’ in the creation of ‘chance’. our material environment – it enables products to be a more ‘There is a Japanese visual art in complete expression of our which the artist is forced to be spon- material needs – needs which taneous... The resulting pictures lack extend far beyond the utilitarian. the complex composition and textures of ordinary painting, but it is said ‘[Ruskin] thought that liveliness that those who see will find something and vigour and the positive mark of captured that escapes explanation... humanity were manifested in rough direct deed is the most meaningful work.’ reflection.’ Martina Margetts, writer, US Bill Evans, jazz pianist, UK In the case of the ‘Kind of Blue’ There is a strong relationship chair, the individual pieces of between intuitive, extemporised, wood, comprising off-cuts or ‘rough’ design work and sustain- found pieces, were used as they ability. Minutely considered, came to hand, in the form and meticulously justified, ‘honed’ size they happened to occur. design may have a certain kind of Fastenings are nails, glue or beauty but in many respects it a screws; and the geometry of sterile, lifeless beauty which construction ensures stability.44 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISFigure 5: ‘Kind of Blue’ chair – construction detail Figure 6: ‘Kind of Blue’ chair – rear viewAesthetic longevity and of opportunity afforded by the Smaller scale‘surface’ material to maintain or repair production for the surface can compound this local markets…Many contemporary products sense of discontent. Thus, the enablesrely on shiny, highly polished, product will often be replaced products‘new’ surfaces for their visual because of its appearance – to be a moreappeal. Automobiles, audio it has become prematurely completeequipment, kitchen appliances ‘aesthetically obsolete’ due expression ofand furniture are common to its surface qualities. our materialexamples. However, mono- needs – needschromatic, glossy surfaces, on There are various ways to address which extendpainted metals and moulded this issue, which is another far beyond theplastics, are delicate and highly important facet of SPD. Above, is utilitarian.susceptible to marring. Any discussed ‘rough’ work from thebumps, scratches or dents are point of view of spontaneity andimmediately obvious and the improvisation, however, ‘rough’accumulation of tiny surface surfaces can also contribute toscratches, caused when using or aesthetic longevity. Surfacescleaning the object, will eventu- which are ‘unfinished’ or createdally dull the surface. And it is from reused parts or recoveredusually a difficult task to main- materials – as in the ‘Kind oftain or repair such a surface once Blue’ chair – are often able toit is marked. This deterioration absorb wear and tear in waysof surface quality can cause a which do not detract from thesense of dissatisfaction in the overall appearance of the object.owner or user. Even though the One more scratch on a varie-product might still be function- gated, irregular surface that is aning well, the appearance can integral part of the object’sseem scruffy and drab. The lack design, will be unlikely to cause 45OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSIS Figure 7: Cable Radio – aesthetic dissatisfaction. Hence, batteries are being discarded, three-quarter view reused materials can be often after only a few hours employed in aesthetically of use. Even if rechargeable sensitive ways to create objects batteries are substituted for whose surfaces are able to disposables, the losses incurred absorb abuse. But it should be in recharging represents an noted that the aesthetic qualities imprudent use of energy. These of such surfaces will be quite inefficient, wasteful and harmful different from those of the practices are a common feature artificially ‘distressed’ surface, of non-sustainable product which is often applied to create design. the impression that the object is older than it really is. The The ‘Cable Radio’, (Figures 7), is spurious or bogus quality of such a design for a ‘mains-powered’ surfaces suggests an affectation radio. Part of the design or pretentiousness – the result- challenge was to resolve two ing objects lack authenticity and seemingly contradictory could be seen as a form of elements. On the one hand, the kitsch. small size of contemporary components and circuitry allows Another, related way of the product envelope to be quite addressing the issue of aesthetic small. On the other hand, a durability is to provide a ‘mains-powered’, and only complex surface that is easily ‘mains-powered’, product is not maintained. In the ‘Cable Radio’, a portable object. It is therefore (Figures 7) the casing is important to convey this idea – constructed from a coarse that the object has a ‘place’. The particle-board which yields an inclusion of the long legs and irregularly, randomly patterned the use of the power cable as a surface when polished. This visual element articulates the surface can withstand minor non-portability of the product. scratches and knocks without The housing for the electronics detracting from the appearance and speaker is relatively small of the object. Furthermore, the and is positioned at an appropri- surface can be easily maintained ate height for ease of operation by the owner and ‘revamped’ and for listening. with a cloth and polish. Local manufacture – Energy use forms and fastenings suited to basic tools Miniaturisation of electronic components over the years All the designs presented here means that we now live with are capable of being manufac- a profusion of small, portable, tured at locally based ‘gener- battery driven products. The alised’ production facilities widespread use of portable capable of producing diverse radios, music systems, personal products, in relatively low stereos, calculators and so on quantities (batch production) means that vast quantities of for local or regional markets.46 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSISFigure 8: Plaine Telephone – detail of keys moulded casings. An important area of exploration for SPD,Figure 9: Plaine Telephone – simple construction for local production therefore, is to consider alterna- tive approaches, that do notThe design of such products is, appropriate, desirable or utilise high quantity techniquesof course, influenced and economically viable at the local and which can be readily andconstrained by the economic, level. The ‘local approach’ economically manufactured atenvironmental and social consid- requires the development and the local level.erations of this type of produc- evolution of alternative tech-tion. niques which employ skills and The ‘Plaine Telephone’, (Figures materials in new ways and in 8–9), is made from a piece ofCurrently, capital and energy unconventional applications. For plywood. All cuts and drilledintensive techniques are widely example, almost all the design holes are at right-angles for easeused to produce intricately precedents for many electrical of manufacture with basic equip-moulded components and and electronic products rely on ment. Keys are simple cylindricalcasings, often with integral high quantity techniques such as pegs, the ‘handset’ utilises afittings. However, these high injection moulding. Most histori- re-used bottle cap and some wirequantity processes, used for cal and contemporary telephone and is set on location padsproducing products for interna- designs, for instance, feature fashioned from a rubber inner-tional distribution, are not tube, an ‘off the shelf’ toggle switch replaces the switch that is normally activated when the handset is replaced, and the circuitry is simply screwed to the underside of the board. The intent here was to create a usable telephone by employing the simplest of ‘local’ techniques – it represents an exercise in looking for alternatives to prece- dents, rather than any suggestion of a definitive ‘local’ design. Integration of scales – mass-produced plus locally made components As discussed, sustainability is strongly linked to the idea of the ‘locale’. An important but seem- ingly little explored aspect of SPD is, therefore, a reassessment of our scales of production so that products can be made, repaired and re-used within a local or regional ‘industrial ecol- ogy’ of cyclic resource use. Such a shift would mean that where appropriate, products and parts 47OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

would be made using locally available resources. However, there would remain many components that would be more appropriately manufactured in high quantities – light sockets, switches, light bulbs and elec- tronic parts would be difficult to manufacture at the local level and it would be inappropriate to do so. It is often important, for instance, to retain standardisa- tion of these types of compo- nents for safety reasons and to ensure compatibility. Hence, SPD must combine and integrate scales – using locally produced parts made from local materials in combination with mass- produced parts where appropri- ate and necessary. If the mass- produced parts are minimised and non-specific to a particular product design, then they can be recovered and more easily re-used in other applications. A standard, mass-produced lamp socket can be used in a variety of lighting designs, similarly a length of threaded rod or electrical cable has many possible design applications. On the other hand, a specialised moulding produced for one particular product application might be difficult to re-use. The Lumière floor-lamp (Figures 10–11) illustrates this integration of scales. It utilises a number of ‘off the shelf’, mass-produced components (lamp socket, bulb, cable, floor switch, threaded rod and fasteners), together with locally produced and found components (reused hardwoodFigure 10: (top) Lumière Floor Lamp – off-the-shelf components and a pebbleFigure 11 Lumière Floor Lamp – detail of construction48 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998

ANALYSIScomponents for the cross-arms of this approach is that the Figure 12: Remora Boxand base, a locally-made sheet of simplicity and evidently basic – legged, leaning chestpaper as the shade and a pebble means of construction allows afor the base weight). Packaging certain empathy with the object Figure 13: Remora Box – corner detailand shipping of components is that is based on an understandingreduced to a minimum. of what the object is made fromFabrication of a number of parts and how it is constructed. Manyand assembly is done locally and contemporary products lack thisthe basic design can be modified sense of ‘connection’ becauseand adapted to utilise locally they are made using processes,available resources and to suit materials and fastenings that arelocal requirements. In addition, foreign to the user or owner.the design is such that its This lack of understanding ofconstruction is explicit and easily one’s material environment notcomprehended – this facilitates only hinders product repair andrepair and disassembly for maintenance, it also creates areplacement or recovery of parts. certain distance or lack of associ-Reuse is encouraged by the fact ation with the objects that wethat all mass-produced compo- use. Without a greater sense ofnents are standard, ‘off the shelf’ rapport with our materialparts which can be incorporated surroundings we tend to valueinto a wide variety of designs. products only for their functional convenience but not as materialElegance and empathy things. Consequently, whenthrough design products fail to perform their intended task they are oftenWhen developing products discarded and replaced ratherwithin the limitations imposed than maintained, repaired orby the ‘locale’, then the upgraded.processes, the techniques andhuman skills must be used imagi- The examples presented herenatively to convert often unin- represent an approach wherebyspiring or ‘non-ideal’ materials the environmental and socialinto elegant forms which issues inherent to the notion ofcontribute in a positive way to sustainability can be addressed byour material culture. and made relevant to the disci- pline of product design. ThisThe ‘Remora Box’, (Figures 12–13) exploration has been conductedis a legged, leaning chest through direct engagement in theconstructed from recovered creative activity of designingplanks with screw fastenings and itself rather than through investi-threaded-rod legs. Here the gation of technical addendaattempt was made, through which can inform, but are not‘design’, to bring an element of central to, the design process. Itstyle and finesse to an otherwise suggests that a reassessment ofprosaic item constructed in an our approaches to product manu-expeditious and rudimentary facturing is both necessary andfashion from commonplace feasible. Design aimed at localmaterials. An additional feature scale manufacturing has the 49OCTOBER 1998 · THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSISpotential to provide fulfilling redefined for local and regional Referencesemployment while enhancing conditions, how a diverse andthe possibilities for product thoughtful variety of routes Cross, N., ‘The Refereedrepair, maintenance and the could bring a richness and depth Journal’, in proceedings ofcyclic use of materials. But it is to the creation of our material Designing Design Research 2,the designer who must put the culture so that it is not only (26 February 1998), at:flesh on the bones of this poten- environmentally and socially http://www.dmu.ac.uk/ln/4dd/tial. It is through design that we responsible but also aesthetically drs2.htmlcan demonstrate how ‘things’ expressive of the ethical core atcould be, how products can be Evans, B., ‘Improvisation in Jazz’, the heart of sustainability. • liner notes from the ‘Kind of Blue’ album by Miles Davis,Sustainable product design (SPD) in action (New York: Columbia Records, [1959] 1997).Economics: Simplicity of design, use of inexpensive, locally availablematerials, ease of production, incorporation of 'off the shelf' parts, Hawken, P., ‘The Ecology ofprovision of local employment opportunities, low capital production Commerce: A Declaration ofequipment. Sustainability’, (New York: HarperCollins, 1993), p. 144.Environment: Use of natural materials which can be maintained andrepaired, use of water-based paints and re-used parts, use of fasteners Manu, A., ‘The Humane Villagethat allow disassembly and re-assembly. Finishes and other aesthetic Explained’, The Humane Villageconsiderations contribute to product longevity. Low energy production Journal, Vol.1, Issue 1, (1994)methods. p.11.Ethics: Responsible use of human and material resources. Designs Margetts, M., ‘Internationalincorporate considerations significant to both environmental steward- Crafts’, (London: Thames &ship and social equity. These sustainable principles are expressed in Hudson, 1991), p.13.the aesthetic resolution of the products - the designs begin to ‘addvalue’ to the product beyond merely utilitarian. This encourages care Nozick, M., ‘No Place Like Home:and maintenance of our material environment and contributes to Building Sustainableproduct longevity. In turn, this starts to address the problems of Communities’, (Ottawa: Canadianexcessive consumption with all its 'unethical' implications of Council on Social Development,selfishness, greed, vanity, immoderate attitudes, etc. 1992), pp. 14–15.Social: Provision of local employment through local production, repair Roseland, M., ‘Towardsand maintenance. The evolution of local designs, expressing a local Sustainable Communities: Aaesthetic helps create a sense of cultural identity. Local scale produc- Resource Book for Municipaltion fits well into scenarios of more sustainable ways of living that have and Local Governments’,been developed by urban planners. These scenarios emphasise the (Ottawa: National Round Tableimportance of 'community' and include mixed use developments on the Environment and theincorporating reidence, production, retail, recreation, etc. Economy, 1992), pp.7–9. Van Der Ryn, S., and S. Cowan, ‘Ecological Design’, (Washington D.C.: Island Press, 1996), pp. 57–81 and pp.147–159.50 THE JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN · OCTOBER 1998