ມ.2_ຟື້ນຖານວິຊາຊີບ ຊັ້ນ ມ 2_BasicCareer

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[qfmu !# vksko c]t dko.shvkskolafohvp !D vksko c]t cs^’j mu,j k0v’vksko dD vksko vkskoc,jolyj’muj9egxao.odkofe]q’-u;yf0v’laf c]t 0kf[+wfhF g,njvlaf dyog0Qkc]h; gxaoxt3spf8+Ijk’dkpgIaf.shc0’cI’F 9tg]uog8u[.sjp c]t lk,kf .shzqozt]yffuF ,u7;k,8hkomko8+rtpkfwfhvudfh;pD 0D csj^’muj,k0v’vksko vksko9er;dg,af vksko9er;dg,af,u7nG g0QkF lk]uF g0Qk /hk’F g0Qk[kg]F g,af4qj;gs]nv’F 4qj;0P;F \\kd’kDDD vksko9er;ddkd ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ vksko9er;ddkd,u7nG IeF g0QkxPoF 0U g[pF 0Ugs^QkF dkd4qj;gs^nv’F dkd4qj;0P;F dkd,ao8QoF dkd\\kdrhk;F dkd4q;j fyoF dkd\\kd’kF dkdg,af/hkpDDD vksko9er;dsq; vksko9er;dsq;,u7nG sq;,ao8QoF sq;,ao fhk’F sq;zaddkfF sq;dk]qfDDD 52

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@D#D g]nvj plt]5 g]njvplt]5 c,oj g7njv’,n8af-toyf|b’j 0v’ -jk’w,h mujgIaff;hp3]stxtdv[fh;plk, dD ]adltot0v’g]njvplt]5 rkdlj;o7nG .[F 7ao c]t fhk,D 7ao .-hw;hg]nvj p8k,glAo37h’gxao];f]kp8jk’MD fhk, .[g]njvp 0D dkooe.-h dkog]njvp8k,c[[ ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ @D$D g]nvj psk’|6 dD ]adltot0v’g]njvpsk’|6 .[g]njvp fhk, g]njvpsk’|6 c,oj g7njv’,n8af-toyf|bj’0v’ -jk’w,h mujgIaff;hp3]st xtdv[lv’rkd lj;o7nG .[F c]t fhk,D 0D dkooe.-h dkog]nvj pI6 .-hg]njvp[vj omugj ]njvp7aog]nvj p[+wfhD 59

#D g7nvj ’,nxtgrfg9kt #D!D ly;j gx dD ]adltot0v’ly;j gx lyj;gx c,oj g7njv’,n-toyf|bj’0v’-jk’w,hmuj gIaff;hp3]st xtdv[fh;plk,rkdlj;o7nG fhk,F xvd c]t .[D 0D dkooe.-h ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ.-h[kdF 8q[c8j’I6 c]t gfnvp.o|hkw,hD dkogIafgfnvj p lu;j |k c,jog7nvj ’,n-toyf|bj’0v’-kj ’w,hmuj gIaff;hp3]st xtdv[fh;plk,rkdlj;o7nG #D@D ly;j |k fhk,F xvd c]t .[D .-hle]a[g9ktI68k,0t|kfmju8hv’dkoD dD ]adltot0v’lu;j |k 0D dkooe.-h dkog9ktI6 60

$D g7nvj ’g-kt s^n dq[ $D!D dq[]k’lAo dD ]adltot0v’dq[]k’lAo 0D dkooe.-h .-hdq[w,hgmnvj mevyfgrnvj fafcx’|hkw,h.sh Ik[rP’D $D@D dq[]k’pk; ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dD ]adltot0v’dq[]k’pk; 0D dkooe.-h .-hdq[w,hgmnjvmulv’ s^a’9kddq[lAodq[,kc]h;.-hdq[.sh]tvPf c]t wfh\\hkIk[ rP’fuD &D g7njv’8vd g7njv’8vdmujoypq,.-hdao3fpmqj;wxda[;Pd’ko-kj ’w,h c]t -kj ’d=jlhk’wfhcdj7hvo 8ugsa^d c]t 7hvow,hD &D!D 7hvow,h dD ]adltot0v’7hvow,h 61

0D dkooe.-h .-hle]a[8vdly;j &D@D 7hvo8ugsa^d dD ]adltot0v’7hvo8ugs^ad 0D dkooe.-h l;j o.sp-j kj ’w,h c]t -jk’d+lhk’oypq,.-h 7hvo8ugs^ad8vd c]t 4vo8tx6D 7hvo8ugs^ad ,u16jlv’c[[7nG 7hvoc’j, c]t 7hvo[+,u c’,j D 7e4k, ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ !D 7hvo8uc’,j .-hw;h8vdly;j 4nd sn^ zyfL dD 4nd 0D zyf @D g]nvj plt]5.-hw;hg]njvp.shgxao;q’,qo4nd sn^ zyfL dD 4nd 0D zyf #D 9qj’9a[76jg7nvj ’,n-kj ’w,h c]t dkooe.-h.sh4nd8hv’L X.sh0Po8q;g]d.l[vj o DDDDDDDDD?D DDDDDDDDD dD c,af !D 8vd8tx6 DDDDDDDDD 0D g]njvp @D g9kt DDDDDDDDD 7D oEmjP’ #D .-hcmd DDDDDDDDD ’D luj; $D 8vdlu;j w,h DDDDDDDDD 9D 7hvo8vdlu;j &D .-h8af DDDDDDDDD lD 7hvo8u *D 9a[]tfa[ $D gryjooe.-hw,hlkdw;hgIafspa’cfLj 62

[qfIPomu !& ;afltf5d+lhk’ !D ;afltf5d+lhk’9kdme,t-kf dD suo suomuoj e,k.-h.o;Pd’kodkod+lhk’ 8hv’,u7;k,ltvkf xaflt9kdly’j g9nvxqo g-aoj G fyo8q,F glfw,h8kj ’MD suo0q[ c,josuo9kdme,t-kf Xsuor6 s^n suoc,oj Eg,af .spj? g-y’j oe,k0q[grnjv.shwfh0t|kf8k,7;k,8hv’dkoD suoxtgrf0q[lk,kf8yf 9vfda[g[8q’wfhfud;jksuo[+0q[D suo[+0q[ c,oj suocIj9kdsh;poE]eg- g-yj’,ug,af0t |kfohvpmu[j +9egxao9t8hv’oe,k0q[D 0t|kf0v’suomuoj e,k.-hle]a[gIafg[8q’9t ,u0t|kf.splj 5f @W sk @& mmD I6[suo0q[ I6[suo[+0q[ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dvj o9toesuo,k.-hle]a[dkoxtlq,g[8q’ mk’mujfucmh7;o]hk’.shltvkfdvj oF dkogda[Iadlk9t8hv’s^udg;Ao[+.shfyoxtxqo1j6da[suoD g;]k8adsuo7;o.-hzhkvafxkd c]t fa’ grnvj xhv’dao0U/5joxy;g0Qkxkd s^n fa’D 0D fyo-kp fyo-kpmujoe,k.-h.o;Pd’kodkod+lhk’9t8hv’ltvkfF fyo-kpmuoj e,kxtlq, gIafg[8q’ c]t dkod+/k9t8hv’gxaofyo-kpg,af.spjD le]a[dko3[d/k9t8hv’,u lk,0t|kf7nG g,af.spjF g,afdk’ c]t g,afohvpD lj;ofyo-kp4q,rNo 7;ogvqk-t oyfg,afohvpgrkt]k7k9t4ndd;kj D 63

{ dkomqflv[7;k,ltvkf0v’fyo-kp oefyo-kp xt,kog7y’j 9vd9kdlv’dv’fyo -kp 4vd]q’.lj9vdcdh;lv’|;j p mu[j ao95 oEwlltvkfF .-hw,h7qoxtlq,.shmq;j g0QkdaoF dv’muj ! oE16.j o9vd05oj 9vd mu ! 9tdkpgxaooEmu0j 5oj d;jk9vdmu @F ltcf’;kj fyo-kpdv’mu ! gxNvod;kj fyo -kp dv’mu @D faj’oAo 7;ooe-kpdv’mu ! wx]hk’djvooe,k.-hg0Qk.odkod+lhk’8jk’MD dv’muj @ oE.o9vd.l dkogda[Iadlk9t8hv’s^udg;Ao[+.shfyo8q, -kd.[w,h8kj ’M xtxqo1j6da[fyo-kpF 8vdw,hcxhovhv,w;h grnvj [+.shfyo-kp-t]q’da[rNo s^n ws^|uF .od=]tou/qo8qdD g;]k8adfyo-kp7;o.-hzhkvafxkd c]t vaffa’ grnvj xhv’dao0U/5joxy;g0Qkxkd c]t fa’D ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 7D oE grnjvgIaf.shgdufxt8ydy]ypkmk’g7,u]ts;kj ’oE c]t -u,a’wfhIa[zqofu9t8hv’oe .-hoEltvkfD @D ;afltf5d+lhk’zt]yf9kd3I’’ko dD -u,a’ -u,a’gxao;af45d+lhk’mujzt]yf9kd3I’’koF g,njv-u,a’4ndxtlq,da[oEd=9tgdufxt8y dy]ypkmk’g7,u c]t 7jvpc0’8q;F s^a’9kdoAo $& okmu dkoc0’8q;0v’-u,a’ .ow]ptmevyfc,oj \\qfwxD ltoAo8hv’oe.-h-u,a’mujxtlq,c]h;.sh\\qf8k,g;]kD -u,a’ mujoe.-hgIafg[8q’ le]a[37’lhk’0v’vk7kowfhcdj-u,a’l6f ASTM C-150 (American Standard Testing Materials). gryjooe.-h-u,a’ltgrktle]a[8q[c8j’F d+ c]t 3[dvk7ko[hkogInvo grkt,u 7;k,vvj o|P; c]t c0’8q;-hkF ma’x5’c8’j ’jkp c]t grU,7;k,l;p’k,.shcdj [hkogInvo8nj,vudD 64

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ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ7D fyo9uj fyo9uj mujzt]yf16j[hkogIqk,u-toyfgxaoI6 c]t -toyfdhvo8aoD -toyfgxaoI69t,u0t |kf.spjd;kj g\\ktlq,da[dkod+/kgInvofhkoovd c]t fhko.oS ,u0t|kf )F&W V )F&W V @WFWW cmF )F&W V !@F&W V !)F&W cmD l;j o-toyfdhvo8ao9t,u0t|kf ohvpd;jk g-y’j ,u0t|kf $F&W V (F&W V !)FWW cmF &FWW V )F&W V!_FWW cmD g\\kt lq,da[dkod+/kmuj1j68yffyog-ajoG /kvjk’gda[vk9q,F /kdhv’7ko-Ao]5j, c]t vnjoMD dkooe.-hfyo9uj 7;o,u7;k,]t,af]t;a’F rtpkpk,[+.shfyo9u8j qd]q’,k9kdmuj l6’F 8qd4nd7qo vkfgduf7;k,g9a[x;f s^n glp-u;yfwfh c]t g,njv8qd4ndly’j 0v’d=gduf 7;k,glpskpwfhD I6[fyo9udj hvo8ao I6[fyo9udj hvogxaoI6 ’D fyo[]Hvd fyo[]Hvdgxao;af45d+lhk’muj.-hle]a[d+/kmugj Iaffh;pdkoxtlq,9kd-u,a’F fyo-kp c]t suog,afohvpD fyo[]Hvdgxao;af45mugj xaodhvo c8sj kd;jk,ul;j o3do16jg[Nv’.oF grktltoAo9b’j ,uoE|adg[qk]q’8n,j F ,uzqofu8+dkoIa[oE|ad0v’37’lhk’vk7koD fyo []Hvdg\\ktlq,da[dkod+/kfhkoovd c]t fhko.oF [+-Yogxnv’xtmkpd+F lk,kfd+ wfh1kj ’w;;k grkt;jk fyo[]Hvdgxaodhvo.spjd;jkfyo9uDj fyo[]Hvd,u0t|kf 6,50 x 19 x 39 cm; 8,50 x 19 x 390 cm; 10 x 20 x 40 cm; 15 x 20 x 40 cm; 20 x 20 x 40 cm. 66

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດdkooe.-hfyo[]Hvd 7;o,u7;k,]t,af]t;a’F rtpkpk,[+.shfyo[]Hvd8qd]q’ ,k9kdmulj 6’ grktlk,kf8qd4nd7qo vkfgduf7;k,g9a[x;f s^n glp-u;yfwfh c]t g,njv8qd4ndlyj’0v’d=9tgduf7;k,glpskpF 7;ooe.-h4q’,ng;]k9a[fyo[]Hvd grnjv xhv’dao[+.sh,ao[kf,nD I6[ ]adltot c]t 0t|kf0v’fyo[]Hvd 9D ;q’dq[xt86 c]t ;q’dq[xvj ’1hP, dkod+lhk’vk7kolt4komuj8kj ’M ,u7;k, 9egxao9t8hv’oe.-h;q’dq[F xt86 c]t xvj ’ 1hP, grnjvIa[cl’lts;k’j c]t vkdkfzjko g0Qk,krkp.ovk7ko[hkogInvowfhD I6[ ;q’dq[xjv’1hP, I6[ ;q’dq[xt86 dkooe.-h;afltf5d+lhk’m5d-toyf 7;ooe.-hfh;p7;k,]t,af]t;a’8hv’wfhIPo I6hdPj ;da[75oxt3spfF vao8t]kp c]t ;ymuxhv’daoD 67

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#D g7nvj ’.-hw22hkxtgrf.sh7;k,Ihvo dD g8qk]ufw22hk djvo9t]ufglNvzhkm5dM7ah’ 7;ocpdxtgrf zhk[k’ zhk\\kw;h grnvj 7;k,ltf;d.o lt;ydxa[v5ootr6, lkpw2 dko]ufF grnvj 9t]ufzhk-toyf.fdvj o s^n s^a’D dkozqjooE[+7;ozqoj oEs^kp9qogduowxgrkt 9tgIaf.shl6oglp7;k,Ihvo.odko]ufs^kp czjo]uf 0Bo c]t [+7;o]ufgmnvj ]t\\hvp grkt9t gIaf.shlYogxnv’7jkw2s^kpF gonjv’9kdg,nvj lP[xadlP[c]h; 9t8hv’]=.shg8qk]ufIhvo dvj o 9qod;jk]tfa[7;k,Ihvo9tg\\ktlq, da[-toyf0v’zhkmu9j t]ufD dko[q;]t[afIadlk { 7;o4vfxadlP[vvdglpdvj og,njv[+8hv’dko.-h c]t shk,;k’g8qk]ufw;hgmy’glNv ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ zhkgrkt9tgIaf.shglNvzhkw\\hwfhS { d;flv[ltrk[lkpw22hk 3fpltgrkt95f8+g0Qkg8qk]uf c]t 95f8+g0QkxadlP[ grktgxao95fmujlkpw22hkgduf0kfwfh’jkpD skdrq[lto;o0kf7;oxjPolkpw22hk .\\jgrktvkf9tgdufvao8t]kp.o0tot.-h;Pd’kowfhD 0D g8qkw22hk .lhg8qk g8qkw22hkgxaog7nvj ’.-hw22hkmuj.sh7;k,Ihvo \\;j pg8qk c]t oewx.-hxt3spf.odkos5’8Q,D g8qk s69a[ w22hk,us^kp0t\\kf 8A’c8j0t\\kfohvp 9qog4y’0t\\kf.sjp c]t ,uma’c[[me,t fk c]t c[[vaf8t3o,afD dko[q;]t[afIadlk { [+.shoEwx4nd];f7;k,IhvoS { 1jkxjvp.shlyj’lqddtxqd8qd1j6.oIvj ’dtg[Nv’grkt9tgIaf.sh];f7;k,Ihvo,uvkp5 dko.-h;Pd’ko\\hvp]q’D 72

7D dk8Q,oEw22hk 7ao9a[ dk8Q,oEw22hk gxaov5xtdvomuj.-hw22hk-t \\;j pdk oyfmu.j sh7;k,IhvoF ,uv5ootr6,l6’g4y’9qo /kvaf oE2qf c]t lk,kfoeoEIhvowx.-hxt 3spf8kj ’M 8k,7;k,8hv’dkoD sq;lP[ lkpw2 0=h7;o]t;a’ g,njvgIqklP[xadlP[c]h; 7;k,Ihvo9tl6’0Bog]NvpMF 7;k,Ihvomulj 6’0BooU9t 4kj p4vfwxskoEmuj.lwj ;h.odkoE9qoIhvo c]t 2qfF fa’j oAo8hv’]t,af]t;a’[+.shoE csh’ grkt9tgIaf.sh\\=hgxgrwfhD ’D \\=hs5’g0Qks69a[ /kvaf ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ lt;ydxyf{gxuf \\=hs5’g0Qkc,jog7nvj ’.-hw22hk16j.o[hkogInvo lkpw2 g-yj’,u7;k,le7aos^kpD vud1jk’\\bj’ ,aopa’ lk,kf.sh7;k,ltf;ds^kp1kj ’ c]t [+ 9egxao8hv’wfhg/Qk 7nda[dko.-h\\=hs5’g0Qk c[[.-h4jkoD sq;lP[ dko[q;]t[afIadlk { djvo9tme7;k,ltvkf8hv’4vfxadlP[m5d7A’S { me7;k,ltvkfwfhfh;pdko.-hoEg1ao s^n oEv5oj xtlq,da[oE1k]hk’9koS { .-hzhkg-af46m5drkdl;j o c]t [+7;o.-hcx’468k,38\\=h-Ao.oS { gda[,hPow;h[vj o csh’ c]t xvfwrD 73

9D \\=hdtmtw22hk \\=hdtmtw22hk gxaog7njv’.-hmuj.sh7;k,Ihvo vudxtgrf|b’j F .-hgxaog7njv’v5xtdvo-;j p /kvaf \\j;p\\=h .odkox5’c8’j vkskorkp.o7v[7q;.sh,u s69a[ 7;k,ltf;d c]t xt1afg;]kD \\=hdtmt w22hklk,kf.-h.odko0Q;F vq[F 8Q, c]t lkpw2 cd’ wfhgxao1jk’fuD lt;ydxyf{gxuf { shk,c-]j q’oEgrnjv]hk’S { djvo9tlP[lkpg0Qk8hv’g-af.shcsh’S dko[q;]t[afIadlk { 8hv’d;flkpw22hkmu8j +g0Qk\\=h.sh16j.olt rk[fultg\\uD 7e4k, ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ !D raf]q,8A’38t c]t 8A’rNo[+7;o.-h.dh/hkdA’F ,5h’ s^n g9hp4nd sn^ zyfL dD 4nd 0D zyf @D djvo9t]ufglNvzhk m5dM7A’gIqk7;ocpdzhk[k’ c]t zhk\\kw;hgrnvj 7;k,lt f;d.odko]uf4nd sn^ zyfL dD 4nd 0D zyf #D fvdw22hkxhv,,u9adc[[ 7ncc[[.fcfjL X.sh\\kp  .lj rP’ ! 0=h? dD c[[shvp c]t c[[l5[ 0D c[[de]a’s^kp c]t de]a’\\hvp 7D c[[gdkt c]t c[[dP; ’D c[[sq;rP’ c]t sq;,qo $D \\=hdtmtw22hk.-hw;hgIafspa’cfjL 74

[qfmu !( g7njv’,nlhv,cx’w22hk g7njv’,n c]t v5xtdvow22hkgxaoly’j muvj eo;p7;k,ltf;ds^kp1kj ’D 4hkz6h.-h g7njv’,n1kj ’4nd;ymud=9tgIaf.shg7jnv’,noAo.-h;Pd1kj ’mqomko c]t lk,kf.-h;Pd ’kowfhfqoD 4hkz6h.-h0kf7;k,]t,af]t;a’d+9tgIaf.shg7njv’,nglpskpwfhD !D g7nvj ’,nxtgrf7u, dD 7u,8afw22hk .-hw;h8aflkpw22hk c]t xvdlkpw22hk 16jmuxj kd9t,u-vj ’le]a[xvdD ;ymug]nvd7u, -toyfoU 8hv’g]nvd-toyf,ulto;os5h,fhk, ma'ouh grnvj 7;k,xvfwr c]t xhv’dao[+ .shdtclw22hkws^g0Qkl6Ij kj ’dkp.o0tot 8aflkpw2D ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 0D 7u,xkdgx s^n 7u,];, gxao7u,0t\\kf.sjpd;kj 7u,8afF 7u,xkdgx ouh.-hw;h8aflkpw2F gxao7u,];,g-ajoG .-h9a[ ,h;olkpF 9a[8vj o’kodq, s^n 8af];fgs^adD 7D 7u,xkdpk; s^n 7u,xkdoqd gxao7u,muj.-h8aflkpw20t\\kfohvpD vaomuj .-hxt3spfwfhfumujl5f7n.-h9a[lkpw22hk c]t [yflkpw22hk.sh8+g0Qkfh;pdaoD 7u,xtgrf oU7;og]nvd-toyf,ulto;os5h,fhk,grnjvIa[ xtdao7;k,xvfwrcdzj 6h.-hD 75

’D 7u,xvdlkpw22hk gxao7u,muj.-hle]a[xvdlto;o musj 5h,lkpw2 2hk3fpltgrktD xkd7u,9t,uIjv’s^kp0t !D 7u,c[[me,tfk \\kf g;]k.-h7u,xvdlkpw22hkd+8hv’ @D 7u,c[[g7yj’vaf8t3o,af g]nvd.-hIjv’mujg\\ktda[lkpw22hkD 7u, xvdlkpw22hk9t,uc[[me,tfk c]t c[[g7yj’vaf8t3o,afF ]adltot7u,xvdlkp c]t dko.-h;Pd’koD @D g7njv’,nxtgrfw07;’F g]njvpF 7hvoF c,af c]t gs^ad-u dD w07;’cx c]t w07;’95h, .-hle]a[,kp s^n sao8tx6dP;F w07;’9t,u !D w07;’cx ma’xkdcx c]t xkd95h,S w07;’,u0t \\kfohvp c]t 0kf\\kf.spj F 8hv’g]nvd ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ @D w07;’95h, .shg\\ktlq,da[dko.-h;Pd’koD 0D g]nvj p .-hle]a[8afw,h c]t 3]stF g]njvpmu.j -h.o -jk’w22hk,us^kpc[[7nG !D g]njvp8afw,h { g]nvj p,n0t\\kfohvp.-hw;h8afdtfkow,hS { g]nvj p8afgs^ad.-hle]a[8afgs^ad c]t 3]st @D g]njvp8afgs^ad vnjoMD 7D 7hvo8u 7hvo8u c,jo.-hle]a[8vddy[ c]t vnjoMD 7hvo8ule]a[-kj’w22hk,u16jlk,c[[7nG !D 7hvo8usq;cx @ 7hvo8usq;c’j, #D 7hvo8usq;,qo 76

’D c,af c,afmujoypq,.-h,uc,afra[ c]t c,afd=hF .-hw;hcmdw]pt.odko8yf8A’v5xtdvow2 2hkD 9D gs^ad-u ! c,afra[ @ c,afd=h gsa^d-u.-hw;hg9ktI6mjudP,w;hdvj o9tsaodP; grnjv1bfv5xtdvo8jk’M .odtfkow22hkD gs^ad-u,us^kp0t|kf.shg]nvd.-h8k,0t |kf0v’dP;D 7e4k, ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດrP’ ! 0=h? !D 4hkgIqk.-hg7njv’,n[+4nd;ymu9tgxaoco;.fL X.sh\\kp  .lj dD 9t.-h’komqomko c]t xvfw2 0D 9tgIaf.shg7nvj ’,nsad c]t gxgr 7D 9tgIaf.sh75ootrk[]qf]q’ ’D 9tgIaf.shw22hk-Hvfg;]k.-h @D g]njvp8afw,hlk,kf8afgs^adwfh4nd sn^ zyfL dD 4nd 0D zyf #D 7hvo8ule]a[-jk’w22hk,urP’ @ c[[gmqkj oAo7nG c[[sq;,qo c]t sq;c’j, 4nd sn^ zyfL dD 4nd 0D zyf $D 7u,xkdcx s^n 7u,];,.-hw;hgIafspa’L 77

[qfmu !)ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ g7njv’;afcmdw22hk !D g7nvj ’;afcmdw22hk dD w07;’1k,w22hk fhk,w07;’1k,w22hk .-hxkpw07;’c8tda[l;j omu,j uw22hk16j.oxad lP[ c]h;.-hoU;,ndqfgrnvj .sh7q[;q’9voF 4hk fvdw2.ow07;’I5’j ltcf’;jk,uw22hkF 4hk w07;’[+I5j’ltcf’;kj [+,uw22hk Xc88j hv’ \\Ao.9;kj w07;’pa’fu?D 0D g7njv’;afcmd7;k,8hkomko s^n 3v,,yg8u XOhmmeter? 4hk1kdI6h;jkg7nvj ’;afcmd7;k,8hkomkomu.j -hw;h;afcmd s^n d;fdkfvdw2 s^n g7njv’dyow2vnjoM ;jk,aopa’.-hwfh s^n [+oAo gIqk.-h3v,gxao38;afcmdD g;]kcmdgIqk gvqklkplucf’l5[g0Qk0Q;[;d XT? gvqklkplufel5[g0Qk0Q;]q[ X{? c]h;8A’ s^n xa[.lj X1, X10, X100, X1K, X10K l5fc8j9txa[8k,7;k,g\\ktlq,D g,njvg;]kcmd8hv’ gvqklkp[;d XT? c8t.llj kp]q[ X{? c]h;xa[g0a,.lj16j95fl6o XW? c]h;9b’j cmd 4hkg0a,-uh0Bo95f.f.shvjko8k,oAoD g0a,;afcmd \\hkxaf;afcmd I6lP[lkp]q[ lt;ydxa[8A’l6o lt;ydxa[7kj ;afcmd I6lP[lkp[;d 78

7D g7njv’;afcmdcI’fao s^n 3;o,yg8u XVoltmeter? dko;afcmdc,oj gIaf7hkp7nda[g7nvj ’;afcmd3v,c8lj y’j le7aog,nvj gIqk1kdcmd cI’faow2dtcllt]a[gIqk8hv’xa[95flt;yd.sh16.j omkj AC s^n 1kdcmdcI’faogxao dtcldq’d+.shxa[16.j omjk DCF 4hk1kdcmdcI’fao 220 V 8hv’xa[.lj 250 V. grnjv[+ .shg7njv’;afcmdgr8hv’xa[7jk;afcmd.shs^kpd;kj ltg\\uF 9kdoAo9bj’vkj o8k,7jkmuj wfhD g0a,;afcmd \\hkxaf;afcmd lt;ydxa[7jk;afcmd lt;ydxa[g]nvd cI’fao I6lP[lkp;afcmd ’D g7nvj ’;afcmddtcl s^n cv,,yg8u (Ammeter) ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ cv,,ug8u 7;k,8hkomko c,oj g7nvj ’;afcmddtclD dkocmddtcl 4kj ow2lkp xa[7jkwfh oUc,joc8d8jk’da[g7njv’;afcmd7;k,faoF grktdkocmddtclc,jo8+vaofa[da[g7nvj ’ dyow2F 7;o]t;a’7nG g7njv’dyow2 & A 8hv’ fvdw2 8A’7kj ;afcmd !W A .shl6’d;kj [+fa’j oAo g7nvj ’;afcmd9tw\\h D @D dkodtmq[0v’dtclw22hk8+Ijk’dkp dD w22hk9a[ g,njvgIqk-6o s^n c8t8hv’rkdl;j o3]st8kj ’M muj,uw22hk .o0totoAodtclw22hk 9tws^zkj oIkj ’dkpr;dgIqkmaomuD xtdqfdkodtclw22hkws^zjkoIjk’dkp7nco;oAo gvuho;jkw22hk9a[ g-y’j gxaozqodtmq[8+]t[q[xtlkf c]t dhk,-uhoF 3fpltgrkt c,oj gIaf.sh]t[q[skp.9w;0Bophvoco;oAoz6hxtlq[w22hkf6f9bj’,uvkdkoskp.9w;zyfxqd dt8yD 79

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[qfmu !_ dkooe.-hg7nvj ’,nle]a[’ko3]st dkooe.-hg7nvj ’,nle]a[’ko3]st7;o.-h.sh4nd;ymuF grkt;kj g7nvj ’,nle]a[-jk’ rNo4ko,u161j jk’s^;’s^kpD !D g7nvj ’;afcmd dD c,afd=h ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ c,afd=h.-h;afcmd7;k,pk;F dh;k’F l6’F 8ej gxao8QoD g;]kcmd gIqkfb’c,af vvd9kdd=hxt,ko @W -,F ,ng[nhv’-hkp9a[lQol5f0v’c,afcxt.l[j vj o9t;afcmd 9kdoAo7vj pfn’c,afvvd7jvpM.shco[wx8k,[vj omuj8hv’dkocmdF 4hk[jvo9tcmd skdpk;gduo ! , 0Bowx.sh.-hxkp0v’c,afoAogdkt.l;j af45[jvocmd c]h;fb’c,af vvd vkj o7jk8k,0uf\\kp[qj’[vd.oc,afD shk,fb’c,afvvdpk;d;jkdeoqfgrkt 9tgIaf.shltxiy’0v’c,afsad’kj pD 0D gs^ad0uf gs^ad0uf ,us^kp-toyf c8]j t-toyf.-h’ko 8kj ’daoD dvj o9t0uf8hv’wfh\\kplv’95f 9kdoAo.-h[aomaf s^n gs^adlkdgxao38-j;p9af 0t|kf c]t -;j p7b’grnjv.shglAo-njfuD   81

7D ;q’;Po ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ;q’;Po .-hlhk’glAolj;o37h’F glAo]aflt\\uF ’D lkd _Wº I6[;q’,qo.ljczoj 3]st8k,muj8hv’dkoD ;q’ ;Po,uxkpcs^, c]t c0’lk,kfgIaf.sh @D g7nvj ’8vd c]t 8u czjo3]stoAogxaoIvpwfhD dD gs^ad8vd95f lkd .-hw;hgrnvj xP[mP[7;k,mPj ’8q’ c]t 0D 7hvo8u 7;k,cojovo0v’8jvo’komuj9tgIaf grnjv .shwfh0t|kf0v’,5,8k,muj8vh’dkoD   gs^ad8vd95f .-hw;h8vd95f[jvo0v[g0f0uf \\kp s^n .-hw;h8vd95f[vj o9tmedkog9kt I6F grnvj .sh[jvomu9j tg9ktI6oAo,u7;k,gg,oj 1e c]t mPj ’8q’D 7hvo8u ,us^kp-toyfG 7hvo8ugs^adF 7hvo8uw,h c]t 7hvo8u1k’D 7vho8ugs^add=,u7hvo8usq; ,qoF .-hda[’ko8uF 8vdF g7ktS 7hvo8usq; c’,j .-h8uF 8vdF ’afS 7hvo8uw,h.-hda[;Pd ’ko3]stczoj g-ajog7ktS 7hvo8u1k’.-hda[ 3]stczjog-aoj G .-hg7ktF 8uF czoj vk]6,u oP,F czoj mv’ c]t czoj 3]st-toyfvnjoM 82

#D g7nvj ’8afF 46 c]t ltdaf dD glnv0q[gs^ad s^n gv38 glnv0q[gs^ad .-hle]a[9a[ s^n Iaf8vj o’ko .shc|hogrnjv9tmedko8t.[ s^n g]njvpD 0D g]njvp,n g]njvp,n c,jog7nvj ’,n8af-toyf|bj’ djvooeສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 7D 8t.[ .-h7;od;flv[g[y’j ;kj .[g]njvpg7a’j fu s^n [+D ’D ltdaf s^n ly;j dkoxa[c0h;g]nvj p.sh,u,5,8afwxmk’|hkF l;j odko9a[8vj o’ko.ljglnv0q[gs^adoAo.sh   c|ho -5dg]nvj pwx,k.sh-nj c]t mPj ’8q’F g]njvp.shl5f.[g]njvpF g;]k8jvo’kowdh9t 0kf7;ozvoj cI’D 8t.[c,jog7nvj ’,nmu.j -h.odkoxa[c8j’I6[-q’ 0v’-Yol;j og7njv’9ad{g7nvj ’,n.shr=g\\ktda[ dko.-h’kogxao8Qoc,jo;Pdlhv,cx’g-ajoG gIaf7;k,]tvPf c]t ]q[7q,8vj o’koD ltdaf c,jog7nvj ’,nle]a[8af3]st3fp[+,u glfF ltdafgIaf9kdgs^addhkmucj 0’F xkp 0v’ltdaf,u,5,8af #WºD g;]k.-hltdaf[+ 7;oxujoxkd0v’,ao,ksk8q;0v’gIqkgv’ grktvkf9trk.shgdufv5xt8ygsfwfhD 83

$D g7njv’8af ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ,uf8af.-hle]a[8af3]stczoj [k’g-aoj Gczjo la’dtluF mv’ c]t vnjoMD ,uf8af-toyfoU,u dD ,uf8af ma’,uf8af-hkpF ,uf8af0;k Xle]a[zh6cI’ -hkp c]t cI’0;k? c]t ,uf8af37h’D g; 0D ,uf8af7ao3pd ]k8af7;o]t,af]t;a’ czoj la’dtluvkf9t [kf,n ltoAo7;o.l4j q’,nD &D g7nvj ’ra[ c]t ,h;o ,uf8af7ao3pd .-hle]a[8afczjo3]st|k]t dD g7nvj ’,nra[3]stczjo s;jk’ @ ,,{* ,,D shk,oe.-h8afgs^addq,D ;ymu8af8hv’0uf[jvomuj9t8af c]h;xvj og0Qk.lj .[,ufF co.sh-n9j 5f[jvo8hv’dko8af c]h; dqf7ao3pd0v’,uf8af]q’D g7njv’,nra[3]stczoj .-hra[,5,8kj ’M wfh 8k,mu8j hv’dkoF g7njv’,nra[-toyfoUlk,kf ra[czoj 3]stmuj,u7;k,|k ! ,, 0BowxD   84

0D g7nvj ’,h;oczjo3]st g7njv’,n-toyfoU.-hle]a[,h;oczoj 3]st.sh 7D |hk4a’j gxao;q’,qoF lk,kf.-h,h;oczjo[k’ c]t |kwfh grktg7nvj ’,n-toyfoU,us^kp0t|kfD \\hk4aj’c,oj g7nvj ’,n.-hle]a[Iv’grnvj g7ktF 8uF dqj’F g[afDDD *D g7nvj ’g9pF g9kt c]t 9vf ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 9adg9p,uma’c[[.-h,n c]t c[[8A’38tF dD 9adg9p s^n 9adg,uo g7njv’9adma’lv’1kj ’oU.-h’koc8d8kj ’daoF 9adg9p,ngryoj oe.-hle]a[8q[c8’j .sh]tvPfF 0D 9adg9kt lj;o9adg9p8A’38t.-hw;h/qofvdlts;kj oF ,uf-Pj oF ltdafDDD 9adg9kt .-hle]a[g9ktI6.shwfh8k,0t\\kf mu8j hv’dko grnjvl;,lts^adF 1E,5fF xtdv[ oHvf c]t 8afdP;D 9adg9kt,us^kp-toyf,u ma’c[[,n4n c]t c[[8A’38tD   85

7D g7nvj ’9vfvqd-u c]t g7nvj ’9vfw22hk g7njv’9vfvqd-u c]t g7njv’9vfw22hkc,oj g7njv’,n-jk’mujle7ao-toyf|bj’.-hle]a[9vf 3]stwfhm5dxtgrfD 7e4k, !D c,afd=hlk,kf.-hle]a[;afcmd,6, 4nd sn^ zyfL dD 4nd 0D zyf @D g7nvj ’,nmujlk,kflhk’;q’,qowfhc,jospa’L X.sh\\kp  .lj ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດrP’ ! 0=h?D dD gs^ad0uf 0D gs^ad8vd95f 7D ;q’;Po ’D lkd _Wº #D g7nvj ’,nmulj k,kf.-h8af3]stwfhc,jospa’L X.sh\\kp  .lj rP’ ! 0=h?D dD ltdaf 0D g]nvj p 7D lt.[ ’D 4nd\\qfm5d0=h $D gxaospa’gryoj [+.-h,uf8af7ao3pd8afgs^addq,L   86

[qfmu @Wສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dko[e]5’Iadlk c]t dkogda[,hPog7njv’,n-jk’3]st g7nvj ’,n-kj ’3]st,us^kp-toyf ,uma’I6[c[[ohvp.spjc8d8jk’dao ;ymu[e]5’Iad lkd=gxaolyj’|b’j mulj e7aoF faj’oAogIqk7;oIPoI6hdPj;da[dkogda[,Pho c]t [e]5’Iad lkD !D dkogda[,hPog7nvj ’,n c]t g7njv’9ad dD dkogda[,hPog7njv’,n dkogda[,hPog7nvj ’,n-jk’3]stg-ajoG g7njv’;afcmdF g7nvj ’8vd c]t 8afF g7njv’ 8afF 45 c]t ltdafD 8hv’9af;k’g7nvj ’,nw;h.shgxao]t[P[ s^a’.-h’koc8]j t7A’8hv’ gvqkzhkg-af.shltvkf grnjv[+.sh,ulyj’gxugxNvo gvqkzhk95j,oE,aog7nvj ’,kg-afvud7A’|b’j grnvj [+.sh,aog0Qk\\hP’D 9kdoAooewxgda[,Phow;h[jvogdqjkF ,hPogxao4aoc4;8A’-nj s^n lts^P’d=l5fc]h;c8j7;k,g\\ktlq,D 7;ogda[,hPow;h.ocdafg7njv’,n s^n .o8h6F 4hkgxao g7njv’9ad8hv’9af;k’ s^n -vd[vj o8yf8A’.shgxao]t[P[D lkd ;q’;Po c,afd=h 7hvo8u |hk4a’ ,uf8af ltdaf lt.[   87

0D dkogda[g7nvj ’9ad g7njv’9ad,h;o g7njv’9adra[ g7njv’9adg9kt g7nvj ’g9p ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ g7nvj ’9vfvqd-u g7nvj ’9vfw22hk g7nvj ’9ad,h;oF g7njv’ra[F g7nvj ’g9p8hv’9af;k’.sh,ugoNvmugj Iaf;Pdltf;dF [jvo mujgda[,hPo8hv’daocff c]t /qowfhF ,ucl’lts;jk’rP’r=F ,uxt86g0Qkvvdltf;d c]t lk,kfgxufxyfwfhgxao1jk’fugrktg7njv’,ngs^qjkoU,u]k7kcr’D @D dko[e]5’Iadlk .odko[e]5’Iadlkg7vjn ’,nle]a[-kj ’3]st 8hv’|ajod;fdkg[y’j g7njv’,nc8j]t -toyfD s^a’9kdgIaf;Pdc]h; c8j]t7A’skdgsao;jkg7njv’,ngs^qkj oAode]a’9tgxgj r 8hv’lhv,cx’maomu c]t gda[,hPow;hgxao1jk’fuD   88

7e4k, !D ltdafzt]yf9kd3]st-toyfgs^advjvo 7;ogda[,hPow;h.oda[,hPog7njv’,n 4nd sn^ zyfL dD 4nd 0D zyf @D gxaospa’gIqk9bj’8hv’gda[,hPog7nvj ’,n-kj ’3]st.shgxao]t[P[L #D 7;o[e]5’Iadlkg7nvj ’,nc8]j t-toyfco;.fL X.sh\\kp  .lj rP’ ! 0=h? dD gda[,hPow;hgxao1jk’fu 0D mkluw;h 7D 95,oj E,aow;h ’D 4nd\\qfm5d0=h ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ   89

[qfmu @! lj;oxtdv[rNo4ko0v’g7njv’9adcvaf-a’ !D 37’xtdv[lhk’rNo4ko c]t -Yol;j o8jk’M0v’g7njv’9adgzqkw\\h .o Xcvaf-a’? g7nvj ’9adgzqkw\\h.o,u37’xtdv[lhk’rNo4ko c]t -Yolj;o8jk’Mfaj’I6[]5,j oUG /kl6[ sq;mPo dkd[6]kg8u ]Uof6f ]Uoxjvp xvd0k]Uo wlhglnv]Uo glNvl6[ ]6dl6[ ]6dp6h ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດlts^ad]6dl6[ Ik;]6d[hP; 3xj,oE g2nv’ zQ’3;o]a’ 3xj,oE,aog7njv’ dhkol6[ dq’3;o]a’ grqk0=hs;jP’ mhv’vkj ’ I6[37’xtdv[lhk’rNo0v’g7njv’9adgzqkw\\h.o9adcvaf-a’   90

@D dkog7nvj omujrNo4ko0v’g7njv’9adgzqkw\\h.ocvaf-a’ c]t dko g7njvomuj0v’]6dl6[ dD ]adltotdkog7njvomujrNo4ko0v’g7njv’9adgzqkw\\h.o Xcvaf-a’? gIqkla’gdfgsao.oI6[mu @ -Yolj;om5dvaomujxtdv[160j hk’.ooAolk,kfg|a’8u’ c]t g7nvj omulj ts^a[daoF d+phvo;jkgrqk0=hs;jP’gxaocdjofP;daomuj8yf8+da[3;o]a’D g,nvj gIaf.shgrqk0=hs;jP’xyoj wx8k,];’gfuo0v’g0a,3,’c]h;la’gdfgsaowfhdhko l6[9tph6]6dl6[.shc]jo0Bo]q’.odt[vdglNvl6[D rhv,fP;daooAog2nv’Ik;]6d[hP;mujgdktdjkpda[g2nv’grqk0=hs;Pj ’d+9t\\6owx dq’dao0hk,da[];’0v’g0a,3,’D |vd]6d[hP;d+fao]6dp6h Xw,h46?j .sh[a’7a[]Uo X;k;? xyfgxuf8k,9a’s;tdkogzqk w\\h0v’g7njv’9adD 0D ]adltotdkog7njvomuj0v’]6dl6[ ]6dl6[g7nvj omu.j odt[vdglNvl6[gxaodkog7nvj omulj ts^a[mugj duf9kddkoxuoj 0v’grqk 0=hs;Pj ’F ]6dl6[9tg7njvomjuxyjo8k,myfmk’0v’g0a,3,’wxg7yj’Iv[d=9t]q’Ivf95f 8+kl5fD 4hkxyjowxvudg7yj’Iv[]6dl6[9t0BowxIvf95fl6’l5ffaj’I6[]5j,D ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 95fl6’l5f 95f8+kl5f I6[dkog7njvomuj0v’]6dl6[.odt[vdglNvl6[   91

7e4k, !D ]6dl6[g7nvj omuj.oglNvl6[4nd sn^ zyfL dD 4nd 0D zyf @D -Yol;j o.fmjugIaf.sh]6dl6[g7njvomjuwfhL X.sh\\kp  .lj rP’ ! 0=h?D dD grqk0=hs;Pj ’ 0D g2nv’grqk]6d[hP; 7D sq;mPo ’D dkd[6]kg8uD #D ]adltotdkog7njvomu0j v’]6dl6[16.j odt[vdglNvl6[oAogxaoco;.fL ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ   92

[qfmu @@ s^addkome’ko0v’g7njv’9adlu9j a’s;t !D g7nvj ’9adcvaf-a’l6[fP; g7njv’9adcvaf-a’luj9aj’s;tl6[fP;F lj;o.spjc,oj 4ndoe.-h.o]qf9adF g7nvj ’9adxt grfoUc[’j dkome’kovvdgxaoluj0Ao8vo7nfaj’oUG dD 0Ao8vomuj|b’j G dkof6fvkpfu X9a’s;tf6f? ]6dl6[c]oj c8j95fl6’l5fsk95f8+kl5fF .og;]kfP;daooAo ]Uof6f X;k;vkpfu? 9t gxufF ]Uoxjvp X;k;vkpglp? 9txyfcsoho \\vdcvaf-a’xtlq,da[vkdkf4ndlq’j g0Qk ,k.oshv’gzqkw\\h XglNvl6[?D ]Uof6f X;k;vkpfu? ]Uoxvj p X;k;vkpglp?ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ mk’vvdvkpglp mk’g0Qkvkpfu ]6dl6[ I6[mu ! 9a’s;tf6f   93

0D 0Ao8vomulj v’G dko|u[vaf Xlhk’cI’fao? 9a’s;t|u[vaf ]6dl6[c]joc8j95f8jel5f0Bowxrhv,ma’|u[vkdkfxtlq,da[cvaf -a’0Bowxsk95fl6’l5fF .o0totfP;dao ]Uof6f X;k;vkpfu? c]t ]Uoxjvp X;k; vkpglp? wfhxyfc|hogrnvj [+.shvkdkfda[cvaf-a’muj4nd|u[g0QkdaoIqj;ws^vvdwx0hk’ ovdD ]Uof6f X;k;vkpfu? ]Uoxvj p X;k;vkpglp? mk’g0Qkvkpfu mk’vvdvkpglp ]6dl6[ I6[mu @ 9a’s;t|u[vaf ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 7D 0Ao8vomulj k,G dko96f]tg[uf X9a’s;tgzqkw\\h? g,njv]6dl6[g7nvj omufj aosou[vkdkfda[cvaf-a’0BowxIvf95fl6’l5fF sq;mPod+9t xjvp\\afw2gzqkw\\hmkfxtlq,1kj ’I5ocI’ mkfxtlq,mu4j ndgzqkw\\hoAo[+,umk’vvd 9bj’dqffao.sh]6dl6[c]oj ]q’]5,j X95f8+kl5f?D sq;mPo mk’g0Qkvkpfu mk’vvdvkpglp I6[mu # 9a’s;t]tg[uf   94

’D 0Ao8vomujluGj dko0a[w]vj kpglp X9a’s;txvj p? g,njv]6dl6[c]joc89j 5f8+kl5f0Bowxsk95fl6’l5f ]Uof6fd+9txyfc|hoF ]Uoxvj p9t gxufF ]6dl6[d+lqj’vkpglpvvdwx0hk’ovdD ]Uof6f X;k;vkpfu? ]Uoxjvp X;k;vkpglp? vkpglp4ndfaovvd I6[muG $D 9a’s;txvj p  @. g7nvj ’9addk-;ol6[fP; dD ]adltot0v’g7nvj ’9addk-;ol6[fP; { .-hoE,aodk-;ogxaog-Nvw2.odkogzqkw\\hS { g7njv’9addk-;o9t.-hsq;luf.odkogzqkw\\h c]t .shrt]a’’kol6’d;jkg7nvj ’9ad cvaf-a’S { [u[vkdkflqfF lufoE,aog0Qkwx.oshv’gzqkw\\hF gdufdkogzqkw\\h0Bo1jk’I5ocI’ maomufa’j I6[]5j,D ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ \\=h8v’vkdkf m+7;aovkpglp sq;luf m+lqj’oE,aodk-;o xE7;k,faol6’ I6[g7nvj ’9addk-;ol6[fP;   95