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Afterword Since our conference, the destructive power of our volcanoes was tragically manifest on 9 December 2019 when Whakaari/White Island erupted during a guided visit, sadly killing both guides and tourists. Others survived and continue to suffer from their serious injuries and many other people’s lives were irrevocably changed by the eruption. I would like to honour all those whose lives were lost and affected and those involved in the rescue missions and on-going care of the survivors. 97

2.3 The Pumapungo Museum and Ancestral Park and their relation with Cuenca and surrounding high sanctuaries Jonathan Koupermann, Ecuador Introducing Cuenca, a World Heritage City There is a very special place in Ecuador, South America: the city of Cuenca. It is situated at 2,500 metres above sea level in a valley surrounded by mountains, in the southern part of the country. It now has a population of about 506.000 inhabitants from all over the world, having become one of the leading places to retire worldwide. In the last few years Cuenca has been awarded several prizes and acknowledgements that have turned it into a very desirable and exciting place to live. These include: 1. World Heritage, UNESCO. December 1999 2. Nº 1 to visit and stay in Latin America, Stern Magazine, Germany, 2008 3. Nº 1 Best place in the world for retired people, International Living, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013 4. Nº21 Selected destinations in Latin America, Tripadvisor, 2012 5. Nº1 Best cities of the future cost-benefit, Foreign Direct Investment, 2013-2014 98

6. Nº1 Best adventure hub, Outside-Travel Award, 2014 7. Nº49 Historical Destinations, National Geographic, 2008 8. Top 10 cities to know in the world, Lonely Planet, 2010 9. Nº1 Best place abroad for American retirees, CNN Money, USA, 2012 10. Nº1 Best outdoor flower market, Plaza de la flores (Cuenca), National Geographic, 2014. 11. Qhapaq Ñan Patrimonio de la Humanidad. UNESCO 2014 When UNESCO declared Cuenca as part of the World Heritage list, it took the following three criteria into consideration: Criterion(ii): Cuenca illustrates the perfect implantation of the principles of urban planning of the Renaissance in the Americas. Criterion(iv): The successful fusion of the different societies and cultures of Latin America is symbolized in a striking manner by the layout and townscape of Cuenca. Criterion(v): Cuenca is an outstanding example of a planned inland Spanish colonial town. Cuenca is a city that fully embodies its cultural heritage: part of the Unesco World Cultural Heritage list, dotted with colonial, and Republican buildings with a beautiful historic city centre containing several museums, archives and important libraries. It is also a city full of traditions, arts and crafts. Its inhabitants live immersed in its heritage, both material and immaterial. The Evolution of the Museo Pumapungo Contained in this unique place is the ‘one of a kind’ Pumapungo cultural complex. The Pumapungo Museum and Ancestral Park is a very special place that conserves and gives back to society several aspects of Cuenca´s and Ecuador´s history, as well as its present. The Museum now stands in what was the second most important Inca religious, administrative and military centre of the Tahuantinsuyo empire. This is where the Inca emperor Huayna Capac was born, and from where, at a certain moment, the empire´s expansion towards the north of the continent took place. 99

The Ancestral Park, besides containing the vestiges of such an important centre, also reminds us about the importance of our ancestral and present ecology. It collects more than 250 native species of plants and trees, as well as more than 200 native species that have been rescued from illegal traffic. It is also visited by more than 30 free ranging native species daily. This is the last native ecological niche in Cuenca´s city centre. The park is one of the most beautiful and characteristic places in Cuenca, and has a profound legacy with the city´s surroundings and its citizens. The Museum is also the repository for four collections: Art, Historic Archive, Archeology, and the National Collection of Ethnography, and because it works with living cultures it has always had a relationship with various communities, and the several urban cultures that coexist in Cuenca. In this context, the Museum has maintained a very close relationship between the building and its collections and the surrounding geography, both urban and rural. The site is surrounded by several mounds and mountains with important archeological vestiges of high altitude sanctuaries, that used to interact with the Koricancha the sun temple previously located in Pumapungo where the Inca royalty and their priests practised enduring daily rituals. The Museum has developed a series of guided walks connecting the Museum and Park to each one of these sanctuaries, accompanied by historians and archeologists who share knowledge and history with participants. The walks also empower the communities to continue using these ancestral paths without the need of the Museum. The Museum, Theatre and Ancestral Park Pumapungo, managed by the Ministry of Culture and Heritage of Ecuador, comprise spaces open to all kinds of initiatives, projects and cultural activities. Activities produced or hosted by the institution are framed in the National Plan for Well-Being [Plan Nacional para el Buen Vivir], the national museums policy approved by the Secretary of 100

Social Memory of the Ministry of Culture and Heritage, as well as the National Directorate of Museums and Archaeological Sites, and the Network of National Museums. In the last 4 years, the Pumapungo complex has received growing numbers of local, national and international visitors: -2013: 6,000 * visitors per month -2014: 7,500 * visitors per month -2015: 8,500 * visitors per month -2016: 10,000 * visitors per month * Monthly average / year (www.museos.gob.ec) The origin of the Pumapungo Museum dates back to 1978, with the creation by the Central Bank of Ecuador of the Centre of Research and Culture in Cuenca, and the acquisition and reception of the first cultural collections: Víctor Manuel Albornoz and Alfonso Andrade Chiriboga libraries, archaeological donations of Mr. Guillermo Vásquez Astudillo, the collection of the Salesian Father Crespi, and the ethnographic collection of Luis Moscoso Vega, among others. Having acquired this large amount of cultural property, the Central Bank in Cuenca soon saw the need for a local, broader, and more appropriate site for the conservation and enhancement of these cultural goods. Because of this, the Central Bank proceeded to lease a building in the centre of Cuenca to properly meet the needs of its museum. 101

Located in the parish of San Blas, the Pumapungo Complex is composed of the Museum, the ancient Park, and Theatre. The Museum contains the reserve collection and the national room of ethnography, where we can appreciate the intercultural wealth that characterizes Ecuador; and the archaeological room Pumapungo or site museum, which emphasizes the historical development of the Azuay and Ecuador, through Cañari,- Inka cultures and the colonial period. In this room, we also learn about the important historical legacy left by the Incas in their passage through the administrative, military and religious centre that was Pumapungo, second in importance after the capital Cuzco. In addition, the Museum has five temporary exhibition halls and a room for all kinds of dynamic, diverse and inclusive exhibitions and curatorial research related to the Museum's collections, such as travelling exhibitions, and local, national and international artists, in all forms of expression, as well as emerging artists. The Pumapungo Museum also has: a room for conservation and restoration; archaeology, modern and contemporary art reserves; and an historical archive and library. All of these are at the disposal of students, researchers, curators, and the citizenship in general. Going to its roots, Pumapungo’s Ancestral Park has three elements. Firstly, the Archaeological Park, where visitors can appreciate the important vestiges of the Inca site of Pumapungo. Secondly, we have the Ethnobotanical Park, with more than 230 species of plants and native Andean trees. This is the last Andean ecological niche in the city, an urban sanctuary for more than 30 species of birds who visit these spaces daily. And thirdly, the Bird Rescue Centre, where, in coordination with the Ministry of the Environment, the Committee on Municipal Environmental Management, and the Zoo Amaru, we contribute to the fight against the smuggling of birds. In this centre we welcome the birds, heal, feed and, depending upon the physical and mental condition of birds, return them to their natural habitat. The Park has a specialized team of ten people, bearers of traditional knowledge of working in the land, biologists, veterinarians and agronomists. The Pumapungo Theatre, which joined the administration of the Ministry of Culture and Heritage in 2014, is one of the most important spaces for arts, music and academic meetings in Cuenca. The space has a capacity for 700 people, access for people with disabilities, spacious dressing rooms, and an efficient audio and lighting system. 102

Understand, Know, See This year´s ICR conference theme Understand what you have, Know where you are, See where you’re going thus has a particularly special meaning for us. Personally, when thinking about understanding what I have, this makes me consider various elements at our Museum: my wonderful team, without it nothing would be possible, they are the ones who make it happen; the cultural goods that are contained in the collection stores, they are the soul of the Museum, the source of inspiration, research, and connections to people, the city, and its surroundings; the exhibition rooms, where this magical dialogue takes place among people, art, history, and dreams; and the site itself, such a wonderful place that has seen the passing of time though ages, cultures and peoples. Now, knowing where you are should not be about a global positioning coordinate. It should be about your place as a human being; about the pathway and posture you are taking at the museum, towards your colleagues, your visitors; the way you are making decisions, and getting involved with the community; how you are experiencing your surroundings and trying to make the best out of it. With this, I also think that the best way to see where you´re going is to really take into account the wise advice of your workmates, but without losing the capability of hearing what the neighborhood and city of your museum is telling you. Museums should be permeable institutions that absorb whatever their surroundings are going through, both socially and culturally. It is totally possible to maintain a strong identity while at the same time opening up to various stakeholders’ demands for cultural services and spaces. 103

Ancestral connections Apart from the city, Pumapungo has a strong relationship with the surrounding high sanctuaries, and it has been coordinating walks to these sanctuaries for the last fifteen years. One of our lines of work is that of maintaining local identity and traditions. Pumapungo was once a very important astral observatory. It was connected to the surrounding mountain tops where there are several sacred sites. The Incas, as well as other Andean people, divided earth into three sacred levels: the upper level, Hanan Pacha; the ground level, where we live, Kay Pacha; and the Ucu Pacha, the lower world. This sensitivity responded to a unique way of perceiving life, giving a deep meaning to practically everything. Thanks to the chronicles of Guaman Poma in 1615, we know that the Incas worshipped the mountains and ascribed them protective qualities, honouring them with great respect and many gifts. Every year, the Museum develops research related to one of these important sacred sites, conducted by the national ethnography curatorial team , supported by historians, archeologists, and the local communities. We call for the public to join us at the Pumapungo Ancestral Park, conduct a thanksgiving ceremony, and depart to one of the several high sanctuaries that surround Pumapungo and Cuenca. Some of the walks that the Museum has conducted through the years are: Waunakauri, Cojitambo, Cumbe, Chordeleg, Ictocruz, Cajas, Deleg, Pachamama, Wakaunguilla, Boquerón, Qhapac Ñan, Monjas, and Guagualzhumi. 104

By undertaking these walks we strongly believe that a Museum can be both historical and traditional, simultaneously responding to a changing society, providing spaces for urban tribes and collectives, while also supporting communities in keeping their identities, ancestral values, and memories. 105

2.4 The Nature Park Lonjsko Polje - a historical rural landscape Jasmina Uroda Kutlić, Croatia Introduction Numerous cultural landscapes in Croatia have been recorded in literature and expert research, but despite being treated as a distinct kind of cultural heritage, they are still not adequately identified, formally acknowledged as of heritage value and protected. One of the reasons is that, despite the possibilities of legal protection, the criteria and standards for identification, documentation and heritage recognition thereof for entry into the Register of Cultural Properties of Croatia, these cultural landscapes have still not been developed in detail. To this day, only ten cultural landscapes out of more than 8,000 immovable, movable and intangible heritage features have so far been entered into the Register. One of the cultural landscapes that was recognized, in the framework of spatial plan documentation, is the landscape of Lonjsko Polje. It is categorised as an historical rural landscape, which cover landscapes formed through traditional activities connected to the cultivation of land. The older conservation praxis refers to them as landscapes of traditional skills, i.e. ethnological landscapes. The types of villages and patterns of agricultural land reflect not only the tradition, skills and knowledge of the people who shaped them, modified and adjusted them to their needs, but also the topographic characteristics of the area in which they developed. Nature Park Lonjsko Polje Nature Park Lonjsko Polje occupies 50,650 hectares and is situated in the central part of the Republic of Croatia, between the foothills of the mountain Moslavačka gora and the Zagreb–Slavonski Brod Highway in the north and the river Sava in the south. As it enters the Pannonian Basin, the Sava turns from a fast mountain stream into a lowland river. Here it meanders and forms the typical lowland floodplain. Through many years, the river and its dynamics have reshaped the banks and the landscape, creating raised banks or ridges, backwaters and lowland wetlands that form a typical image of floodplain landscape of the lowland rivers. With its tributaries the Lonja, Struga, Pakra, Ilova, Trebež, Česma and other smaller ones, the Sava makes this natural landscape one of the most valuable wetlands in Europe. The most significant ecological element in the Nature Park Lonjsko Polje is inundation which can appear any time of the year, because of the extraordinary constellation of the Sava River and its tributaries. Water waves are often huge and Nature Park Lonjsko Polje has a very important role as a flood control system 106

for the inhabitants. A mosaic of diverse habitats is formed in this microrelief, which results in multiple features such as various types of floodplain forests, grasslands, meadows, various types of marshy and water habitats but also of ditches and canals as a result of longstanding human impact. Nature Park Lonjsko Polje was included in the List of Wetlands of International Importance according to the Ramsar Convention. As a signatory of the Convention, the Republic of Croatia committed to continuous protection of wetlands and marsh birds. The area is also an important winter resort and resting site for migratory birds and a nesting site for almost 140 species. Furthermore, Lonjsko Polje has the largest concentration of indigenous breeds in Croatia. The largest complexes of natural and preserved floodplain forests of Europe and beyond are located within the area of Nature Park Lonjsko Polje. The power of floodplain forests is reflected in the formation of habitats and landscape, with the emergence of specific breeds that have adjusted to floods. Almost 70% of the Nature Park Lonjsko Polje is covered in floodplain forests. In addition to its extraordinary natural characteristics, this Nature Park has a valuable historical and cultural heritage, especially the specific architecture, folklore, craftsmanship and creativity of the local people. Therefore, it is extremely important to preserve its inner cultural identity. Historical legacy – a country on the boundaries of the West and the East The historical legacy of this area is seen in the unchanged spatial organisation which is the result of acting as a border between the Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire. The river Sava was a natural boundary and a part of the 1,750 km-long border between the East and the West, with the natural wetlands as a buffer zone. The border, or the Military Frontier, existed here for almost 350 years, protecting Europe from the conquering invasions and serving as a “cordon sanitaire” protecting against infectious diseases. However, the Frontier was opened under controlled conditions for trade, agriculture and cultural exchange. Alongside the Frontier were forts with look-out towers and log watch towers (čardak), but even more so than by fortifications, it was protected by marshes, forests and rivers that were an integral part of the military strategy. During the Ottoman threat and constant attacks, the local population had to leave their homes between the 15th and 17th centuries, mostly fleeing towards the north. Today, remaining from that period are the reconstructed log watch towers, built from wood in the 16th century. In this system, the log watch towers were 3 km apart with groups of 4 to 20 frontiersmen inside. Their duty lasted one week when they had the possibility to switch in order to go home and tend to their farms. A present day reconstructed watch tower is one of the best locations for bird-watching. As the time passed, so did the Ottoman threat, and settlement of the area of Lonjsko Polje began during the 18th and 19th century. 107

Traditional pasturing and the architecture – the living examples of tradition Through centuries, the inhabitants of Lonjsko Polje learned how to live in harmony with the river and by adjusting to the floods they created a harmony of natural and cultural elements of landscape. They accepted the water as their ruler, trusting the old and wise saying which holds the secret of successful life in wetlands – LIVE WITH THE WATER NOT, AGAINST IT! The cultural landscape of Central Posavina and Moslavina is an extraordinary example of how the inhabitants adjusted their way of living to the floods. An outstanding system was created that is intertwined with all the aspects of human interaction with the environment, such as traditional buildings, organisation of settlements and landscaping, the use of land, and indigenous breeds that are fully adapted to the flooding conditions. People organised their lives in the safest locations: on the high grounds or ridges alongside the river itself. Behind the settlements are the orchards, arable land, pastures, hay meadows and wet pastures while the floodplain forests are the farthest off. This sequence of land use is exactly attuned to the coming of the flood and then the retreat of the waters. During the floods and snowy winters, the farmers keep their livestock in warm and dry stables, feeding and caring for them. With the spring coming and waters retreating, they let them onto the pastures to graze. Lonjsko Polje is the only area in Europe that kept this type of animal husbandry. Traditional pasturing is the archaic system of pasturing where several animal breeds are kept on pastures. This means using the wet habitats in the most economical manner. There is a logical sequence of feeding. The pigs prepare the pastures in the manner that they plough down the land contributing to better growth of grass for the large livestock that follows next. This system is essential for maintaining the landscape and for the protection of biological diversity. This type of animal husbandry was typical for Europe until the mid-19th century. Animal husbandry in Lonjsko Polje is mainly in the hands of local population, which is a sign of a live and continuous process of cultural landscape. But what Europe in particular has lost are the former \"core“ areas of animal husbandry. This is why the existence of the traditional pasturing system of the Central Sava River basin is so important. It is the only example that has remained in alluvial lowlands in such a complete manner, and furthermore, it is still managed by the local people. However, it is not only because of the cultural heritage aspects that this system is of outstanding value. Alongside the inundation, it is the traditional animal husbandry that generates the other key ecological process in the floodplains of the Central Sava. It causes the appearance of secondary wet grassland and freshwater habitats. These key processes generated by both the traditional land use and the dynamics of inundation have created a unique mosaic of secondary and natural habitats. That makes this area the most complete integral floodplain ecosystem of the central part of a river basin in the whole of the biogeographical province. The fact that some globally endangered bird species like the corncrake 108

and the spoonbill can be seen here is evidence of the outstanding nature of these habitat conditions. It is also here that the white stork has achieved the greatest nesting success ever recorded in the academic literature. All these facts enforce the conclusion that the man-made habitats generated by the traditional pasturing system are of at least the same importance for biodiversity conservation as the natural floodplain habitats. Even more so, since pasturing has been identified as a key ecological process and the key species which determine this process are not wild but domestic animals. Here we can find an exceptional example of in-situ conservation of endangered indigenous domestic breeds: the TuroPolje pig and the Posavina horse. For another two breeds, the Black Slavonian pig and the Slavonian Syrmian grey cattle, it is the remaining part of their former breeding area. Therefore, one must conclude that traditional pasturing represents both an ecological and a cultural key process. Adaptation has always been an important capability of human societies. In the case of Nature Park Lonjsko Polje, adaptation can still be said to be play an important role in the traditional life and wise use of the Sava floodplains. There are many examples that demonstrate in principle the human interaction with water in terms of irrigation, but only in Nature Park Lonjsko Polje has humanity deliberately and consciously come to terms with the occurrence of the flooding, and has subordinated almost everything to this phenomenon: the organisation of the space, the architecture and the land management, while in other areas the idea has been to tame the river. Housing is a perfect example of adaptation. The traditional wooden houses are situated on the natural ridges beside the river – the safest place in the floodplains. Settlement on the ridges underlies the basic spatial system of the settlements of the central Sava valley, strung out in a continuous sequence along the course of the Sava. The villages along the Sava work as a dual settlement, each one of which has its twin on the other bank. These are settlements of identical typologies and architectural features. Throughout history, including the present time, these settlements have vital social and economic links. The settlements were formed as longitudinal villages that stretched out along one side of the road accompanying the main course of the Sava River or its backwaters and oxbows (the oxbows were formed in the 18th and 19th century engineering undertakings when meanders were cut and the course was straightened to make navigation easier). Nevertheless, inundation may occur even on the ridges. For that reason, the houses are oriented parallel with the direction of the flow and strictly follow the line of the advance and retreat of the floodwaters. The external stairs enable the householders to take to their boats whatever the water level. As the house is of wood, it dries quickly. Timber also absorbs humidity in the air much better than other materials. This is particularly important in summer and autumn. Timber used for building houses 109

However, it is not only because of the cultural heritage aspects that this system is of outstanding value. Alongside the inundation, it is the traditional animal husbandry that generates the other key ecological process in the floodplains of the Central Sava. It causes the appearance of secondary wet grassland and freshwater habitats. These key processes generated by both the traditional land use and the dynamics of inundation have created a unique mosaic of secondary and natural habitats. That makes this area the most complete integral floodplain ecosystem of the central part of a river basin in the whole of the biogeographical province. The fact that some globally endangered bird species like the corncrake and the spoonbill can be seen here is evidence of the outstanding nature of these habitat conditions. It is also here that the white stork has achieved the greatest nesting success ever recorded in the academic literature. All these facts enforce the conclusion that the man-made habitats generated by the traditional pasturing system are of at least the same importance for biodiversity conservation as the natural floodplain habitats. Even more so, since pasturing has been identified as a key ecological process and the key species which determine this process are not wild but domestic animals. Here we can find an exceptional example of in-situ conservation of endangered indigenous domestic breeds: the TuroPolje pig and the Posavina horse. For another two breeds, the Black Slavonian pig and the Slavonian Syrmian grey cattle, it is the remaining part of their former breeding area. Therefore, one must conclude that traditional pasturing represents both an ecological and a cultural key process. Adaptation has always been an important capability of human societies. In the case of Nature Park Lonjsko Polje, adaptation can still be said to be play an important role in the traditional life and wise use of the Sava floodplains. There are many examples that demonstrate in principle the human interaction with water in terms of irrigation, but only in Nature Park Lonjsko Polje has humanity deliberately and consciously come to terms with the occurrence of the flooding, and has subordinated almost everything to this phenomenon: the organisation of the space, the architecture and the land management, while in other areasthe idea has been to tame the river. Housing is a perfect example of adaptation. The traditional wooden houses are situated on the natural ridges beside the river – the safest place in the floodplains. Settlement on the ridges underlies the basic spatial system of the settlements of the central Sava valley, strung out in a continuous sequence along the course of the Sava. The villages along the Sava work as a dual settlement, each one of which has its twin on the other bank. These are settlements of identical typologies and architectural features. Throughout history, including the present time, these settlements have vital social and economic links. The settlements were formed as longitudinal villages that stretched out along one side of the road accompanying the main course of the 110

Sava River or its backwaters and oxbows (the oxbows were formed in the 18th and 19th century engineering undertakings when meanders were cut and the course was straightened to make navigation easier). Nevertheless, inundation may occur even on the ridges. For that reason, the houses are oriented parallel with the direction of the flow and strictly follow the line of the advance and retreat of the floodwaters. The external stairs enable the householders to take to their boats whatever the water level. As the house is of wood, it dries quickly. Timber also absorbs humidity in the air much better than other materials. This is particularly important in summer and autumn. Timber used for building houses comes from oak wood growing in the forests of Lonjsko Polje. In the preserved older houses, the timber is cleaved or trimmed while in the newer ones, sawn wood is used. The walls are thick sawn logs and on top of them the ceiling and finally the roof structures are placed. Although there are some single- story houses, the two-story houses are a true reflection of the centuries-long development and adjustment to constant flooding. Also, the meandering of the river may cause another problem, the curve coming uncomfortably close to the building. When this happens, the house as a whole was simply moved backwards for some metres by oxen or horses. This kind of housing is a perfect lesson in how to bend to natural rhythms and configurations, rather than deny them. Preservation and promotion of tradition From ancient times Lonjsko Polje has been a part of lives of the people from Posavina and Moslavina, and the Moslavina Museum has been the protector and presenter of this bond for many years. Therefore, it is no wonder that the Museum preserves many of its artefacts. Those artefacts present the traditional agriculture and way of life, and they range from household items and tools to folk costumes. Songs, dances, customs and tradition are a part of intangible cultural heritage and point to the strong connection of the local people with the era of the Military Frontier and with the river Sava as an important determinant of their lives. The tradition is very much alive today in Moslavina region and is often depicted at various events, as well as in the Museum itself. A vocal group is active under the sponsorship of the Museum, singing traditional songs of Moslavina, as well as many other cultural and artistic groups that cherish the bond with the heritage of the entire Moslavina and Lonjsko Polje. One section of the permanent ethnographic exhibition is dedicated to this bond, showing traditional fishery and architecture. An exhibition called Where have all the fishermen gone? depicted the important role that fishing once had in Lonjsko Polje. Although fishing is declining, its tradition is still alive, partly in practice in terms of the collections, records and fishing methods, and partly in the people's memories. Lectures and debates are organised on the subject of traditional architecture, as well as the presentations on constructing the vernacular houses of Moslavina 111

and Posavina. The Ministry of Culture recognised this positive example and has published a manual for the restoration of traditional wooden houses. The growth of continental tourism contributed to this positive trend. There were several exhibitions with the theme of architecture. The best example of preserving the traditional architecture is the village Krapje, declared in 1995 as the Village of Architectural Heritage and listed as a A-category European monument of cultural heritage. Each year on the European Heritage Day, Nature Park Lonjsko Polje organises an 'open doors' event which has been traditionally held since 1995. Besides Krapje, there is also Čigoč, European Stork Village, which also celebrates its own day. Every year, on the last Saturday of June, Čigoč celebrates the Stork Day with many cultural, recreational, entertaining and gastro events. The Museum is closely involved in these events, putting up exhibitions about the traditional way of living on the Museum premises or in the villages themselves. One of the most important events is “The Future at the Edge of the Wetland” of the Kutina Branch of Matica Hrvatska celebrating World Wetlands Day. This event itself, together with the Museum, promotes the interaction of the local people and the cultural landscape. It is organised every year around World Wetlands Day, February 2nd, and lasts for two days. Each time it is held in a different village of Lonjsko Polje in the Moslavina region, and its task is to raise the awareness about the need to preserve the natural and cultural heritage of the wetland. A visit to the Nature Park Lonjsko Polje is possible through the villages of Krapje and Čigoč, located in the Posavina section of the Park, and only recently, from the Visitor's Centre in Repušnica. This is the first official entrance to the Nature Park Lonjsko Polje from the Moslavina region. The Visitors' Centre is only 5km away from the Moslavina Museum, and offers a great stop-by for the tourists visiting Kutina and the region. The Museum was involved in the construction of the Visitors' Centre, consulting with the contractors in making replicas, souvenirs, and presenting the total heritage. Conclusion The Moslavina Museum is always the starting point for all the actors involved in the preservation and promotion of cultural heritage and is thus a part of active protection and management of this cultural landscape. The Museum strives to raise the level of individual and collective responsibility in the community for the preservation of Lonjsko Polje as a cultural landscape. This is important because cultural landscapes represent our living heritage, and yet they are exposed to (sometimes even irreversible) transformations. It is no surprise then that Lonjsko Polje is becoming an even more recognisable part of Croatian heritage, and we hope it will soon be listed in the Register of Cultural Properties of Croatia and 'officially' become a cultural landscape. 112

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2.5 The Village Museum and community involvement in managing cultural landscape Wilbard Lema, Tanzania Introduction It is difficult to separate natural landscape and cultural landscape, knowing that in their variety they represent ‘the combined works of nature and man’ and express a long and intimate relationship between people and their natural environment (Jalla, 2017) A landscape in our understanding in Tanzania is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. Several authors describe landscape as including the physical elements of geophysical defined landforms such as mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea; living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation; human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures; and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity (Wu and Hobbs, 2007). UNESCO during its 2002 convention on World Cultural and Natural Heritage defined a cultural landscape as the cultural properties that represent the combined works of nature and human- activity. Further, cultural landscapes are illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the influence of the physical limitations and/or opportunities presented by their natural environment and of successive social, economic and cultural forces, both external and internal (UNESCO, 2002). The Cambridge Dictionary defines community as the people living in one particular area or people who are considered as a unit because of their common interests, social group, or nationality. As such, people must first settle in a particular landscape / area or unit, then ethnic bonds that are linked into such a unit with a common cultural identity, defined by racial origins, religion, nationality or tribal affiliation, add the last touches of cultural connection to the landscape. There is an intimate compatibility observed among landscape, culture and people. To overcome the divide between natural and cultural landscapes museums have designed and developed activities and programmes that integrate communities based on the nature and location of their landscape. 114

Unlike recent years where the value of museums was generally understood in terms of collections, research, preservation, exhibitions and education programmes, the current decade has witnessed an increasing interest in the social value of museums. Museums provide social impact through their programmes and services as well as opportunities for community participation (Kershaw, 2006). In other words, museums have been transformed by considering communities as partners in their cultural heritage management programmes and activities. According to Nyangila (2006), the communities get involved in two levels, either (i) the museum movies closer to the people on the ground and they work together in the heritage programmes, or (ii) the local community comes to a museum to cherish and celebrate its heritage through exhibitions and performing arts. The Village Museum applies both levels in working with its landscape. The National Museum of Tanzania (NMT) was established as a body corporate under the 1980 National Museum Act No.7 as a scientific, educational and cultural institution mandated to acquire, research, document, conserve, and display all materials related to Tanzania’s cultural and natural heritage. With its seven branches across the country, the National Museum disseminates knowledge to the community through cultural and education programmes, exhibitions, publications, print and electronic media. The Village Museum discussed in this paper is one of the seven branches of NMT established to preserve and promote the cultures and architecture of Tanzanian ethnic groups. Since its establishment in 1967, this museum has implemented an effective participatory management approach in which the indigenous communities are involved in programmes and activities either by coming to the Museum or the Museum’s curators visiting their cultural landscape. Collecting, preserving and sharing housing traditions Construction of traditional houses is our first focus in this discussion. The Village Museum preserves more than 34 traditional houses representing more than 120 ethnic groups of Tanzania. The multitude of ethnic groups with different cultural landscapes determines the construction and existence of diverse types, sizes and shapes of traditional houses, hence the need for community involvement. Communities provide the vital skills: first, in material selection and second, in construction of the house. In this process, the Museum’s curators visit a community to observe the house(s) and related raw materials within their own landscape. Climatic features are not homogeneous throughout the country and their influence on traditional architecture is extremely complex. Environment and weather conditions dictate the forms and types of traditional houses in two ways. Certain environments are characterized by specific vegetation and associated natural resources on which a community depends as a source of raw materials. A community builds certain types of houses to protect 115

against weather conditions such as heat, cold, wind and rains. Based on their experience, the community proposes and collects the best raw materials available in their landscape, including--poles, posts, grass, fibres and soil. After selection of raw materials, construction of traditional house(s) continues at the Village Museum. At this stage, the elders with construction skills are invited to provide their knowledge and assistance to Museum technicians. Following traditions of specific ethnic groups, these elders provide the cultural specifics for making three types of traditional houses: msonge (circular) houses, banda (rectangular) houses and tembe - rectangular houses with dirt roofs. Although the basic role of a house to provide shelter remains constant, other additions such as decorations and rituals differ among the ethnic groups. Construction adheres to the community’s customs regarding division of labour. Men are generally responsible for major construction tasks such as preparing the site, setting and making the house framework as well as roofing and thatching. Women, on the other hand, are responsible for lighter tasks, such as cooking and serving the local brew as well as preparing and plastering the walls using mud and cow dung. The community optimizes the landscape to make a homestead (compound) with parents’ houses, children’s houses, places for fire, animal, ritual and storage and farming area. In some ethnic groups like Maasai (Nilotic), women do 116

house construction. Making a house is a communal celebration accompanied by motivational songs and rites all of which become intangible heritage for the Museum to document and preserve. Apart from house construction, the Village Museum recognizes the important role communities play in the preservation of cultural and natural heritage through their cultural practices guided by their indigenous knowledge and mythologies. The Museum, therefore, works closely with communities to prepare and participate in this important part of the living cultural heritage in two ways. Firstly, the Museum offers its space for communities to perform their cultural practices and secondly, the Museum involves communities in preparing big national cultural festivals. With the cultural practices, the Museum allows communities to perform initiation ceremonies in its reserved forest because these practices are vanishing due to environmental changes and the persistent deforestation destroying the community’s landscape. The national cultural festivals involve periodic and annual events organized by the Village Museum where a particular community is invited to show their culture for three to four consecutive days. During the Cultural Day Festival, a community displays its art and crafts, gastronomic heritage, costumes, traditional houses and conducts cultural workshops. Through this programme, the Museum has acquired collections and documents the distinctive cultural heritage of many Tanzanian communities. At the same time, rural and urban communities can mingle and successfully cherish and transmit their culture from generation to another. 117

Conclusion Museums have taken the community on board their heritage management programmes and activities. The Museum-Community relationship benefits both parties and sustainably manages the physical and cultural landscape. As noted by Nyangila (2006), there are countless advantages when museums involve the community in managing the cultural landscape. First, it promotes a participatory approach where the community is directly involved and benefits in making decisions on the sustainable use of their landscape resources. Second, it fosters capacity building for both museum staff and community when, through shared experience, both are equipped with skills to manage cultural landscape. This has enabled the museum to sustain its programmes and activities such as the Cultural Day Festivals at the Village Museum, which have continued for 27 years. Third and last, the awareness of the museum’s activities has increased and the museum has won the hearts of its communities, and fulfilled its objective of having a society that values, and sustainably accesses its cultural landscape. References Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021. Cultural Landscapes: the Challenges of Conservation. World Heritage Papers Vol. 7, Paris: UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2002. Jalla, Daniele: Cultural Landscapes and Museums. Museum International Vol. 69 #273-274, International Council of Museums (ICOM), 2017. Kershaw, Anne: Community Participation and Museums. Australia: Deakin University, 2006. Key Topics in Landscape Ecology. Editors Wu, J., R. Hobbs. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007. Nyangila, Jacob M.: Museums and community involvement: A case study of community collaborative initiatives - National Museums of Kenya, INTERCOM, 2006. 118

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2.6 Climate vs history: the creation of a modern european capital and the challenge of reality Leonidas Argyros, Greece Introduction: a capital for a new nation The selection of Athens as the capital of the Kingdom of Greece in 1834 signalled the resolve of the Greek nation-state to assert its historical continuity and occidental character. The European architects and bureaucrats responsible for planning the new city were unable or unwilling to comprehend the traditional Ottoman town, picturesque but hardly compatible with western ideals of hygiene and rational organization. The European neoclassical tradition would erase the Ottoman past and bolster Greece’s role in modernizing the entire eastern Mediterranean region. A rational geometry would usher in the new era of independence.1 The Bavarians, who occupied most positions in the central government, seemed to view Greece as a tabula rasa where everything was possible. They were willing to entertain all sorts of ambitious projects in total disregard of the state’s actual needs or capabilities. The selection of Athens was based on ideology and subsequent events proved that the creation of a western city in the economic and social conditions of post-revolutionary Greece was a challenging proposition. The designers faced a bewildering variety of problems, from the lack of experienced builders and materials to exorbitant land profiteering. The climate of Athens was a factor whose importance was frequently noted but rarely taken into consideration during the building process. The city’s new urban plans, the creation of sanitation facilities and the debate on the location of the royal residence reveal the Bavarian administration’s fragmentary and contradictory approach to the problems of an unfamiliar environment. Local conditions: topography and climate The climate and topography of Athens had remained fairly unchanged since antiquity. The city is roughly at the centre of the plain of Attica, surrounded by several mountains: Hymettus (1027m.) in the east, Penteli (1109m.) in the northeast, Parnitha (1410m.) in the north and Egaleo (468m.) in the west. There are many hills across the plain, the most notable being Lycabettus (339m.), Ardettus (133m.), the Acropolis (156m.), Areopagus (115m.), the Hill of the Nymphs (105m.), the Pnyx (109.5m.), and Philopappou (147m.). The plain of Attica is open to the sea towards the south. The climate is typically Mediterranean with mild, wet winters and prolonged, warm, and dry summers. Snowfall occurs almost every year but the snow melts 120

quickly. The average daytime winter temperature is 10ºC while the average daytime summer temperature is 32ºC. The arid climate and the low humidity levels are responsible for the renowned clear skies of Athens. The predominant winds blow from the north and the northeast, and Athenians considered them very healthy. During the summer months there is also a notable sea-breeze blowing from the south that alleviates the oppressive summer heat. Water – essential for life Because of its location in a mountain basin, Athens is fairly arid. The annual amount of rainfall is approximately 400mm but its distribution throughout the year is uneven. Three-quarters of the annual precipitation occur between October and March. Rainfall events are usually intense but of short duration. The limestone rocks of the surrounding mountains and hills supply streams that flow across the plain, but most dry up in the summer. The River Cephissus flows from Parnitha to the southwest towards Phaleron Bay. Along the way it watered the famous Athenian olive grove, the most extensive and productive farmland in Athens with more than 200,000 trees. The Ilissos drains the western slopes of Mount Hymettus and originates from multiple converging seasonal creeks. Both streams were famous in antiquity. A third stream, Eridanos, originates in Mount Lycabettus and flows through the city.2 For the permanent residents of Athens, water, albeit precious, presented a two- fold problem. There was not enough clean water for human consumption and there was too much dirty water that harboured diseases. The main sources of potable water were springs near the Acropolis, as well as numerous wells all over the city. According to an 1833 survey, 55% of Athenian houses had a well in their yard, with bigger houses often having two or three wells. Additionally, some residents built cisterns to collect rainwater.3 The streams that flowed through Athens could not be used for drinking purposes. They dried up in the summer and frequently received urban waste and raw sewage. In 1836 the river Ilissos was described by Prince Hermann Pückler-Muskau as a sewer, suitable only for the needs of a few ugly washerwomen. The German visitor was perfectly ready to believe that Xerxes’ cavalry had indeed drained the river during their time in Athens.4 Heavy rainfall, on the other hand, caused the streams to overflow and left behind stagnant waters that became sources of infestation. Malaria was endemic in Athens. Neoclassical notions and purpose planning Europeans had a largely theoretical knowledge of the Athenian climate, based on classical sources and the accounts of recent visitors to the city. There was no consistent or scientific approach to the study of Athens’ climate before the late 1850s. There was, nevertheless, a widespread appreciation of the qualities and significance of the city’s weather. Johann Joachim Winckelmann was a German 121

art historian who first articulated the difference between Greek and Roman art and laid the foundations for the rise of the neoclassical movement. In his 1764 seminal History of Ancient Art, Winckelmann claimed that the clear and bright climate of Attica refined the senses and inspired the Athenians with the Taste [sic] that influenced the civilized world. Many foreign visitors connected the climate of Athens and artistic perfection.5 The War of Independence (1821-1829) left the country without any prominent administrative or financial centers. The seaport town of Nafplio in the eastern Peloponnese, seat of the provisional government of Greece, was considered inadequate by the Bavarians, who lamented the ruinous state of the fortifications, the poor road network, and the dilapidated aqueduct. Despite the promotion of various towns as the possible future seat of government, most people were aware of the Bavarians’ predisposition towards Athens. Local newspapers and numerous Greek statesmen believed that the decision had already been made in Munich.6 In the early 1830s Athens had very few buildings fit for use by the government. Nevertheless the Bavarian administration realized that the selection of Athens as a capital would endow a weak state with vague borders with a strong point of reference widely respected and admired by the West.7 King Ludwig I of Bavaria was an ardent admirer of ancient Athens and openly supported the selection of the city as the capital of his son’s kingdom. In the winter of 1834 King Otto ordered the immediate transfer of the government to Athens. Since the capital had to satisfy both the rational needs of its residents and the modernizing ideology of the state, the government had already authorized two architects, Stamatis Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert, to design a new urban plan. The absence of detailed information on Athenian topography forced them to collect their own data but they were both aware of Athens’ climate and landscape.8 They considered the air clean and healthy, and calculated that the city had adequate water supplies for 35-40,000 people. Due to topographical restrictions (hills and streams), they opted to develop their plan on flat ground towards the north. The benefits of this area included the absence of fog, the cooling effects of a summer sea breeze and easy communication with the port of Piraeus. The land allowed for the drainage of rainwater and the construction of sewers, while water from Mount Hymettus and the river Illisos would be adequate to satisfy the residents’ needs. Artesian wells and the easily repairable Roman aqueduct that brought water from the city’s north would cover any increase in demand. The road network in the old city would remain fairly intact, to protect the residents from the summer heat through the shadows cast by the buildings. In the new parts of Athens, porticos, trees and water fountains would alleviate the heat’s worst effects. The hospital, the slaughterhouses and the cemeteries would be outside the city limits. Finally, extensive tree plantings with species tolerant of 122

drought along the streets and the city perimeter would offer shade and aesthetic pleasure, and enhance the view of the classical monuments.9 The plan was approved in late June 1833 but in the fall of 1834, the Bavarian court architect, Leo von Klenze, was asked to amend the plan. Klenze made efforts to familiarize himself with Athens through conversations with local people and the architects who designed the first urban plan. In the end, though, he proceeded with changes without taking into consideration their opinions, viewing them as incompatible with his personal ideas on urban development.10 Klenze believed that southern European cities should avoid the broad, straight lines of northern Europe, and follow the traditional pattern of narrow, winding alleys that alleviate the worst effects of summer’s heat and enhance the city’s picturesqueness. Broader avenues and open spaces caused disease “due to the lack of shade.”11 Both urban plans considered Athens as a suitable location for a capital. They acknowledged the problems posed by the local climate (heat, lack of water) and attempted to address them through the proper arrangement of buildings and avenues and the selection of the most appropriate ground for the city’s development. It is clear that they underestimated the difficulty of securing adequate supplies of clean water. Kleanthis and Schaubert grossly miscalculated the sufficiency of available water resources, the feasibility of repairing ancient aqueducts, or the cost of building a sewer network. Dream versus reality There was, evidently, a significant gap between the theory (as expressed by bureaucrats, architects, and politicians) and the reality (as experienced by Germans and Greeks alike).12 A Sanitary Police was established in 1833 while lazarettos and hospitals followed suit but they could not cope with the effects of the prevailing unsanitary conditions.13 In addition to countless civilians, hundreds of Bavarian soldiers perished during their stay in Greece.14 The quarantine system prevented the introduction of diseases from abroad, but failed to address the issues arising from local conditions. Athens was equipped with sewers only along the main thoroughfares. The central sewer that collected effluence from the city’s markets had major fractures along the way and formed a cesspool right outside the city. The local authorities employed animals with baskets to collect the refuse and removed weeds such as the common mullein, which was considered among the primary culprits for the city’s terrible smell.15 The press lamented the erection of impressive residences and expensive public buildings when the government ignored basic infrastructure needs. There was no organized cleaning agency or slaughterhouses.16 Market visitors walked over the bloody hides of the animals on sale in nearby stores, while most private privies were badly maintained and malodorous.17 The selection of the new palace’s location highlights the conflict between dream and reality. The Kleanthis-Schaubert plan proposed a location to the north of the 123

city but the area was prone to flooding. Klenze preferred the Hill of the Nymphs to the west. The view was magnificent, there was plenty of water, and a cooling sea breeze mediated summer heat. Klenze did not realize that the broken sewer created a pool of stagnant water nearby that was responsible for a malaria outbreak in June 1835. If he had been able or willing to read the local papers, he would have been informed that even the Ottomans avoided building their houses in his chosen location, preferring the healthy air to the east of the city.18 Eventually, Ludwig I used the opportunity of his visit to Athens in 1835 to settle the royal residence issue by selecting a hill with a view towards the Acropolis and the sea, right outside the old eastern limits of Athens. A popular tradition claimed that the Bavarians identified the optimal location by leaving pieces of meat in various areas around the city to see where it remained fresh the longest.19 It is a story indicative of the casual way by which the administration solved key issues that the young state faced. Conclusion: continuing challenges The development of Athens was a complicated and expensive process. The lofty ideas embodied in the Kleanthis-Schaubert plan or its amendment by Klenze collapsed when faced with the financial limitations of the state and the urgent needs of the people of Athens. The official policies envisioned a city attuned to the realities of the local climate but people had no time or money to follow the urban plan requirements. Even the Bavarian authorities were inclined to erratic decisions based on personal preferences and aesthetic considerations, rather than adhering to their own grand visions. The result was a city where people continued to perish from diseases associated with the heat, where buildings were erected in unsuitable locations, and where a persistent lack of clean water increased hardships for all residents. The pleasant climate of Athens continued to attract people but it would be many decades before urban designers and local authorities were able to tackle the problems associated with a dry, hot summer and a mild, wet winter. References Bastea, Eleni: Athens 1834-1896: Neoclassical Urban Planning & Greek National Consciousness. Athens: Libro, 2008. [in Greek] Biris, Kostas: Athenaikai Meletai v. I. Athens: 1938. [in Greek] Droulia, Elli: “From Nauplio to Athens: the transport of the capital.” In Naupliaka Analekta VIΙI, edited by Triantafyllos E. Sklavenitis and Maria Velioti- Georgopoulou, 227-240. Nauplio: 2013. [in Greek] 124

Founda, Dimitra: “Evolution of the air temperature in Athens and evidence of climatic change: A review.” Advances in Building Energy Research 5, 1 (2011): 7-41. Hastaoglou-Martinidis, Vilma: “City Form and National Identity: Urban Designs in Nineteenth-Century Greece.” Journal of Modern Greek Studies 13, 1 (1995): 99- 123. Ithakisios, Dionysios, Athanassios Vozikis: “Quarantine and Lazarettos in the 19th century Greece: An Economic Perspective.” Spoudai: Journal of Economics and Business 64, I (2014): 42-52. Kampouroglou, Dimitrios: Old Athens. Athens: Genikon Vivliopoleion Michael Depasta, 1922. [in Greek] Meyer, Alfred Richard: Fürst Pückler-Muskau in Athen. Berlin: Deutsche Buchvertriebs-und Verlags-Gesellschaft, 1944. Papageorgiou-Venetas, Alexandros: Leo von Klenze in Greece. Athens: Odysseas, 2000. [in Greek] Papadopoulou-Simeonidou, Parysatis: The Selection of Athens as the Capital of Greece 1833-1834. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Bros, 1996. Roessel, David: In Byron's Shadow: Modern Greece in the English and American Imagination. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Roubien, Denis: “Planning the Public Functions of Nineteenth-Century Athens: Setting the Priorities between Idealism and Practical Needs.” Journal of Urban History (2015): 1-26. doi: 10.1177/0096144215598975. Seidl, Wolf: Bayern in Griechenland. Munich: Prestel, 1981. Travlos, Ioannis: Urban Evolution of Athens from Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of the 19th Century. Athens: Kapon, 2005. [in Greek] Yalouri, Eleana: The Acropolis: Global Fame, Local Claim, Oxford: Berg, 2001. Yohalas, Thanasis, Tonia Kafetzaki: Athens: Exploring the City through history and literature. Athens: Estia, 2012. [in Greek] 125

city but the area was prone to flooding. Klenze preferred the Hill of the Nymphs to the west. The view was magnificent, there was plenty of water, and a cooling sea breeze mediated summer heat. Klenze did not realize that the broken sewer created a pool of stagnant water nearby that was responsible for a malaria outbreak in June 1835. If he had been able or willing to read the local papers, he would have been informed that even the Ottomans avoided building their houses in his chosen location, preferring the healthy air to the east of the city.18 Eventually, Ludwig I used the opportunity of his visit to Athens in 1835 to settle the royal residence issue by selecting a hill with a view towards the Acropolis and the sea, right outside the old eastern limits of Athens. A popular tradition claimed that the Bavarians identified the optimal location by leaving pieces of meat in various areas around the city to see where it remained fresh the longest.19 It is a story indicative of the casual way by which the administration solved key issues that the young state faced. Conclusion: continuing challenges The development of Athens was a complicated and expensive process. The lofty ideas embodied in the Kleanthis-Schaubert plan or its amendment by Klenze collapsed when faced with the financial limitations of the state and the urgent needs of the people of Athens. The official policies envisioned a city attuned to the realities of the local climate but people had no time or money to follow the urban plan requirements. Even the Bavarian authorities were inclined to erratic decisions based on personal preferences and aesthetic considerations, rather than adhering to their own grand visions. The result was a city where people continued to perish from diseases associated with the heat, where buildings were erected in unsuitable locations, and where a persistent lack of clean water increased hardships for all residents. The pleasant climate of Athens continued to attract people but it would be many decades before urban designers and local authorities were able to tackle the problems associated with a dry, hot summer and a mild, wet winter. References Bastea, Eleni: Athens 1834-1896: Neoclassical Urban Planning & Greek National Consciousness. Athens: Libro, 2008. [in Greek] Biris, Kostas: Athenaikai Meletai v. I. Athens: 1938. [in Greek] Droulia, Elli: “From Nauplio to Athens: the transport of the capital.” In Naupliaka Analekta VIΙI, edited by Triantafyllos E. Sklavenitis and Maria Velioti- Georgopoulou, 227-240. Nauplio: 2013. [in Greek] Founda, Dimitra: “Evolution of the air temperature in Athens and evidence of climatic change: A review.” Advances in Building Energy Research 5, 1 (2011): 126

1 Hastaoglou-Martinidis, “City Form and National Identity: Urban Designs in Nineteenth-Century Greece”: p. 105. 2 For a detailed analysis of Athens’ weather and landscape see Travlos, Urban Evolution of Athens from Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of the 19th Century, pp. 5-12 and Founda “Evolution of the air temperature in Athens and evidence of climatic change, pp. 7-13. 3 Kampouroglou, Old Athens: pp. 462-464. 4 Meyer, Fürst Pückler-Muskau in Athen: p. 35. 5 Roessel, In Byron's Shadow: Modern Greece in the English and American Imagination: pp. 18-19. 6 Droulia, “From Nauplio to Athens: the transport of the capital”: pp. 231-233. See also Papadopoulou- Simeonidou, The Selection of Athens as the Capital of Greece 1833-1834. 7 Yalouri, The Acropolis: Global Fame, Local Claim: p. 53. 8 Bastea, Athens 1834-1896: Neoclassical Urban Planning & Greek National Consciousness: p. 148. 9 Biris, Athenaikai Meletai: pp. 10-20. 10 Papageorgiou-Venetas, Leo von Klenze in Greece: pp. 209-210. 11 Papageorgiou-Venetas, Leo von Klenze: pp. 183-185. 12 Bastea, Athens, p. 8. 13 Ithakisios , Vozikis, “Quarantine and Lazarettos in the 19th century Greece: An Economic Perspective”: pp. 43-44. 14 Seidl, Bayern in Griechenland (Munich: Prestel, 1981): 154. 15 Biris, Athenaikai Meletai, pp. 57-58. 16 Roubien, “Planning the Public Functions of Nineteenth-Century Athens: Setting the Priorities between Idealism and Practical Needs”: 10.1177/0096144215598975. 17 Bastea, Athens, pp. 380-381. 18 Ibid., pp. 296-297. 19 Yohalas, Kafetzaki. Athens: Exploring the City through history and literature: p. 340. 127

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SEE WHERE YOU ARE GOING Changing museum landscapes, promoting inclusion and participation 129

3.1 Museums on the radio: extending the horizons of cultural landscapes Damon Monzavi and Reza Dabirinezhad, Iran Introduction: a capital for a new nation Museum professionals in Iran are trying to promote the museum as one of the most important options in education, culture and art. Museums should be able to permanently retain audiences while maintaining the relationship with them. They want to become centers of interpretation of places and their communities and the cultural landscapes to which their objects are related. To achieve this objective, the easiest and most effective way is through a virtual network. Museums are trying to use stories for making connections, but the stories are inside the museums and many people do not know about them. But what is the way for telling the stories not only inside museums but also so the information can travel outside the museum? The stories can give life to objects and let the audience fill in the cultural landscape related to the objects. But is it possible to ensure that museums have the same impact before, during and after a museum visit? Is it possible to have the same impact for non-visitors outside the museum? This short article introduces a new way for making connections with audiences which was recently developed by Iranian museum professionals. Radio museum wants to connect with people who visit the museums once and even non visitors to build affinity and draw them in deeper to connect them with the collections and mission of the museums to build retention and loyalty. Museums on the airwaves Use of cellphones and the internet is very popular in Iran. Listening to radio, whether on a mobile phone or an actual radio set is very popular with people at work, especially those who work in industry, as drivers, or on night duty, such as guards, and anyone who cannot watch a screen, but can listen while they work. Iran has many radio channels by provided by Iranian television and radio services such as Radio Culture, Radio Economic, Radio Youth, etc. There are also many private internet broadcasts, such as Radio Museum, which are very popular. 130

Many people in remote areas or small cities listen to radio in local coffee shops. Look inside! Radio allows those who cannot visit to experience the wonder of museums. Radio also provides a way to reach those unable to visit museums. Most of the well-resourced museums are located in the capital and metropolitan areas and there are many people who cannot visit them. People in big cities may be very busy and prefer to spend their leisure time in restaurants and at the cinema rather than at museums. Radio is capable of traveling all around the world, spreading its influence to even the most remote areas. With the benefit of virtual networks and mobile applications, it can have long-term durability in mobile devices and computers. 131

One of the unique characteristics of radio is the speed of production and broadcasting: programmes can be produced with limited facilities ensuring the best performance in the shortest time. Therefore, radio message transfer is much faster and more deliberate, less costly and more effective than many other media. Speakers, music and sounds have a greater and deeper impact on the audiences in Iran. Radio broadcasts of lectures and other programmes disseminate knowledge about museums and collections. When reading exhibition texts, visitors may imagine and interpret the scene or cultural landscape. However, the object labels may not be attractive, or perhaps some people cannot read them for many reasons (for example, crowded spaces). Radio, with sounds, various effects, music and other facilities absorbs the attention of the listener’s senses and can lead him or her to many new realms in their imagination, including the cultural landscape to which an object is related. Traditional stringed instruments at the Tehran Museum of Music are ideal candidates for interpretation through museum radio. 132

When reading exhibition texts, visitors may imagine and interpret the scene or cultural landscape. However, the object labels may not be attractive, or perhaps some people cannot read them for many reasons (for example, crowded spaces). Radio, with sounds, various effects, music and other facilities absorbs the attention of the listener’s senses and can lead him or her to many new realms in their imagination, including the cultural landscape to which an object is related. Radio as a powerful tool for museums Due to the massive expansion of radio and influence in people's minds, we can conclude that this phenomenon can influence imagination, mood and thoughts showing new and different roads. Guiding the imagination towards museum concepts could result in creativity allowing hidden talents to flourish. Radio messages could lay the groundwork for multiple interpretations. Guiding imagination towards museum concepts may result in creativity in which hidden talents flourish. Radio can influence the depth of perception and lay the groundwork for multiple interpretations depending upon its audience. Radio museum can travel beyond the territory of a museum even outside of the Iranian border telling different stories and creating different memories and interpretations for each person. Sharing the museum experience in comfort together. 133

3.2 Inclusion – new challenges for museums Dagmar Bittricher, Austria Introduction The general theme of this year’s conference in Milan led me to the decision to try an approach with a topic that is now omnipresent not only in Austria, but all over Europe – migration and integration, and social inclusion also in the sense of offering all people with different needs the possibility to get access to museums, to explore history and to share knowledge transfer in museums, to get familiar with customs, with the way of living in the past in order to be possibly able to understand the present society and its attitudes. With this in mind I focus on five museum projects in Salzburg City and Salzburg Province to reflect on the questions such as • how can museums benefit from networking with other cultural and non-cultural institutions? • how do museums and their collections reflect the dynamic cultural development which shape our cultural landscapes? • how can museums address demographic change and migration in order: - to cope with new challenges for example concerning integration of people with completely diverse cultural background and vice versa? - to gain insight into different cultural backgrounds and customs? - to get familiar with the “unfamiliar” by finding and highlighting parallels and similarities, instead of barriers In other words, • what do museums do in promoting what we have in common, overcoming what divides us, and respecting what is different? • how can museums contribute to problems and possibilities of intercultural understanding and how can they participate in shaping cultural landscapes? As mentioned before, Europe, including Austria, faces a particular challenge as millions of people flee from war and death in their home countries to find a safe place and a better life in a different country, with different language, attitudes, manners, beliefs etc. Asylum applicants are required to stay at a particular place; wait for the decision 134

on whether they get the right of asylum or not, are barred from employment and, moreover, face the situation where a good number of residents are unsettled and fearful of losing their jobs and living standards for themselves and their dependants. In order to engage asylum applicants and include them in Salzburg’s way of life, a very small number of museums have started to take care for those people from different countries, inviting them into the museum and sharing knowledge based on museum assets and collections. Example 1: Integration Breakfast, FIS Wintersport Museum Werfenweng, IMD May 2015 On International Museum Day (IMD) 2015 the Wintersport Museum in the small community Werfenweng invited asylum applicants and residents to have breakfast together at the museum premises, in response to the district’s newly founded association for refugee support. (The responsible state politician and the mayor both attended.) Breaking down cultural and language barriers by having breakfast together.© Salzburger FIS Landesskimuseum Werfenweng. 135

Example 2: Project Home Box – Box Museum, Salzburg 2011/12 The pilot project which involved asking questions about home, homeland, feeling the roots of home, culture, identity and acceptance was a school-project in 2012. Schoolgirls of 16 years, with multicultural backgrounds, discussed the diverse approaches to the topic in an interdisciplinary project. They created texts, collected personal items of reminiscence or audio documents that they associated with “home” in all facets, be these emotions, habits or anything else. These items were meant to be the base for creating an individual, personally shaped heritage- museum in a simple box. Brainstorming: What is important to me? What is my self-awareness? What means home to me? home = identification, to feel at home = a process => a way to integration. © With the permission of the project partners. The school co-operated with numerous partner institutions and the project aimed to raise self-awareness and the awareness of others around the notion and connotation of “home” (German “Heimat”), meaning a place on a map, a dwelling, a citizenship or nationality, particular culture and habits, but also something that happens in mind and is close to the heart. Referring to their migrant background, the girls are learning to accept living with, and not between, two homes and that integration does not equal assimilation. (“Home” has often been used to simulate an idyll to hide facts. Promotion material for the alpine regions in Austria in general and open-air museums in particular tended to convey the spirit of an ideal, but have since been dealt with more critically in exhibition settings.) 136

Home boxes – First Presentation Perceiving what we have in common Realizing that families here and there used to eat from one pan on the table… If the archbishop had estates in Croatia… then I am not a foreigner. ©SLIVK and partners. Excursion to Open-air Museum and the Archives. Museums preserve some kind of „home boxes“. Do they generate images of home? Do they suit to reality, to my desires of home? ©SLIVK and partners 137

Select – Preserve – Present. All what is put into a museum / box gets another value, a particular meaning, ©SLIVK and partnersz z v Creating the home box / box museum in the art class at school. Individual, personally-shaped heritage museum in a simple box. ©SLIVK and partners. Eventually, as final product, 30 individual boxes were exhibited in a huge shopping centre. The awareness of others evoked dialogues, discussions, “I see” moments and the girls experienced for the first time live interviews, a huge audience, new feelings and probably a new awareness. 138

Public presentation and interview in a shopping centre - a stage of diversity. ©SLIVK and partners. Example 3: 2016 State Exhibition Bishop. Emperor. Everyman in the Salzburg Museum, Salzburg City Treasure House Salzburg. ©HELGE KIRCHBERGER Photography. The Salzburg Museum, which collects the art and cultural history of the city and region of Salzburg, held the major exhibition Bishop. Emperor. Everyman on to celebrate 200 years of Salzburg being part of Austria. The exhibition focused on different aspects of Salzburg’s art and culture, starting with the momentous year of 1816. Besides particular objects from the Salzburg Museum itself, treasures formerly held in Salzburg and returned to Salzburg were displayed in the city for the first time in around two hundred years. Over the centuries, the Salzburg prince archbishops had been collecting a voluminous treasury of paintings and the graphic arts, furniture and porcelain, minerals, weapons and coins, books and sculptures. Much of this was created especially for Salzburg. The Salzburg prince archbishops assigned renowned artists with commissions for ivory carvings, rock crystal and ibex horn artefacts, goldsmith’s art and paintings—all these objects belonged to the inventory of the court treasure chamber and enhanced prestige. The outstanding feature of this exhibition is the assembled compilation of the objects: they include exhibits from all epochs and of manifold materials. The rulers of the time naturally saw 139

themselves as personal owners of these riches, thus it frequently occurred in case of war that all treasures were conveyed to the next residence. The exhibits tell their own stories and raise questions: what significance did they originally have, what was their origin, or how did they end up in Salzburg? The exhibition … is designed to awaken in visitors a historical awareness for the former riches and status of Salzburg within Europe.1 Thus we can talk about the ”migration of cultural heritage” that has become part of different cultural landscapes over the centuries. Example 4: Desires. past – present – future, Salzburg Museum, Salzburg City From November 2015 until March 2016 Salzburg Museum presented four desires – the desire for work, health, home and beauty – and considered them from different point of views. Exhibits from the museum documented the meaning of these desires in the past, providing historical context background. Results from a previous project formed the counterpart and highlighted actual desires today. For the purpose of the exhibition, four teams of artists were asked to work with different people and different methods on the themes of these four desires. Let me present two out of four approaches to the theme. The desire for home: Recording aspects of home and identity by culinary tradition (such as breaking the fast), photo and video project by Erik Hable. © Salzburg Museum, Fastenbrechen/ Projekt Erik Hable. 140

*The desire for home: Until the 19th century home and identity firstly meant the place where one had the right of residence, not one’s birthplace. Property and status were the striking factors that defined this right. Using photography and video one team recorded the different aspects of home and identity of people with Turkish migrant background, e.g. by culinary tradition (photo: breaking the fast). They collaborated on an installation interpreting the diverse understandings of the terms “home” and “identity” in an emerging hybrid culture. The desire for work: Formerly jobless people now selling the Salzburg street paper „Apropos“; group photo with the „actors“ of the film-project by Moira Zoitl. © Salzburg Museum, Apropos Zeitungsverkäufer/Projekt Moira Zoitl *The desire for work: In a film-project another team of artists highlighted the desire for work with (formerly) homeless people who sell the Salzburg street paper Apropos to overcome the vicious circle of \"no job, no dwelling\" and vice versa. These people defined their very personal experience of becoming jobless and how they gained new perspectives from their new job of selling these newspapers on the street. They talked about social participation as economic migrant, as job-seeker or as a human-being who had just dropped out of the regular labour market. In the end all these untrained “actors” came together and formed a group, in which their individual positions, opinions and stories merge into one strong statement of a group of individuals who now do the same job. Work is important because it structures the daily routine, fosters the development of social identity and enables communication. The social impact of unemployment has been investigated by a number of socio-scientific studies. The pioneering classic study from 1933, is called “Die Arbeitslosen von Marienthal”2 (Marienthal was a long time industrial district in the surroundings of Vienna), where a team of young scientists endeavoured to research the impact of long-term unemployment on society and individuals. The outcome revealed that it does not lead to revolt but to passive resignation. The museum project also conveyed the statement that unemployed people may gain an important new perspective through selling a street paper, rather than doing nothing. The desire for employment or better working conditions has always driven people to leave their homeland. 141

Labour migration is not a new phenomenon of our times. In the 19th century industrialization and a wider range of non-productive industries drove the movement of labour and the flight from the countryside into the cities. Example 5: Museum Fronfeste Neumarkt am Wallersee – a local museum with a broad perspective – Project: From here. And there. Histories of migration and integration in the Salzburg province. (2016) The Fronfeste Museum in the northern part of Salzburg province was founded 1984 as a small heritage museum collecting objects without any real focus, but later it concentrated on four main topics – the Roman period, hat production, tanning, and local jurisdiction. In the early 1990s it understood the role of museum work as community work involving comprehensive processes. The Museum’s Director (then just a part-time role) initiated projects with different partners (for community project Bolivia see photo below) and programmes for the further implementation of United Nations’ Agenda 21 on sustainable development. For example as part of an exhibition on “poverty”, the Director shaped the model- project intercultural gardening (see photos below - places of integration and taking root) and started a long-standing partnership with the Tittmoning Castle Museum in Bavaria across the border in Germany. Community project: Global Solidarity – young Interculutural gardening – people support youth projects in Bolivia. © Museum planting potatoes. Fronfeste, Neumarkt am Wallersee. 142

Intercultural gardening – sharing meal. © Museum Fronfeste, Neumarkt am Wallersee. To mark the 200th anniversary of Salzburg becoming part of Austria, which until 1816 was an independent archbishopric-principality), 20 regional museums each arranged special exhibitions. This included the Fronfeste Museum which addressed a very particular aspect on the overall theme. The right to asylum in churches. Today’s accommodation for asylum- Photos: © Dagmar Bittricher. seekers. The Fronfeste Museum raised the questions of migration and vagrancy now and in former times (see photos above). The exhibition deals with the concepts of “home” and “homeless”, of leaving one’s home by choice or by being forced to leave, but also discusses different perspectives on issues and the emotional approaches related to arriving, coming home, but also new beginnings, and settling down. These approaches are presented from a historical viewpoint as well as from an emotional and artistic perspectives. The Persian artist Farshido Larimian collected personal items of refugees and set them on display. The film Deserter by the resident film maker Gabriele Neudecker was shown, as well as the outstanding film of Jakob Brossmann Lampedusa in winter (see photos below). 143

Farshido Larimian’s work and evidence of work migration - Jakob Brossmann’s film “Lampedusa in winter”. Photos: © Dagmar Bittricher. The exhibition design reinforces the theme by using circles and houses. Circles are used to express inclusion, serving as linking motifs. The house design is used for the display cases and for the text mountings (see photo above). Exhibition design – circles and houses. © Photo © Dagmar Bittricher. The resettled and the expelled. © Photos Dagmar Bittricher. 144

Austria and Salzburg are both regions with long traditions of internal migration. People came, people left. In the exhibition expellees and resettlers (see photos above) are considered, as well as persecution, deportation and forced labour during World War II – always related to people from the region. Excavations from the Roman period. Photo © Dagmar Bittricher. The message is: Migration never was friction-free; it brought changes and people had to learn to handle and to live with these changes. Cultural development has at all times been externally influenced. For example, with the expansion of the Roman Empire (see photo above--Excavations from the Roman period) the Roman army became one of the most important drivers for migratory flows. In the 16th century, when the archbishops exploited the local mineral deposits to enlarge their prestige, it was the mining industry that caused migration flows with thousands of people moving from towns to mining settlements. Even after the Thirty Years War, around 1648, when many districts were devastated and depopulated, despite Salzburg taking no part in this war, the region suffered greatly from poverty. As a consequence, people moved away to find work – early examples of “economic migrants”. To which circle do you belong? Photo © Dagmar Bittricher. 145

At the end of the exhibition visitors were asked to reflect on the topic by filling in an “identity card” with various questions (see photo above). On a large board everybody can search for their own roots and determine the inner and outer circles where they belong. To sum up, migration is not a new phenomenon; it takes place, will increase, and will certainly re-shape the cultural landscape. We all are forced to cope with this new challenge which might succeed by actively seeking out and including the newcomers in our museums’ work. 1 see http://www.salzburgmuseum.at, Salzburg Museum, 26.6.2016 2 English ed. 1971 - Marienthal: the sociography of an unemployed community - paperback by Transaction Publishers in USA, 2002), Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marienthal (26.06.16). 146