False-colour image of the storm at Saturn’s north pole, captured by NASA’s Cassini spacecraft places that JUICE and Europa Clipper are going to go through, but as we go by the moons, we’re taking measurements of the land on their surfaces, and we’ll update our models of the radiation in the area, which is something that we all fear because it can fry spacecraft. On top of that, we’re getting the first close up views of the satellites for many, many years, which helps inform future missions too. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/SSI Your work has been focused on Jupiter and Saturn. But there are other less well-explored ammonia condense, the atmosphere would Jupiter’s largest moons [Io, Callisto, Europa and planets in the solar system too. Where do you be well mixed. But this isn’t true, and nobody Ganymede]. The first was Ganymede. We flew think we should go next? knows why or how that could be. It is very hard by at a distance of about 1000 kilometres and Well, before two Venus missions were to get a global average – and even if you do, you did a full sweep of satellite science. announced recently, I was one of those who have to wonder whether it represents a global felt quite strongly that Venus had been left out. average that goes all the way down to the For instance, we have this microwave Maybe we should have more Venus missions, middle of Jupiter. instrument that observes in six different some would argue, and I’m not against it – frequencies. Each frequency sees into the Venus is a very important target. What is the best explanation for this so far? ice that covers the moon at a different depth. There was a paper published in 2021 by Tristan What we are trying to do is understand how I think the ice giants of Neptune and Guillot at the Côte d’Azur Observatory in Nice, that ice varies – how thick it is and what it’s like. Uranus represent a good next step as well. France, and his colleagues. They hypothesised Ganymede is covered with different terrain The big question is, how fast can you get that maybe there is something like mushy types that we already knew about: dark, bright there, because it takes a long time to hail – they called it “mushballs” – that were and middling stuff, and even linear-looking develop the mission and get it approved, formed in the storms of Jupiter high up in its features that suggest tectonic activity. I think and then it takes a long time to travel out atmosphere. And so these mushballs, which what’s equally exciting is that we are going there. In the latest decadal survey [where are about the size of a baseball, would trap to get the same kind of map of Europa in once each decade NASA and its partners ask either water, ice or ammonia that could a few months and its ice is very different the National Research Council to prioritise be carried down as a liquid below the to Ganymede’s. I’m not sure we’ll fully future research areas, observations and condensation level before it evaporated, understand the Ganymede data until we see notional missions], the Uranus mission was leaving it unevenly distributed. the same data on another body. Comparative the number one flagship recommendation, studies like this are probably the most but it also recognised that, given NASA’s One of Juno’s latest undertakings was flying important tool of science and we’re going budget, it might not be possible to start past Ganymede, Jupiter’s largest moon. Tell to get that – it is really exciting. that mission in the next decade. us about that. In June 2021, Juno finished its primary mission, Will all these observations lay a clearer path for I think one of the nice things Juno has but since it has now been extended, we didn’t shown is that something that you thought have to dispose of the spacecraft. Instead, we JUICE and Europa Clipper, the other missions set you needed a flagship mission for might be were able to modify the orbit to move closer to possible in a New Frontiers Program, which to explore the Jupiter system? is intrinsically faster and less expensive. Yes, both of those missions are being informed Juno’s extended mission is demonstrating by Juno. Up until now, we had never been to the that we can not only study Uranus or Neptune with a Juno-like spacecraft, but you could actually do a good job on the satellites as well. I think that gives us hope that maybe another ice giant mission doesn’t have to wait 20 years. ❚ Joshua Howgego is a feature editor at New Scientist 23 July 2022 | New Scientist | 49
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The back pages Puzzles Almost the last word Tom Gauld for Feedback Twisteddoodles Try our crossword, Is breaststroke or New Scientist Gun-toting dogs and for New Scientist quick quiz and front crawl the more A cartoonist’s take human bone gifts: Picturing the lighter logic puzzle p53 efficient stroke? p54 on the world p55 the week in weird p56 side of life p56 Science of gardening The forecast is chilli Chilli plants can thrive in summer and survive the winter even in temperate climes, says the heat-loving Clare Wilson Clare Wilson is a reporter CHILLI plants hail from warmer GAP PHOTOS/RACHEL WARNE at New Scientist and parts of South America. As a result, writes about everything they aren’t natural candidates for pots. In warmer parts of the UK, are now aiming for a cool-enough life-science related. growing in temperate countries you might get away with putting temperature range, of 5°C to 12°C. Her favourite place is her like the UK, unless you have a the plants outside in sunny Depending on the weather, this allotment @ClareWilsonMed greenhouse. But they also do well weather, once they are a good size, could be somewhere such as a in pots, so if you have a suitable although this may reduce the crop. shed, garage or a front porch. What you need spot by a window to nurture them indoors, you can produce a good The flowers should be self- Before overwintering, harvest A packet of chilli seeds crop of chilli peppers. pollinating, but to be safe, gently any remaining fruit, then cut A propagator or a small shake them to help the pollen off all branches and trim the top plant pot and plastic bag The chilli is such a valuable reach the stigma in the centre. off the main stem so you are left Larger pots culinary addition because it Once the fruits form, some with just 15 centimetres. For A cane for support contains a chemical called growers advocate a range of convenience, place in a smaller A sunny spot indoors capsaicin that binds to heat strategies to get hotter chillies, pot, trimming the root ball if or a greenhouse receptors called TRPV1 on our including tearing off a few leaves to necessary, and store. Water only tongues, triggering sensations mimic munching by herbivores – when the compost is getting dry. Science of gardening appears ranging from tingling to agony, this is supposed to make the every four weeks depending on the concentration. plants produce more capsaicin In late winter or early spring, The discoverer of this process won in defence. Or just buy varieties awaken the plant by moving it to Next week a share of the 2021 Nobel prize for that are naturally hotter, such as a warm and sunny spot. This will physiology or medicine. Prairie Fire – there is a huge range. give you a head start on a good Science with children crop of fruit the next summer. ❚ The reason for such chemical This year, I will be trying warfare is unclear. One idea is that something new: keeping a chilli These articles are it deters munching of the fruit by plant alive over winter. In contrast posted each week at mammals. Leaving them available to the plant’s summer needs, you newscientist.com/maker to be eaten by birds – which have a slightly different form of the heat receptors and so are impervious to their effects – allows the seeds to be spread further. But capsaicin might also help the plants by blocking the growth of a fungus prone to infecting the fruit if they are eaten by insects. Either way, some of us humans relish the kick chillies bring to food. To grow your own, germinate some seeds in late winter or early spring in a heated propagator or on a sunny windowsill in pots covered with plastic bags, to create a miniature greenhouse. As the seedlings grow, they no longer need a cover and can be moved to progressively larger 23 July 2022 | New Scientist | 51
The back pages Puzzles Cryptic crossword #88 Set by Rasa Scribble Quick quiz #161 zone 1 The boundary between the sun’s atmosphere and the beginning of the solar wind in space is known as what? 2 What name is given to a hypothetical particle made entirely of gluons, with no quarks? 3 What kind of fruit comes from trees of the species Diospyros kaki? 4 How many elements make up group 1 of the periodic table? 5 In genetics, what does CRISPR stand for? Answers on page 55 Answers and Puzzle the next quick crossword set by Rob Eastaway next week #177 Monkeying around ACROSS DOWN 1 Time to abandon science relating to 1 Buff precious stone lacking finish (3) Scientists have been studying two 2 Programmer redesigned decor (5) rare monkey species in a forest. NASA growing things amid stones (7) 3 Don’t bore portal (8) 5 Trig symbol article by prof’s helper (5) 4 Raise concern about a medicinal herb (6) In one part of the forest live the Equalis 8 Try extremely elegant washroom fixture (5) 5 Note very loud quarrel (4) monkeys, which are split 50-50 between 9 Judge circus routine after performer’s 6 Joy recalled story on sulphate, for one (7) males and females. In another part of 7 Gold and red on back of iron robot (9) the forest are the Fraternis monkeys, of last bend (7) 10 Dual snare I turned over in snake attack (9) which exactly two-thirds are male – the 10 New embargo against Tetley’s 12 Cask agriculturalist initially buried evolutionary aspect of this isn’t yet known. primary tea flavouring (8) in pigsty? (8) Both species are monogamous, with 11 Unyielding tree mass (4) 14 Measure of pressure maintained by families coming in all shapes and sizes. 13 Vocally identify flatfish (6) Some parents stop at one offspring, but 15 Insect flying around throne (6) leaderless army stations for sterile state (7) there are others with 10 or more, so some 17 Blood factor seen with each 16 Bird that’s half-hidden by marsh plant (6) monkeys have lots of brothers, while others 19 Paint and pastels, say, used to make have none at all. The sex of any infant is ostrich’s relative (4) independent of others in their family. 18 For example, king and bishop scheme biome diagram (5) 20 Force unit colour to include navy (4) Among Equalis monkeys, which deviously, taking in second knight (8) 23 For the audience, rank should expect to have more brothers, 21 Debtor’s note includes a planetarium’s the males or the females? And how about sushi-topping morsels (3) Fraternis monkeys? display? Imagine (1,3,3) 22 More mature shrub (5) Solution next week 24 Follow us north, heading west in case of earthquake (5) 25 Add water to beat dry heat (7) Our crosswords are now solvable online newscientist.com/crosswords 23 July 2022 | New Scientist | 53
The back pages Almost the last word Different strokes A glitch in the matrix? What made these contrails I am a casual swimmer who does end so abruptly? a steady breaststroke in the pool. I am often overtaken by people a stroke with a more constant doing front crawl, but who is speed as a big penalty is paid for actually swimming the more bursts of speed. The front crawl efficient stroke? produces a more even speed, partly because the application @laurafae_, via Twitter of power is spread out over two As a competitive swimmer arm pulls for every double-arm for 10 years, front crawl is the pull in the breaststroke. most efficient stroke when done correctly due to having In front crawl, maybe 90 per the least active drag. However, cent of the power comes from the if the technique isn’t correct, arms and 10 per cent from the legs. it can be one of the hardest. For breaststroke (and butterfly), the arms and legs share the effort Chris Boynieson ROB ALLWRIGHT equally. Arms are better designed via Facebook to pull the water. In terms of energy expended, This week’s new questions front crawl is more efficient for The breaststroke allows a skilled swimmer. Breaststroke Broken clouds The image (above) is of the morning sky over swimmers to keep their heads uses the big leg muscles, and London one hot day in June. Why do the contrails end so above water at all times, but you can spend half the stroke in evenly and abruptly? Rob Allwright, Bushey, Hertfordshire, UK competitive swimmers will spend a glide, so it feels much easier. most of their time submerged, as they experience less drag. @newnhamengineer, via Twitter Hole number My microwave meal says remove sleeve and It is so difficult to get the breathing pierce film. What is the optimal number of holes I should If you look at a swimmer exactly right for the front crawl, make? Bob Yelland, Alton, Hampshire, UK head-on, you will see that the best which makes it more exhausting front crawlers spend most of their time with their shoulders and hips “While breaststroke is @the_biologian, via Twitter the arms only move backwards nearly perpendicular to the water less efficient, it is hard Faster doesn’t equal more in the water, and are then moved surface. They achieve this by to get the breathing efficient. You can drive your car forwards “for free” in the air. rolling their bodies through exactly right for front slower and get better miles per 180 degrees between each arm crawl, which can make gallon. Going fast covers distance Efficient swimmers spend pull. This makes their “hull” it more exhausting” quickly, but will not get you as most of their time long and flat narrower and means they come far per unit of energy expended. in the water, like a telegraph pole. up against less drag. There seems than breaststroke. While to be less scope for breaststroke breaststroke is less efficient, it Simon Dales In open-water races, swimmers swimmers to reduce their drag. is more forgiving, manageable via email tuck in behind each other to and practical. The front crawl is much more reduce drag. A breaststroker’s But it might be consoling for efficient than breaststroke. wake is too diffuse and turbulent breaststroke swimmers covering @welsh_shaun, via Twitter to be of much use for this. Behind the same distance as a front crawl There is a reason “freestyle” Water is very dense, so a freestyler, it is smooth and tight. swimmer to know they will burn competitors all do front crawl. swimmers are fighting drag The swimmers tuck tight to each more calories during the session. Technically, they could choose all the time and must minimise other and synchronise their arms. any stroke for these races. the area of any body part in Peas in pod relation to the direction of Mike Follows @TomorrowMaking, via Twitter movement. Ideally, you only move Sutton Coldfield, Peas are in the dark inside a pod, I write as someone who has been a your limbs aft (rearwards) in the West Midlands, UK so can’t use their chlorophyll for competitive swimmer, a lifeguard water, but with breaststroke, you Front crawl allows you to travel photosynthesis. In which case, and is now a leisure swimmer. have to push your arms and legs further or faster, or both, using why are they green? If I wanted to reach someone forwards and sideways, which the same amount of energy. quickly, the most efficient stroke creates a lot of drag. With freestyle, Jo Murphy is front crawl. If I want to swim Drag increases with the square Waikanae, New Zealand indefinitely with no speed of a swimmer’s speed. This favours Peas aren’t “in the dark” because concern, then breaststroke is. light penetrates almost all Want to send us a question or answer? vegetation during daylight hours. Email us at [email protected] Roy Smith Questions should be about everyday science phenomena Burntwood, Staffordshire, UK Full terms and conditions at newscientist.com/lw-terms Pea pods are translucent even 54 | New Scientist | 23 July 2022
Tom Gauld Answers for New Scientist Quick quiz #161 Answers 1 The Alfvén critical surface 2 A glueball 3 Persimmons 4 Seven 5 Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats when mature. I often look through “Pea seeds are in Australia around this time. Quick crossword This was outlined in a 2021 #112 Answers the pods of the peas I grow, to see naturally a variety of when they are ready to harvest. colours, but it is the paper in the journal Science ACROSS 6 Shutter, 7 The Blob, Even when mature, some light vibrant green pea entitled “A global environmental 9 Uvula, 10 Albatross, 11 Viscera, gets through the pod wall. that has been widely crisis 42,000 years ago”. This 13 Annual, 15 Mushroom cloud, analysed ancient kauri trees 19 Raceme, 20 Aconite, Think about shrubs in a forest – preserved in northern New 23 Backdraft, 24 Cubit, Zealand wetlands to reconstruct 26 Sedated, 27 Science they get much less light than exploited for food” atmospheric carbon levels at that time. The researchers dubbed this DOWN 1 Kudu, 2 Ethane, the treetops, but still enough to crisis the “Adams Event” after the 3 Ursa Major, 4 Fentanyl, writer Douglas Adams because of 5 Altocumuli, 6 Scurvy, 7 Tube, photosynthesise and even their Magnetic weather the number 42, which is central 8 Basalt, 12 Source Code, to the plots of some of his books. 14 Smear test, 16 Humidity, lowest leaves are green. Likewise 17 Erebus, 18 Pestle, 21 Orchid, Casey Brown 22 Yard, 25 Bing for peas in a pod. Does Earth’s magnetic field affect Clyde, North Carolina, US Reports in New Scientist from the #176 Ant-i-clockwise the weather? (continued) 1980s addressed this issue, based Solution on research by Goesta Wollin, Peter Jackman a climate scientist at Columbia The minute hand rotates University, New York (I live in 6 degrees per minute. So, during Llandysul, Ceredigion, UK Jim Hone his former house). the 15 minutes of the ant’s anticlockwise walk, the hand Pea seeds naturally appear in a University of Canberra, Australia These articles outline moves 15 x 6 degrees = 90. In Wollin’s findings of a link between that time, the ant travels around variety of colours from shades of I read with interest the earlier the rate of change in Earth’s 360 degrees - 90 degrees = magnetic field and sea surface 270 degrees of the clock face, yellow to dark purples, but it is the attempt to answer this question temperatures, for instance, and which is 18 degrees per minute, his claim that winter blizzards or three times the speed of the vibrant green pea that has been (28 May), which suggested there can be predicted two days ahead minute hand. In the first, clockwise from magnetic changes. ❚ stage of the ant’s journey, the ant exploited widely for food and was probably no link. However, must therefore move through 300 degrees (the angle from considered desirable. Selective there is some recent evidence 2 o’clock to 12 o’clock) + the angle (x) rotated by the minute hand. The breeding has been used to achieve that Earth’s magnetic field may ant travels at three times the speed of the minute hand, so 300 + x = this desired visual appearance. affect the weather. 3x; x = 150 degrees, which takes the ant 25 minutes. The total Chlorophyll is broken down A reversal of the magnetic field journey takes 25 minutes (stage 1) plus 15 minutes (stage 2), so by proteins encoded by so-called about 42,000 years ago, known it stops walking at 2.40. stay-green genes, and the decline as the Laschamps Excursion, 23 July 2022 | New Scientist | 55 of chlorophyll levels causes occurred around the same time as yellowing of the peas. substantial changes in the weather Many plants that we eat have and changes in biodiversity in been selected for mutations in parts of the world, including the these genes, which thus cause Pacific region. For example, retention of greenness. megafauna extinctions peaked
The back pages Feedback The dogs of war Twisteddoodles for New Scientist went for £16,900 – six times its reserve price – as bidders piled in Even the stationery cupboard, Got a story for Feedback? from all over the world. Is there so well insulated from the outside something in the air? Can we take world, now resounds to the yapping Send it to [email protected] or New Scientist, comfort from the fact that the of shiba inus. Cartoon versions of Northcliffe House, 2 Derry Street, London W8 5TT triumphant bid came from the these goofy-looking dogs, sporting Consideration of items sent in the post will be delayed UK. Or that the kit, consisting of tracksuits and fatigues in trademark pistols, a brass gunpowder flask, Volodymyr Zelenskyy chic, are by old acquaintances. Those doing upon us. To show willing, Feedback holy water, a Bible, a mallet, a popping up across social media in the reaching out consistently has been considering what gifts to wooden stake, brass candlesticks response to Russian disinformation underestimated how graciously recommend to our readers this year. and rosary beads, also contains about the Ukraine invasion. No and positively their messages some (rather baffling) paperwork sooner do you post a pro-Vladimir would be received. We are also How about a 8200-year-old from the Metropolitan Police? Putin line, than tens of thousands quite useless at asking each bone pendant from a burial site of GIFs and JPEGs appear in reply, other for favours, says the study. in Russia? Kristiina Mannermaa Cast adrift showing the dogs blowing up We worry about what the favour at the University of Helsinki in Russian fuel depots and firing will cost our friends, while Finland and her colleagues have Or how about a gorilla skull? Do look anti-tank weapons. forgetting how rotten they been investigating what species after it, though. On 7 July, YouTuber would feel if they refused to help. pendants from the cemetery were Nathaniel “Coyote” Peterson, on the Behind the dogs lurks NAFO, the made from – and were disconcerted hunt for the legendary Sasquatch, North Atlantic Fella Organization. The paper ends: “Our work to find that a few were fashioned conveniently stumbled upon an Former US Marine @IamtheWarax provides robust evidence and from human femurs. Feedback feels enormous primate skull in British says many of the Fellas are military an encouraging green light to the explanation for this doesn’t Columbia. “Leaking pics here personnel with time on their hands, go ahead and surprise someone have to be dark though. Maybe this before they are taken down and and that Russian officials who used by reaching out.” Excited and was just the Stone Age equivalent before government/official try to to dedicate their days to spreading enthused, and in a spirit of of carrying a bit of your grandma’s cease our footage,” exclaimed his disinformation are now having to free and open experiment, hair around in a locket. Facebook post, even as the skies fend off “up to 100,000 soldiers Feedback has written to Liu darkened under drones piloted by who are just doing soldier shit”. asking for money. Cold case the shiba inus of the deep state. The only snag being, it has been spotted Motherboard reports that the Pre-worn pendants And who wouldn’t be thrilled to that the skull bears a more than efforts have a charitable element, receive an antique vampire-slayer passing resemblance to a replica too: there are T-shirts for sale, These tidings of good cheer remind kit? The one recently under the gorilla skull on sale on AliExpress. you can adopt avatars and there us that Christmas will soon (ish) be hammer at Hansons Auctioneers That is no way to dispose of an is a chat server where the mutts unwanted present. arrange charity events, debunk Russian propaganda and share What could go wrong? fact-checked news of the conflict. Feedback’s attention was also Social security snared by an altogether more humble discovery this week. Now the stationery cupboard is It seems that some species of tidy, Feedback has been making parasitic nematode worm are tentative efforts to rejoin society. attracted to cancer cells. Now, Oh, but it is difficult. We have an scientists from Osaka University especial horror of reconnecting in Japan are covering the worms – with people out of the blue. What which usually live in marine will they say? What will they do? environments “but can colonize Will they remember that evening? humans when ingested” – with a Have they forgiven us? Do we thin hydrogel sheath that could owe them money? On and on like be loaded with anticancer drugs. this. According to an encouraging As one Reddit observer put it, new paper in the Journal of “they use the worms to kill the Personality and Social Psychology, cancer. Then they use Chinese such doubts are common – and needle snakes to eat the worms. quite unjustified. Then we found a species of gorilla that subsists entirely on snake Peggy Liu at the University meat. And in the winter all the of Pittsburgh and her colleagues gorillas freeze to death.” Seems have been using questionnaires reasonable to us. ❚ and field experiments among college students to see how well people respond to being contacted 56 | New Scientist | 23 July 2022
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