Organization Development and Change- 10th ed - part 1

["CHAPTER 9 EVALUATING AND INSTITUTIONALIZING ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS 229 there is normative agreement about the changes reflecting a particular set of values, over time there should be some consensus on those values among organization members. Given this developmental view of institutionalization, it is implicit that whenever one of the last indicators is present, all the previous ones are automatically included as well. For example, if employees normatively agree with the behaviors associated with job enrichment, then they also have knowledge about the behaviors, can perform them effec- tively, and prefer them. An OD intervention is fully institutionalized only when all five factors are present. Application 9.2 describes Hewlett-Packard\u2019s successful history of institutionalizing a new set of behaviors through structural change. It describes how culture and reward systems can play a strong role in both supporting and constraining change.23 SUMMARY We discussed in this chapter the final two stages of combination of questionnaires, interviews, and planned change\u2014evaluating interventions and insti- company records. tutionalizing them. Evaluation was discussed in terms of two kinds of necessary feedback: implementation Research design focuses on setting up the condi- feedback, concerned with whether the intervention is tions for making valid assessments of an intervention\u2019s being implemented as intended, and evaluation feed- effects. This involves ruling out explanations for the back, indicating whether the intervention is produc- observed results other than the intervention. Although ing expected results. The former comprises collected randomized experimental designs are rarely feasible in data about features of the intervention, perceptions of OD, quasi-experimental designs exist for eliminating the people involved, and its immediate effects, alternative explanations. which are fed back repeatedly and at short intervals. The latter comprises data about the long-term effects OD interventions are institutionalized when the of the intervention, which are fed back at long change program persists and becomes part of the organi- intervals. zation\u2019s normal functioning. A framework for under- standing and improving the institutionalization of Evaluation of interventions also involves interventions identified organization characteristics (con- decisions about measurement and research design. gruence, stability of environment and technology, and Measurement issues focus on selecting variables and unionization) and intervention characteristics (goal spec- designing good measures. Ideally, measurement deci- ificity, programmability, level of change target, internal sions should derive from the theory underlying the support, and sponsorship) that affect institutionalization intervention and should include measures of the fea- processes. The framework also described specific institu- tures of the intervention and its immediate and long- tionalization processes (socialization, commitment, term consequences. Further, these measures should reward allocation, diffusion, and sensing and calibration) be operationally defined, reliable, and valid and that directly affect indicators of intervention persistence should involve multiple methods, such as a (knowledge, performance, preferences, normative con- sensus, and value consensus). NOTES Journal of Organizational Change Management 8, no. 2 (1995): 17\u201328. 1. T. Cummings and E. Molloy, Strategies for Improving 2. T. Cummings and S. Mohrman, \u201cSelf-Designing Organi- Productivity and the Quality of Work Life (New York: zations: Towards Implementing Quality-of-Work-Life Praeger, 1977); J. Whitfield, W. Anthony, and K. Kacmar, \u201cEvaluation of Team-Based Management: A Case Study,\u201d","230 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT Innovations,\u201d in Research in Organizational Change and A Guide to Methods, Measures, and Practices, ed. Development, vol. 1, ed., R. Woodman and W. Pasmore S. Seashore, E. Lawler III, P. Mirvis, and C. Cammann (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1987), 275\u2013310. (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1983), 71\u2013119. 13. R. Woodman, J. Bingham, and F. Yuan, \u201cAssessing Orga- 3. Cummings and Molloy, Strategies for Improving Produc- nization Development and Change Interventions,\u201d in tivity and the Quality of Work Life. Handbook of Organization Development, ed. T. Cummings (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2008): 187\u2013216; 4. P. Goodman, Assessing Organizational Change: The R. Bullock and D. Svyantek, \u201cThe Impossibility of Using Rushton Quality of Work Experiment (New York: John Random Strategies to Study the Organization Develop- Wiley & Sons, 1979); A. Van de Ven and D. Ferry, eds., ment Process,\u201d Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 23 Measuring and Assessing Organizations (New York: John (1987): 255\u201362. Wiley & Sons, 1985); E. Lawler III, D. Nadler, and 14. D. Campbell and J. Stanley, Experimental and Quasi- C. Cammann, eds., Organizational Assessment: Perspectives Experimental Design for Research (Chicago: Rand McNally, on the Measurement of Organizational Behavior and 1966); T. Cook and D. Campbell, Quasi-Experimentation: Quality of Work Life (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Design and Analysis Issues for Field Settings (Chicago: Rand 1980); A. Van de Ven and W. Joyce, eds., Perspectives on McNally, 1979); Woodman, Bingham, and Yuan, \u201cAssessing Organizational Design and Behavior (New York: John Organization Development and Change Interventions.\u201d Wiley & Sons, 1981); S. Seashore, E. Lawler III, P. Mirvis, 15. R. Golembiewski and R. Munzenrider, \u201cMeasuring and C. Cammann, eds., Assessing Organizational Change: Change by OD Designs,\u201d Journal of Applied Behavioral A Guide to Methods, Measures, and Practices (New York: Science 12 (April\u2013June 1976): 133\u201357. Wiley-Interscience, 1983). 16. W. Randolph and R. Edwards, \u201cAssessment of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Changes in a University-Setting OD 5. B. Macy and P. Mirvis, \u201cOrganizational Change Efforts: Intervention,\u201d Academy of Management Proceedings Methodologies for Assessing Organizational Effectiveness (1978): 313\u201317; J. Terborg, G. Howard, and S. Maxwell, and Program Costs Versus Benefits,\u201d Evaluation Review 6 \u201cEvaluating Planned Organizational Change: A Method (1982): 301\u201372. for Assessing Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Change,\u201d Acad- emy of Management Review 7 (1982): 292\u201395; R. Millsap 6. Ibid. and S. Hartog, \u201cAlpha, Beta, and Gamma Change in Evaluation Research: A Structural Equation Approach,\u201d 7. J. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory, 2nd ed. (New York: Journal of Applied Psychology 73 (1988): 574\u201384; McGraw-Hill, 1978); J. Kirk and M. Miller, Reliability R. Thompson and J. Hunt, \u201cInside the Black Box of and Validity in Qualitative Research (Beverly Hills, CA: Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Change: Using a Cognitive- Sage Publications, 1985). Processing Model to Assess Attitude Structure,\u201d Academy of Management Review 21 (1996): 655\u201391. 8. J. Corbin and A. Strauss, Basics of Qualitative Research, 17. D. Buchanan, L. Fitzgerald, D. Ketley, R. Gollop, J. Jones, 4th ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2013); S. Lamont, A. Neath, and E. Whitby, \u201cNo Going Back: A D. Miller, Handbook of Research Design and Social Mea- Review of the Literature on Sustaining Organization surement (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1991); Change,\u201d International Journal of Management Reviews N. Denzin and Y. Lincoln, eds., Handbook of Qualitative 7 (2005): 189\u2013205. Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1994). 18. E. Lawler and C. Worley, Built to Change (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006); P. Senge, The Fifth Discipline (New 9. R. Hackman and G. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, York: Doubleday, 1990); Cummings and Mohrman, \u201cSelf- MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980). Designing Organizations\u201d; L. Greiner and T. Cummings, Dynamic Strategy Making: A Real-Time Approach for the 10. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory. 21st Century Leader (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2009). 11. M. Huberman and M. Miles, Qualitative Data Analysis: 19. This section is based on the work of P. Goodman and J. Dean, \u201cCreating Long-Term Organizational Change,\u201d in An Expanded Sourcebook, 2nd ed. (Newbury Park, CA: Change in Organizations, ed. P. Goodman (San Francisco: Sage Publications, 1994); K. Neuendorf, The Content Jossey-Bass, 1982), 226\u201379. To date, the framework is Analysis Guidebook, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage largely untested and unchallenged. Other than a few case Publications, 2013). studies with inducted principles, Ledford\u2019s process model 12. J. Taylor and D. Bowers, Survey of Organizations: A of persistence (see note 20) is the only other model Machine-Scored Standardized Questionnaire Instrument (Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1972); G. Ledford and S. Mohrman, Comprehen- sive Quality-of-Work-Life Survey (Los Angeles: Center for Effective Organizations, University of Southern California, 1981); C. Cammann, M. Fichman, G. D. Jenkins, and J. Klesh, \u201cAssessing the Attitudes and Perceptions of Orga- nizational Members,\u201d in Assessing Organizational Change:","CHAPTER 9 EVALUATING AND INSTITUTIONALIZING ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS 231 proposed to explain institutionalization. The empirical sup- 9-482-125 (Boston: Harvard Business School, 1982); port for either model, however, is small but growing slowly B. Buell and R. Hof, \u201cHewlett-Packard Rethinks Itself,\u201d as described in Buchanan, \u201cNo going back.\u201d BusinessWeek, April 1, 1991, 76\u201379; R. Hof, \u201cSuddenly, 20. G. Ledford, \u201cThe Persistence of Planned Organizational Hewlett-Packard Is Doing Everything Right,\u201d Business- Change: A Process Theory Perspective\u201d (Ph.D. diss., Uni- Week, March 23, 1992, 88\u201389; \u201cCan John Young Rede- versity of Michigan, 1984). sign Hewlett-Packard,\u201d BusinessWeek, December 6, 1982, 21. J. Martin and C. Siehl, \u201cOrganizational Cultures and 72\u201378; J. Levine, \u201cMild-Mannered Hewlett-Packard Counterculture: An Uneasy Symbiosis,\u201d Organizational Is Making Like Superman,\u201d BusinessWeek, March 7, Dynamics (1983): 52\u201364; D. Meyerson and J. Martin, 1988, 110\u201314; R. Hof, \u201cHewlett-Packard Digs Deep for a \u201cCultural Change: An Integration of Three Different Digital Future,\u201d BusinessWeek, October 18, 1993, 72\u201375; Views,\u201d Journal of Management Studies 24 (1987): 623\u201347. A. Fisher, \u201cAmerica\u2019s Most Admired Corporations,\u201d 22. L. Zucker, \u201cThe Role of Institutionalization in Cultural Fortune, March 4, 1996, 90\u201398; P. Burrows and Persistence,\u201d American Sociological Review 42 (1977): P. Elstrom, \u201cThe Boss,\u201d BusinessWeek, August 2, 1999, 726\u201343; R. Jacobs, \u201cInstitutionalizing Organization 76\u201383; D. Hamilton, \u201cH-P to Relaunch Its Brand, Change Through Cascade Training,\u201d Journal of European Adopt New Logo,\u201d Wall Street Journal, November 16, Industrial Training 26 (2002): 177\u201383. 1999, B6; D. Hamilton and S. Thurm, \u201cH-P to Spin Off 23. R. Von Werssowetz and M. Beer, \u201cHuman Resources Its Measurement Operations,\u201d Wall Street Journal, March at Hewlett-Packard,\u201d Harvard Business School Case 3, 1999, A3; E. Nee, \u201cLew Platt: Why I Dismembered HP,\u201d Fortune, March 29, 1999, 167\u201369.","232 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT SUNFLOWER INCORPORATED* Selected Cases Sunflower Incorporated is a large distribution company with over 5,000 employees and purchasing practices. Agnes Albanese was gross sales of over $700 million (1991). hired from the finance department of a compet- ing organization. Her new title was director of The company purchases and distributes pricing and purchasing, and she reported to the salty snack foods and liquor to independent vice president of finance, Mr. Mobley. Steelman retail stores throughout the United States and and Mobley gave Albanese great latitude in Canada. Salty snack foods include corn chips, organizing her job and encouraged her to estab- potato chips, cheese curls, tortilla chips, and lish whatever rules and procedures were nec- peanuts. The United States and Canada essary. She was also encouraged to gather are divided into 22 regions, each with its information from each region. Each region own central warehouse, salespeople, finance was notified of her appointment by an official department, and purchasing department. The memo sent to the regional managers. A copy company distributes national as well as local of the memo was posted on each warehouse brands and packages some items under private bulletin board. The announcement was also labels. The head office encourages each region made in the company newspaper. to be autonomous because of local tastes and After three weeks on the job, Albanese practices. The northeast United States, for decided that pricing and purchasing decisions example, consumes a greater percentage of should be standardized across regions. As a Canadian whisky and American bourbon, first step, she wanted the financial executive in while the West consumes more light liquors, each region to notify her of any change in local such as vodka, gin, and rum. Snack foods in prices of more than 3%. She also decided that the Southwest are often seasoned to reflect all new contracts for local purchases of more Mexican tastes. than $5,000 should be cleared through her Early in 1989, Sunflower began using a office. (Approximately 60% of items distributed financial reporting system that compared in the regions was purchased in large quantities sales, costs, and profits across regions. Man- and supplied from the home office. The other agement was surprised to learn that profits var- 40% was purchased and distributed within the ied widely. By 1990, the differences were so region.) Albanese believed that the only way to great that management decided some stan- standardize operations was for each region to dardization was necessary. They believed that notify the home office in advance of any change highly profitable regions were sometimes in prices or purchases. Albanese discussed the using lower-quality items, even seconds, to proposed policy with Mobley. He agreed, so boost profit margins. This practice could hurt they submitted a formal proposal to the presi- Sunflower\u2019s image. Other regions were facing dent and board of directors, who approved the intense price competition in order to hold mar- plan. Sunflower was moving into the peak holi- ket share. National distributors were pushing day season, so Albanese wanted to implement hard to increase their market share. Frito-Lay, the new procedures right away. She decided to Bordens, Nabisco, Procter & Gamble (Pringles), send an email to the financial and purchasing and Standard Brands (Planter\u2019s peanuts) were executives in each region notifying them of the pushing hard to increase market share by cut- new procedures. The change would be inserted ting prices and launching new products. in all policy and procedure manuals throughout As these problems accumulated, Sunflower within four months. Mr. Steelman, president of Sunflower, decided Albanese showed a draft of the email to to create a new position to monitor pricing and Mobley and invited his comments. Mobley said the Internet was an excellent idea but wondered *Adapted from R. Daft, Organization Theory and Design if it was sufficient. The regions handle hundreds (St. Paul: West, 1983), pp. 334\u201336. of items and were used to decentralized decision","SELECTED CASES 233 making. Mobley suggested that Albanese ought to Eight weeks later, Albanese had not received visit the regions and discuss purchasing and pricing notices from any regions about local price or pur- policies with the executives. Albanese refused, chase changes. Other executives who had visited saying that the trips would be expensive and regional warehouses indicated to her that the time-consuming. She had so many things to do at regions were busy as usual. Regional executives headquarters that a trip was impossible. Mobley also seemed to be following usual procedures for that suggested waiting to implement the procedures until time of year. after the annual company meeting in three months. Albanese said this would take too long because the Questions procedures would not take effect until after the peak sales season. She believed the procedures were 1. How well did Albanese manage the pricing needed now. The email went out the next day. and purchasing changes at Sunflower? Were the changes implemented successfully? How During the next few days, replies came in from would you find this out? most of the regions. The executives were in agree- ment with the email and said they would be happy 2. What might Albanese have done differently? to cooperate. What should she do now?","234 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT KENWORTH MOTORS* Selected Cases It began with a telephone call, as did so many of my engagements. The person calling iden- The drive westward from Spokane across tified himself as Robert Denton, the plant the state of Washington on Interstate 90 begins with several hours of boring highway. I had pur- manager of Kenworth Motors\u2019 Seattle truck posely put off thinking about my appointment manufacturing operations. Denton said he\u2019d got- with Robert Denton until I was on the road. As ten my name from Charles Wright, a client of the interstate stretched out over the rolling sage- mine in Seattle. Charlie is the OD manager for brush hills and checkered wheat fields, I turned a major timber products company. I\u2019d been my thoughts to Kenworth Motors and Denton. doing several projects with Charlie\u2019s group of Uppermost in my mind was that I was about to internal consultants for the past three years talk with a man I knew little about, consult with a and occasionally served as the OD group\u2019s con- firm I knew very little about, and I had no sultant. Denton noted that Charlie and he were focused agenda. What should I say and do? members of the same sailing club. He went on As the miles went by, I envisioned several to say that when, as someone relatively new to alternative scenarios for my upcoming appoint- Seattle, he\u2019d asked Charlie if he knew any con- ment with Robert Denton, the plant manager of sultants, Charlie had spoken highly of me. the truck manufacturing division of Kenworth I remember thinking that Charlie probably Motors Corporation. I saw his office in several wouldn\u2019t have mentioned me unless he thought possible ways. It could be spartan and centrally I could be useful to Denton. My trust in Charlie\u2019s located to the production floor. It could be con- competence and judgment was very high. ventionally furnished but of a fair size. It could Denton went on to explain that he\u2019d been be large. It might even be opulent. It could be the plant manager for only eight months, that personalized with mementos of career, hob- things seemed to be going well, but that he bies, or family. It might be far from the produc- had a gnawing sense that things could be bet- tion floor, or even in a separate building. The ter. I must have murmured something appropri- more I tried to envision Denton\u2019s office, the ate because Denton invited me to visit him and more alternatives came to mind. So I focused become acquainted with his operation. on Denton, trying to imagine him from the I was both flattered by and interested in voice cues on the telephone\u2014not old, probably Denton\u2019s invitation. After all, I thought to fit, probably clean shaven. Again the futility of myself, it\u2019s nice to be wanted, a consulting trying to imagine came home to me. engagement might come out of it, I always What did I think I knew? I didn\u2019t know much wanted to get behind the gate of the Kenworth beyond a handful of facts about his title and his plant, and Denton sounded like a basically job tenure, the fact that he knew Charlie, smart guy and nice besides. However, reality believed things were generally going OK at the intruded into my thoughts, as it often does. plant, and had some vague notion something THOUGHTS ON THE ROAD wasn\u2019t quite right. I also had the distinct impres- sion he had been fairly eager to talk with me\u2014 I reminded Denton that I lived across the state after all, he\u2019d initiated calling me and had quickly in Spokane and added that I had limited time settled for an appointment convenient to me. available in the short run. I noted that I had What did I really want to accomplish when plans to visit Seattle in three weeks and could I met with Denton? The more I considered this see him then, otherwise it might not be for a question, the more I pared down my answers. month. Denton sounded almost eager as he At minimum, it seemed for me a low-cost agreed to a 10 A.M. appointment on April 11. situation\u2014a couple of hours of my time, per- haps some impressions of me that would be communicated to Charlie (though I believed *Craig C. Lundberg, Cornell University. Charlie and I had a relationship of mutual","SELECTED CASES 235 respect and trust based on a lot of shared work). the corridor traffic, busy but quiet. I settled back to On the other hand, there was potentially a lot to wait. gain\u2014perhaps another consulting job, perhaps more visibility and reputation in Seattle, which About ten minutes later, a man of medium would be good for my business. height and build wearing a sports jacket over an open-collared shirt came through the door behind I decided I couldn\u2019t plan for our meeting in the secretary and walked directly to me. He much detail; about all I could reasonably do was to extended his hand, smiled, introduced himself as be true to the posture I found to be useful in situa- Bob Denton and motioned me into his office. tions like this. I had to be myself, be as real as pos- sible. I see myself as a curious, friendly person who The office was larger than I expected. It was basically likes others. I also know I can be bold and paneled and a large Persian rug was centered on thought I might have to be to get the conversation the floor. At one end were a clean desk with side going, to help Denton become clear as to why we chairs and a table full of papers behind it. At the were talking together, and to clarify my role. other side of the office were a couch and two stuffed chairs around a low coffee table. Drapes I also wanted to leave our meeting with a deci- framed one large window that looked out on the sion to either go forward or not. While I didn\u2019t mind parking lot. Denton asked if I wanted coffee, and I investing a little time, my time was valuable. I also said I did. He went to the door and asked the secre- felt strongly, as I always do, that I didn\u2019t want to tary to bring us both coffee and added we were not work with anyone who I didn\u2019t basically like as a to be disturbed. While waiting for the coffee, we sat person or who didn\u2019t seem to genuinely want to on the two stuffed chairs and made small talk. He do some real work. Seeing the Cascade mountains asked about my drive across the state; I asked on the horizon, I began to feel easier. I\u2019d be myself, about the framed sailing prints on the wall and whatever happened. Only one question nagged: whether he\u2019d been sailing lately. We chatted about Could Denton and I connect swiftly enough so the Sonics, the Kingdome, and the coming World\u2019s there would be time to push for clarity in our pos- Fair in Vancouver. After our coffee arrived, I asked sible work relationship? him to tell me about his plant and products. MAKING CONTACT Denton spoke excitedly for 10 or 12 minutes on a wide range of topics\u2014the daily production rate of At the Kenworth plant, the uniformed guard at the 23 trucks, the cost of a truck, the sales order back- plant gate checked his clipboard, slipped around log, some equipment updating just finished, his my car, and copied down my license plate number. coming to this job from a plant in the Midwest, his Returning to my open window, he pointed ahead spending a lot of time lately with the next year\u2019s to a one-story brick building attached to the multi- budget, and so forth. My impression of Denton storied plant and told me I could park in the space was that he was highly involved in his work. He in front and then go inside and identify myself to spoke rapidly but clearly with enthusiasm. Finally, the receptionist. he leaned back, smiled, and said, \u201cWell, I\u2019ve been going on, haven\u2019t I?\u201d I remember thinking I liked The floor of the wide hallway inside the double Denton\u2019s ease and his willingness to talk about his glass doors of the office building was freshly plant and himself. I\u2019d already learned a lot about the waxed. Framed photographs of trucks and large plant and his job without more than looking inter- buildings lined the walls. A middle-aged woman ested. Denton certainly did seem likable, and he in a suit looked up from her desk and smiled. was younger and more casual than I expected. After I identified myself, she led me down a side corridor to an alcove and informed the secretary GETTING DOWN TO BUSINESS there who I was and that I was there to see Mr. Denton. She then turned to me, smiled again, I clearly recall my response to Denton\u2019s question. and wished me a good day. The seated secretary \u201cActually, I\u2019ve appreciated your sharing all this told me Mr. Denton was expecting me, but was on background with me. I\u2019ve always been curious the telephone. She gestured toward a bank of chairs about this plant. Years ago, I had a part-time job and asked me to wait. As I sat down, I observed when I was in college and used to deliver some","236 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT industrial supplies in this end of town and always few days interviewing a sample of managers and wanted to know what happened in this plant. All I other key staff people to see what might turn up.\u201d could see from the road were those lines of big shiny trucks. It\u2019s nice to know they\u2019re built with \u201cFrom what you\u2019ve heard so far, do you think care. But you asked for this meeting, Bob. that makes sense here?\u201d Denton asked. Remember you told me that while things were going well here you sensed something wasn\u2019t \u201cFrankly, I don\u2019t know. It might be worth it to quite right. Can you tell me a little more now?\u201d you just to learn things really are OK. What usually happens, however, is that I do find out about some- \u201cNot really. I know the plant is doing fine. I feel thing that could be improved. After all that\u2019s what pretty much on top of my job. I like what I\u2019m doing I\u2019m supposed to be good at, finding problems. One here very much. My department heads\u2014all nine of way or another, Bob, the mere fact I was here them\u2014are all good people. All but two have been would have some impact. The word would spread here quite a while. They\u2019re dependable, damn pretty fast that some outsider was snooping good at what they do, get along fine, and basically around. What impact that might have I can\u2019t say. If are good managers,\u201d he said. things really are OK, my presence might mean little. If there are real problems, my being here would \u201cI get along good with everyone. I go out in probably create some tensions, it could raise expec- the plant every day and circulate around. Things tations that something would be done about them, are moving smoothly. My two newer managers\u2014 and it could even cause problems.\u201d one runs our purchasing and inventory, the other is in personnel\u2014couldn\u2019t be working out better. Yet Denton nodded, \u201cI see what you mean. If you some things nag at me that I can\u2019t put my finger came in, it would cost me some bucks, it would on. I guess it boils down to some crazy notion I have some risks in how my people reacted; one have that while we get along fine and work way or another I\u2019d have to do something.\u201d He together well, we haven\u2019t jelled together as a paused and then went on. \u201cWell, to tell the truth, team quite like I\u2019d hoped.\u201d I don\u2019t want to upset things if they\u2019re OK, but just finding out whether they are or not appeals to me. I bombarded Denton with questions, trying to Isn\u2019t there some other way to do this?\u201d find something that didn\u2019t hang together or might indicate a problem. No matter what I asked Bob Denton seemed to me to be open to some about\u2014from union relations to accounts receivable, minimal work by me. He\u2019d responded as I\u2019d hoped from engineering-production relations to turnover to my candidness about the risks of some conven- figures\u2014Denton\u2019s responses were consistently fac- tional diagnostic snooping. He\u2019d really seemed to tual and full, and everything seemed to be in pay attention to what I\u2019d said, and I was beginning remarkably good shape. to like him and was intrigued with the situation. At times like this, my thought processes seem to jump I caught myself from going on with more ques- into high gear. After all, a careful response was tions. Instead I said, \u201cBob, everything I\u2019ve been called for and there were a number of considera- asking about tells me you\u2019re OK. Maybe things tions to factor in. The things I recall noting to myself here really are OK. Maybe you\u2019ve just got some went like this: apparently some minimal motivation apprehension that things couldn\u2019t be that good. on Bob\u2019s part; my real lack of information about the After all, you\u2019ve been here long enough to really Kenworth situation; my own schedule for the com- know. While there is some chance that you\u2019re ing months\u2014which was pretty full; my intuition that not well informed, and some things aren\u2019t so hot, probably nothing major was wrong with Bob and his the odds are against it. About all I can suggest is managers; and that whatever I proposed had to be whether you might want someone like me to inde- of modest cost. pendently confirm how things are going.\u201d Denton smiled as if to himself and replied, \u201cHmm, maybe, LET\u2019S HAVE A RETREAT what would you suggest?\u201d I said to Bob: \u201cLet me sketch out one idea that \u201cWhat\u2019s usually done in situations like this, if comes to mind. We could do a modest retreat. there is the interest and if there is the money to You, your department managers, and I could pay for it, is to engage someone like me to spend a meet away from here for a couple of days, say","SELECTED CASES 237 on a weekend, to jointly explore how things are provide food and lodging. As for what we\u2019d actually going. At minimum, I see several probable out- do, that\u2019s more difficult to say exactly. Frankly, while comes from such a meeting: everyone would get I have several ways to get us started, I\u2019d need to somewhat better acquainted with one another; play it by ear. In general, it would be my responsibil- we\u2019d know better if there were serious issues to ity to see we talked straight and a lot with one tackle; we\u2019d have the experience of jointly going another to surface our concerns both big and through problem identification; and you\u2019d get a small. I\u2019m afraid you\u2019d have to trust me on this.\u201d sense of whether or not your team was open to I said this last couple of sentences with some trepi- working with an outsider like myself.\u201d dation, knowing from my experience that most managers would want much more clarity, but I paused and went on: \u201cSuch a meeting would I needed to know how Bob was viewing me. be relatively efficient. It wouldn\u2019t take time away from work, and it wouldn\u2019t cost an arm and a I was surprised at what happened next. Denton leg.\u201d Bob nodded, sipped his coffee and looked quickly agreed to have a retreat weekend as I\u2019d at me intently. \u201cOK,\u201d he said, \u201cI can see your outlined. We also selected a weekend a month- points. Just what would we be doing?\u201d and-a-half away. He would find a site and let me know. In addition, we agreed he would use Seeing Bob\u2019s interest as well as warming to the phrase \u201ca communications workshop\u201d when the idea myself, I went on to outline a retreat. I he informed participants. Glancing at my watch as suggested doing it at a country club or lodge within I left Denton\u2019s office, I saw it was just 11:30. a few hours\u2019 drive of Seattle. This setting was to provide a symbolic break from the customary busi- Questions ness environment, and because it would cost everyone weekend time and the company the 1. How well did the OD consultant prepare for expense of travel, food, and lodging, it would the meeting with Denton? Would you have show Bob\u2019s seriousness about the event. I then done anything differently? suggested we begin with cocktails and dinner on a Friday evening, work all day Saturday with appro- 2. In the discussion between the OD consultant priate breaks, and conclude by noon Sunday. and Denton, what was effective and ineffec- Again, Bob nodded. He then asked, \u201cBut what tive about the consultant\u2019s behavior? would we do? What would you charge?\u201d 3. How effective was the contracting process I did some quick calculations and responded, described in the last part of the case? What is \u201cAs for my fee, I\u2019d have to bill you for a minimum the scope and clarity of the agreement? of three days at my daily rate of $___ per day, and travel expenses\u2014assuming Kenworth would 4. How would you design the upcoming retreat?","238 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT PEPPERCORN DINING* Selected Cases The partners of Square One Consulting were having lunch at Peppercorn Dining on the County had become a boomtown and, as a campus of All-American University. Although result, the university was having difficulty gain- ing employees. Roger wondered aloud about Square One was headquartered nearby, most the general steps Peppercorn had taken to off- of the consultants\u2019 business was conducted in set the current labor shortage. other cities. The partners were enjoying having Drew, sensing the consultant\u2019s interest, the opportunity to attend a seminar on a campus openly discussed his perceptions of the dining in their hometown. By chance, Drew Randall, unit. He stated: the manager of Peppercorn, noticed the trio I would like to make Peppercorn a more and recognized Erica, who had worked her way pleasant place for everyone to work. I get through college as a student manager at the din- great productivity out of these guys and ing unit. Drew pulled up a chair and started to they really care. It\u2019s just that there needs to catch up on the two years that had transpired be something more. Maybe morale is a little since she had graduated. The other consultants, low. There\u2019s not much creativity involved in Roger and Lynn, listened as they began to remi- most of the tasks, but the cooks feel great nisce about the \u201cgood old days\u201d at Peppercorn. when they sell out of stuff. However, when we sell out, it\u2019s probably because the forecast Erica recalled the time a swim test coin- was incorrect rather than as a response to a cided with her first shift at the dining hall. She good product. I take a humanistic manage- called to let the unit know she would be ment approach, maybe they just need some detained, and she finally arrived about an hour kind of support. On the other hand, I may late. When Erica entered the unit, she was give them too much autonomy since I let greeted by a supervisor who took her down- them manage themselves to a large degree. stairs to change into the uniform of blue pants, blue-and-white-checkered shirt, a hair net, and I believe that scheduling is manage- a name tag, an outfit similar to what was being ment\u2019s right. I base my scheduling on oper- worn by the current employees. Erica was then ational need. Ultimately, the manager is taken to the dish room and informed she was responsible for the success or failure of the receiving a verbal warning for being late. As the operation, therefore, I should have the right group laughed, the consultants chided Erica to put the people where I deem best. You further by commenting that her sense of timing know, niche management. Although, I did hadn\u2019t changed. Drew, however, suggested inherit a lot of the schedule. that times had changed. DEVELOPING A CONTRACT As Erica tentatively nodded her head in response to Drew\u2019s comments, Roger and The consultants were eager to learn about Pep- Lynn caught each other\u2019s gaze and shrugged percorn, and Erica, eager to learn about the inquisitively. By the consultants\u2019 behavior, it changes Drew had alluded to, asked about cur- was apparent they were wondering about the rent operations at the unit. Drew, sipping on his meaning behind Drew\u2019s words. However, coffee, commented, \u201cStaffing is a nightmare. because he was obviously in the mood to talk, We can\u2019t find qualified people anywhere; the consultants did not interrupt. recruiting and retention has become a constant Warming up to his listeners, Drew contin- challenge.\u201d Drew went on to explain that the ued, \u201cSome employees have been at Pepper- labor market in the county had become tight corn, working in the same position, for 20 plus due to the prosperous Reagan years. Garden years. Bob, the day cook, has been working here for 28 years. Can you believe that Doug, the night cook, has been here for 10 years and *JoAnn Carmin, Cornell University; Todd Comen, is waiting for Bob to retire so that he can Cornell University; Yariels Kerr, Cornell University.","SELECTED CASES 239 transfer to the day shift? Doug may have to wait a concerning me for quite some time. I know that long time since Bob won\u2019t be retiring for at least 15 you must be very busy, but perhaps you could years. It\u2019s hard for me to believe that Doug looks find the time to work with me. Erica already forward to that time and that he refuses to transfer knows a lot about the operation, and it wouldn\u2019t to another dining unit.\u201d take long for her to become reacquainted.\u201d \u201cThat\u2019s amazing,\u201d said Roger. \u201cYou seem to Because the consultants were planning to be in have loyal employees. It must be easy to manage the area for several days to attend the seminar and to people who know their job so well.\u201d complete some paperwork, Erica suggested they observe operations at Peppercorn. The group, dis- Drew responded: cussing Erica\u2019s suggestion, agreed that the first stage should be a preliminary evaluation of the unit, It\u2019s not that simple. The union contract forms a followed by a feedback session with management. second set of rules and operating parameters. Then, based on the outcome, management could The contract deals with turnover, sick leave, conduct an in-depth operations audit. Drew con- pay, promotion, and all of the other usual curred that evaluation and feedback could be useful stuff. It seems that there is no reward for first steps in achieving his goals. He restated that his non-sickness, but there is a reward for sick- goals for Peppercorn were to increase productivity ness. Now people get one and a half times and to improve morale among the workers. the pay for sick days if they are on overtime. If they are on overtime, absenteeism is more The consultants concluded their discussion by of a contractual issue than a workplace issue. telling Drew they would drop off a written contract by the following afternoon. The contract would include Frankly, I believe that staffing affects atti- their fee structure as well as a schedule of the dates tudes and attitudes affect quality; both of and times they would like to be on the premises. which affect productivity. Increased productiv- ity means making better use of time. Perhaps I REVIEWING BACKGROUND INFORMATION should structure the tasks in a better way, but managing and working behind the lines makes Two days later, the team gathered around the table it difficult for me to see the trees through the in Roger\u2019s office to discuss the Peppercorn consul- forest. There\u2019s no time for anyone to stand tation. Roger and Lynn initiated the discussion by back and see what\u2019s happening. reintroducing the subject of Erica\u2019s objectivity. It became obvious that all three of the partners Drew paused and, as if speaking more to him- were concerned about how Erica\u2019s past experi- self than to the consultants, said, \u201cSince I\u2019ve been ences would bias her view of the operation. The so busy, maybe I\u2019ve lost track of some of my partners also discussed the fact that Erica\u2019s views priorities.\u201d Turning to the consultants, Drew would influence Roger and Lynn\u2019s perceptions of inquired about their experience with situations of the dining unit. Although Erica believed she could this type and what advice they might offer. recognize and work with her bias, she suggested she focus on gathering current managerial data. The partners explained they are usually con- Because their time was limited, Lynn recom- tacted by organizations when management mended that Erica also conduct a few on-site inter- believes an external opinion could provide a fresh views with people who would be more candid with outlook on operations. They went on to state they an old friend than with strangers. normally begin their work by performing an opera- tions audit, the results of which are presented to As he was reaching for a notepad, Roger asked management. Additionally, when the situation war- Erica about the general operating procedures and rants, strategic interventions are designed to facili- the key personnel at Peppercorn. Erica began out- tate the achievement of management objectives. lining the operation: The partners further indicated they believe it is essential to become familiar with an organization Peppercorn\u2019s hours are 11 A.M. to 7:30 P.M., before appropriate suggestions can be made. Monday through Friday. When I first started, we served about 1,500 to 1,600 lunches Without hesitation, Drew said to the consul- tants, \u201cThe situation here at Peppercorn has been","240 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT and 900 to 1,000 dinners daily. By the time The student supervisors were the only I graduated, the counts were down by about other key players that I can think of at this 30 percent at lunch and approximately 50 per- point, and they had extensive responsibilities cent at dinner. which included daily management, scheduling, and hiring of the student workers. When I was a student worker at Pepper- corn, there were full-time employees, all of The partners\u2019 conversation shifted to the amount whom were union members. There were of time available for the investigation. Lynn asked also student workers, and we had our own stu- her partners how much time they thought was nec- dent management staff. When I first started essary for conducting the initial investigation. \u201cWell, working, there were more student workers Lynn,\u201d replied Roger, \u201cbased on the information we than when I graduated. Some of the gaps have so far, it\u2019s possible that the longtime employees were filled by full-time temporary workers. may not be as open as we might like. They may be protective of their turf.\u201d Lynn agreed but added that Lynn pointed out that it would be important to they shouldn\u2019t jump to any conclusions. She noted determine if these changes were affecting the that often it was the old-time employees who were operation. Erica agreed and indicated that by the most interested in talking about their work. time she had graduated, minor conflicts were aris- ing between student and temporary workers at The consultants agreed that three days should be Peppercorn. Erica continued her briefing by provid- an ample amount of time to gather the necessary data ing an overview of the key personnel during her and to develop a presentation for the management of tenure with All-American Dining, the parent organi- Peppercorn Dining. The consultants concluded the zation of Peppercorn. meeting by agreeing that Lynn would concentrate on the production areas of the unit while Roger Erica stated: would survey front-of-house operations. Drew is obviously the manager of Peppercorn. DAY ONE: INTERVIEWS He was also the manager of the Salt Mill over AND OBSERVATIONS at the \u201cB\u201d-School. He was responsible to Stan O\u2019Malley, one of the assistant directors of All- Lynn was the first to arrive at Peppercorn the fol- American Dining. Stan supervised Drew and lowing morning. As she approached the facility, Beth Clarkson, the manager of food service she noticed that three female employees were in the student union. smoking cigarettes on the loading dock, joking around with a purveyor. Lynn introduced herself John Cerrano was the receiving clerk. He and lingered with the workers for a few minutes. always worked closely with Drew. There never seemed to be any problems with his work; he Back of House always knew where everything was because he received the goods and then put them in Entering the kitchen from the loading dock, Lynn storage. John, or \u201cBo-bo\u201d as we called him, noticed it was clean and most of the equipment was the shop steward. He had a close relation- looked relatively new. The kitchen had fairly good ship with most of the employees and a bunch fluorescent lighting, and natural lighting was pro- of us used to go out drinking with him regularly. vided by windows in the pot washing and food preparation areas. Matt Copperfield was definitely a key player. Matt was the professional supervisor As Lynn placed her coat and briefcase on a rack who handled inventory, purchasing, scheduling, in the storage area, she observed that the dry goods and other administrative tasks. It always were neatly arranged, although the supplies were seemed as if he was at the heart of the opera- not plentiful. From the storeroom doorway, she tion. I can\u2019t remember her name, but there was could see that the workers were busy, but not a secretary who was also in a pivotal position. rushed. The members of the kitchen staff chatted She had access to a lot of information and she as they worked and they appeared to know what was the source and respondent of all official tasks to perform without needing direction. Peppercorn communication.","SELECTED CASES 241 The kitchen was divided into five areas (as The doors to the dining facility were opened at shown in Figure 1). After introducing herself to 10:55 A.M. at which time the pantry workers took a the workers and taking a brief tour of the kitchen, break. Lynn positioned herself near the walk-in cooler where she could easily see most of the kitchen Bob, the day chef, was grilling sandwiches in operations. She noticed that the walk-in cooler the tilt brazier while Robert, the day cook, and freezer were clean and were stocked with a was breading pork. Robert moved between food moderate amount of supplies. She also observed preparation, the fryer, and the steamer. During that the workers\u2019 uniforms were clean. However, lunch service, the kitchen staff appeared to some of the workers were wearing aprons and be relaxed. Although there was not much some were not. As if reading her thoughts, a stu- talking, they did joke with each other from time dent worker passing through the room commented to time. to no one in particular, \u201cWe\u2019re out of aprons again. Oh well, it\u2019s no big deal.\u201d Lynn wondered what Shortly after 11:00 A.M., a man wearing a chefs else might not be a \u201cbig deal\u201d to the workers. uniform entered the kitchen and greeted the other workers. He then took a clipboard and a stack of computer printouts to a table near where Lynn was FIGURE 1 Floor Plan of Peppercorn Dining","242 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT FIGURE 1 Floor Plan of Peppercorn Dining, (continued ) \u00a9 Cengage Learning","SELECTED CASES 243 standing. Lynn felt a bit awkward until he intro- short stock. We haven\u2019t had any salt all semester. duced himself as Doug, the dinner chef. This is mostly a result of computer errors.\u201d Lynn explained she was observing the facility in Doug went on to talk about some of his order to become familiar with the operation. Doug coworkers. Bob, the lunch chef, has been at showed interest in Lynn\u2019s curiosity and stated: Peppercorn for 28 years. Chris, the assistant dinner chef, has been with the unit for about three years. I want the kitchen to run as smoothly as possi- Chris, who moved to the kitchen from the short- ble. I believe that it takes organization, morale, order station, was trained by Doug. They enjoy communication, and a system to have an effi- sharing ideas and they always try to prepare the cient operation. Communication is important. I food a day in advance. ask the servers how things are working out so that I know if I should change anything. I try to While Lynn was talking with Doug, she could maintain a routine system so there won\u2019t be see the cafeteria line by way of a pass-through win- many questions during service. I train all of my dow. She noticed that a steady flow of diners was workers and I enjoy having the opportunity to entering the facility. Realizing that Doug enjoyed teach. I\u2019ve been in food service for 25 years talking about the unit and being curious about and at Peppercorn for 10 years. I started working Doug\u2019s responses, Lynn felt comfortable continuing in the food service industry when I was about 11. the conversation. Observing a student supervisor restocking the hot food line, Lynn asked Doug I think that Peppercorn has the best food on how he felt about working with students. campus. Some of my own recipes have been accepted by management and are now a part He replied, \u201cSome student workers are reli- of the menu database. I\u2019ve also developed able, while others are less committed.\u201d Lynn ideas that have been adopted here and at asked Doug about the role of the student supervi- other campus dining facilities. For example, I sor and in response Doug called the student over. started the trend of keeping plastic tasting The student seemed unhurried and went on to spoons by the steam kettles. I\u2019m also the per- explain that student supervisors do not have any son who started using a yellow marker to high- power over the regular workers; only over temps light important items on the computer printouts. and other students. Students have their own man- agement structure that includes a student coordi- As Lynn and Doug were talking, a man came nator, managers, and pay clerk. The student over and listened to their conversation. Doug\u2019s personnel coordinator handles complaints. Temps speech became hesitant in this man\u2019s presence. and regular workers take complaints to the regular After only a few minutes, the man left. Lynn won- personnel worker. More temps have been needed dered who the man was and why he had such an recently since there are less student workers at effect on Doug. From the way he was dressed, Peppercorn than in previous years. there was no way to determine if he worked at Peppercorn, was from the union, or was part of the As Lynn, Doug, and the student were talking, All-American management staff. Larry entered the kitchen again. When the student noticed him, he quickly went back to work restock- Coincidentally, Doug explained to Lynn that the ing the food line. man was Larry, the professional supervisor. He went on to say Larry plans the menus and tries to The activity in the kitchen seemed to be get- balance the use of ovens and kettles so the equip- ting busier, and Lynn decided she should move to ment is not overloaded. According to Doug, Larry another position so Doug could continue his work. prints out the menus from a computer located in Before she left, Doug commented about the union. the office. Doug added that the system does not He stated, \u201cSkilled workers are on the same union always work the way it should. It is supposed to contract as unskilled workers. I think that this print menus, compile order lists, and check the arrangement holds back the skilled workers and inventory. Doug commented, \u201cSometimes it works helps the unskilled to get ahead. It doesn\u2019t work well, and sometimes not. Sometimes the menus well, and we don\u2019t even have a shop steward. have to be changed at the last minute because of The only way that I can move up in the organization is to become part of management.\u201d","244 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT Lynn bid Doug farewell and went into the ser- and a line server. Now that the swap is final, Carrie vice area to get some lunch. As she went through believes the other woman, who is now the door the cafeteria line, she noticed Roger observing the checker, may not think the trade was equitable. cafeteria service. Lynn invited him to join her for lunch, but Roger declined, saying he had just begun During his conversation with Carrie, Roger saw his observation and he wanted to spend some time the chef come out of the kitchen and pick up an watching service during the busiest hours. empty pan. The chef lingered for a minute. He appeared to be watching the line service. Roger Service Areas returned his attention to Carrie and continued the con- versation by asking her about line staffing. Carrie Roger immediately noticed the line servers inter- explained, \u201cUsually there are three main workers on acted a great deal with the customers. He also the line, two full-timers at one station and one student noted there was no portion control. The students or temp at the other. We choose our own positions on would ask the line servers for \u201ca little more spaghetti, the line and we usually stick to the same spots. When just meatballs, no corn, more sauce, or a small cup of it gets busy, additional student workers fill in. Today soup.\u201d Each customer wanted the standard portions one full-timer is sick, so a temp from another area filled or combinations of food items altered to meet their the position. Sometimes they can\u2019t find substitutes, personal needs, and they were accommodated. so we just have to work that much harder.\u201d The first line server plates the entrees and Roger stepped aside as a student worker car- the second worker serves the side dishes (see rying a tray of soup cups began to restock the ser- Figure 2). The workers must communicate in vice line. Roger apologized for any inconvenience order to properly fill each order. The overall atmo- and explained he was a member of a group learn- sphere in the serving area was relaxed. Roger ing about the operations at Peppercorn. Roger timed the service and discovered it took two to asked the student if he could take a moment to four minutes for a customer to enter the line and tell him about the relationship between student be served during a busy period. and nonstudent workers. As the flow of customers slowed, Roger initi- The student explained that Peppercorn is sup- ated a conversation with a line worker who intro- posed to be staffed primarily by students. The stu- duced herself as Carrie. She told Roger she had dents are grouped into three segments: student been at Peppercorn for 10 years and was a door managers, student supervisors, and student work- checker for 9\u00bd of those years. She explained the ers. However, he said, \u201cSince the supply of stu- door checker made sure that only diners on the dents has been diminishing over the years, more university meal plan were allowed in the noncash temps have had to fill the positions. There\u2019s a lot of dining area. She went on to say she had become tension between students and temps as well as bored with her position. She was also dissatisfied between students and full-timers. This isn\u2019t sur- with her former hours, which were from 11 A.M. to prising since the students supervise the operation. 7:30 P.M. Carrie attained her new position with They call us \u2018students\u2019 as opposed to \u2018supervisors\u2019 Drew\u2019s help. He facilitated a trade between her and we seem to be stereotyped.\u201d FIGURE 2 Line Servers Setup \u00a9 Cengage Learning","SELECTED CASES 245 He clarified his statement, saying, \u201cThere\u2019s a into racks with dirty dishes. He also noticed the sil- discrepancy with age, economic status, and experi- verware was run through the dishwasher twice. ence in many cases. Only the full-timers and the professional managers are not under the supervision Roger wanted to know why the silverware had of students. Students have a difficult time supervis- to go through the wash cycle two times, so he ing older people, and older people have a difficult asked the dish sorter who was positioned at the time taking orders from young people who they end of the line. The sorter said, \u201cWe\u2019re concerned probably consider similar to their own children.\u201d that plates and especially the silver are clean. We wouldn\u2019t want people catching something from The student went back to work, leaving Roger someone else.\u201d to his thoughts. He was reminded of the conversa- tion that he had with his partners about the con- The sorter asked Roger what he was doing in flicts between student and nonstudent workers. It the dish room. Roger explained and then asked the was becoming clear to Roger that this was an worker how long he had been at Peppercorn. The important issue. worker said he had been at Peppercorn for a year. Further discussion revealed the worker is on a split Just as Roger was beginning to consider the shift. He works from noon to 4 P.M. and then from problems that can arise from role conflict and role 6 P.M. until 10 P.M. He said he likes having a midday ambiguity, he was startled by the sound of shattering break in order to get things done in his personal life. glass. Roger turned in time to notice a student step- He explained that he knew three of the other work- ping away from a broken glass, acting as if nothing ers before he started the job. Because he was the had happened. Several dishwashers, on their way to newest employee in the dish room, he was sta- the drink station, also saw the broken glass as they tioned at the hottest position. He pointed out that walked by. Roger was curious to see how long it the two full timers he worked with had held their would take for someone to clean up the mess. Two positions for four and two years, respectively. The minutes later, a dishwasher returned and swept up other three workers, including him, were temps. the glass. During this time, a student supervisor was informed of the problem. Roger noted she never The worker finished sorting and left the dish returned to make sure the situation was corrected. room to get his coworkers a cold drink. Roger went over to the area where workers were scraping Roger followed the dishwasher toward the dish and sorting dirty plates. The dishes and filled racks room. As he rounded the corner of the serving area, were piling up. Roger noted the dish machine was Roger heard the sound of blaring music. He had to not able to keep up with the demand. He also saw weave his way through a narrow passage that was that the paper items were shredded with the food blocked with customers at the cashier\u2019s station. scraps and that Styrofoam was sorted separately. As he entered the dish room through an open The oldest woman in the dish room yelled out doorway, Roger was greeted by a mixture of from time to time, \u201cCome on, keep it movin\u2019.\u201d machinery noise, loud music, and a hot, humid Roger spent a few more minutes observing. atmosphere. The machinery was arranged in a pat- As he recalled Erica\u2019s story about her first day at tern that allowed many people to perform different Peppercorn, Roger wondered why there were no tasks simultaneously. The five workers gave Roger students working in the dish room. As he was leav- a cursory glance and continued with their tasks. ing, a student supervisor came in to get trays for the service area. Roger, feeling a bit out of place and self- conscious, stood to one side of the work area and Roger proceeded to the cashier station where watched the activity. There was a lot of joking, talk- he found the dish sorter chatting with the cashier. ing, and interacting as the workers sorted and After a minute, the sorter returned to the dish cleaned dishes, silverware, glasses, and trays. Full room. Roger struck up a conversation with the dish trays were stacked at the rinse station. Each cashier. After briefing her about his project, the rack was rinsed and then sent through the dish- cashier proceeded to tell Roger about some of washing machine. When the dishes completed her observations and experiences at Peppercorn. their cycle, a worker sorted the dishes. Roger noted the worker put several freshly washed dishes She explained that the cashier\u2019s job is a full- time, nonunion position she has held for two","246 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT years. She replaced the person who is currently the that if someone sees something that needs secretary. She enjoys having the opportunity to doing, they are supposed to do it. Therefore, during meet people and getting to know the regulars, but slow periods I help clean tables, do the menu she has found that some of the students are rude. board, and look around for other things to do.\u201d The cashier stated, \u201cI usually get along well with Roger asked the cashier about her plans for the management. Everyone has their good and bad future, and she explained she would like to have a days. I was a manager in my previous job, so I under- secretarial job so she could get away from food ser- stand what Drew has to deal with. I also understand vice for a while. The cashier went on to say there are the problems that the student supervisors have.\u201d temps and students that make more money than Roger wondered what the cashier meant by this she does as a full-timer and this disparity makes statement. What does Drew have to deal with and her resentful. The wages seem to be based on job what problems do the student supervisors really position or union membership. Only four positions have to deal with? Thus far, he had noted that the are nonunion. These positions include the cashier, operation appeared effective, although some com- secretary, supervisor, and manager. The rest of the munication problems were evident. workers at Peppercorn are temporary, union mem- bers, or students. The cashier added there are only The cashier, seeing Drew passing by, stopped five single people on the staff. him and asked him for more change and small bills. Roger asked if it was standard procedure for her to When Roger asked the cashier about the relation- ask managers for more money, or if she was able to ship between student and full-time workers, she get it herself. She replied she is authorized to get replied there is a lot of pressure in the dish room. cash, but it is difficult for her to leave her station. She believes the pressure builds up because the stu- dent supervisors never send student workers in to While the cashier was waiting for Drew to help. The supervisors\u2019 excuse is that they are short return, Roger asked her about work conditions. of help elsewhere. Drew returned with the cash, The cashier replied: and Roger went to see if he could find his partners. I get cold in the winter because I\u2019m so close to Administrative Information the entrance and the wind blows in. It\u2019s ironic because the rest of the workers complain Roger found Lynn and Erica sitting in the dining about it being too hot at their stations. Pepper- area. Erica was telling Lynn she had arranged for corn is built over heating ducts, so it\u2019s very hot them to have dinner with some students that even- everywhere except at my station. People\u2019s big- ing. Roger sat down with his partners and asked gest complaint is the heat. There isn\u2019t ade- Erica if she could clarify some details about the quate ventilation or air flow. Another common organizational structure. complaint is that there\u2019s not enough room in the dining, kitchen, and service areas. This is Erica responded, \u201cThere are three tiers of man- because Peppercorn used to be a riding stable. agement at Peppercorn (Figure 3). There is the pro- fessional management staff, which consists of In the winter I get sick easily, but I only Drew and Larry. They oversee the full-time workers. miss about five days per year. I\u2019ve learned to There are also student managers and student super- live with not feeling well on the job. I have a visors. The student managers oversee student sore back every night because I sit on a bar supervisors as well as the student workers. The stu- stool all day. dent supervisors are responsible for daily opera- tions. The student workers and the temporary Before Roger could inquire if she had ever employees report to them. It seems, however, talked to management about her work conditions, that the temporary workers also report to, and are she stated, \u201cI\u2019m the only cashier. I have to call on trained by, the professional managers.\u201d the secretary when it\u2019s really busy, but I know she has a lot of work to do. I also restock silverware. Roger and Lynn interjected that they had This entails shutting down the register, running to noticed difficulties between the students and the the dish room, and then restocking before the reg- other workers at Peppercorn. Lynn asked Erica if ister line gets too long. Our job descriptions say she would clarify the distinction between the","SELECTED CASES 247 FIGURE 3 Peppercorn Dining Organizational Chart \u00a9 Cengage Learning different levels of employees. Erica clarified the director of All-American Dining (Figure 4). She has organizational structure stating: been spending a great deal of time traveling to dif- ferent universities in order to analyze their food ser- There are full-time union employees, full-time vice operations. Stan O\u2019Malley is still an assistant nonunion temporary employees, and student director of All-American Dining. Although there is a labor. Full-time employees hold the positions central office, each unit is independently operated. of cooks, short order chefs, pantry workers, and cashiers. In past years, students filled all Roger asked Erica is she had the opportunity to the other supplementary positions, including speak with any employees and if she had been able dishwashers, servers, cooks, helpers, short to uncover any information about management- order helpers, pantry helpers, beverage ser- employee relations. Erica told her partners she had vers, and serving area floaters. For the past spoken with John Cerrano and some of the pantry four to five years, fewer students have wanted workers. jobs at Peppercorn. This phenomena has resulted in the addition of the third type of Erica went on to say she and John spoke about employee, the full-time temporary worker. changes that had occurred at Peppercorn since she had left. John told Erica the lack of student help has Erica went on to tell her partners that she had hurt operations at the unit. For example, a special gathered enough information to update them on the dining event that Peppercorn sponsored last night key players at All-American Dining. She explained was difficult for the workers. There were virtually that Larry Pendleton is the new professional super- no students on the staff. As a result, the full-time visor, replacing Matt Copperfield at Peppercorn. In workers and temps had to pick up the slack. the central office, Nancy Lawrence is still the John also commented that Larry doesn\u2019t listen to his advice about ordering food. John spends a","248 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT \u00a9 Cengage Learning FIGURE 4 Department of Dining Services","SELECTED CASES 249 lot of his time getting food items that should have things will impact Peppercorn, but the scoop is that come in from the suppliers from the other units on Drew will be the manager of the new facility!\u201d campus. According to John, Larry doesn\u2019t have the respect of the staff. He doesn\u2019t take anyone\u2019s Erica, acting quite pleased, sat back, smiled, advice and acts like a know-it-all. The situation and waited for her partners to respond. Lynn is made worse because Larry doesn\u2019t do his job paused only for a moment and then, turning to very well. Erica, said, \u201cThis isn\u2019t making much sense, but, before I ask the obvious, why don\u2019t you tell us Erica went on to discuss the pantry workers the rest of the facts?\u201d stating: Erica, a little disappointed at the response her The workers seemed to indicate a general comment evoked, went on to explain that Drew belief that the management of All-American would be leaving Peppercorn in about five months Dining, as well as the management at Pep- and that Eric Weston, the current vending manager, percorn, doesn\u2019t really care about them. They would take charge of the unit as soon as Drew left. mentioned how All-American\u2019s previous per- sonnel director used to visit the different dining As Lynn and Erica began to engage in an units at least once a month and talk with the intense discussion about the future of Pepper- full-time employees. During that time, the work- corn dining, Roger, in true form, looked at his ers felt that someone cared about them. They watch and stated, \u201cWell, not only do we have a said that the new personnel director doesn\u2019t contract, we also have a dinner engagement in come around at all and probably doesn\u2019t even 20 minutes. Let\u2019s get some fresh air before we know who the full-time employees are. meet with the students!\u201d The partners began laughing and, recognizing the sanity of Roger\u2019s The workers also told me that there is min- comment, decided a break was in order. imal union representation for food service employees. According to the workers, food ser- Dinner with Student Managers vice members are a minority faction of the union and aren\u2019t considered important unless After freshening up, the trio returned to Peppercorn a strike is in progress. Apparently, the union\u2019s to meet the students for dinner. Molly, the student primary concern is with maintenance workers, coordinator, and Shaun, the student personnel man- groundskeepers, janitors, and bus drivers. ager, were waiting for the consultants at Pepper- There\u2019s no shop steward and union officials corn\u2019s main entrance. The five of them went don\u2019t come to Peppercorn unless there is an through the cafeteria line and then entered the din- official grievance. ing room, where they found a quiet table to have their dinner. Lynn added that Doug had also commented on the union. She stated, \u201cBased on what we have Shaun seemed to know why the consultants heard so far, no one is thrilled with the union. had asked them to dinner and began to tell them Workers and management alike seem to find the about his tenure at Peppercorn. Shaun explained union a burden.\u201d that when he had started at Peppercorn four years ago, there were two to three times the num- Roger asked Erica about how each unit on the ber of student workers. He went on to say more campus was staffed. Erica explained that the units students made the work fun and the operation ran were independently staffed and at the beginning of more efficiently. Shaun explained it is hard for the each semester, the different units held recruitment students who have been at Peppercorn for a long campaigns. time because they know how it used to be. Erica became quite excited as she stated, \u201cOK, Molly agreed with Shaun, saying students enough of the routine stuff. One thing that I found would work at Peppercorn because it had a reputa- out today is that the university is building a new tion for being social. \u201cTo attract student workers,\u201d 400-seat dining facility. Also, a privately funded Molly said, \u201cPeppercorn must become special, more food service operation that will include a variety of conducive to meeting students\u2019 needs. In the early dining concepts is opening nearby. Of course, these days, students were proud to be Peppies and looked forward to seeing their coworkers.\u201d She proceeded","250 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT to say they have to treat students well because they spring and meet their supervisors when they can\u2019t risk alienating anyone. They can\u2019t afford to fire begin working in the fall. They immediately have students or give them too many warnings. some respect for their supervisor. I think that the new manager will be in a bind.\u201d Erica asked the students to comment on work- ing with the temporary workers. Shaun said, \u201cThe Molly said she believed the change would temp-student relationship is not great. Temps are have a greater effect on the full-time and tempo- under the student supervisors\u2019 authority, but it rary workers than on the students. She has heard doesn\u2019t really work that way. Temps are less effi- some workers mention they are concerned cient than students, but they are needed to fill the because Peppercorn\u2019s future is unclear. Many of vacant positions. They are probably not as efficient the full-time workers are loyal to Drew; they have because they have less loyalty to Peppercorn than become comfortable with his management style. the students.\u201d Roger, addressing Molly, asked about commu- Molly interjected, \u201cThis year, no students and nication at Peppercorn. Molly responded: temps work in the same areas except for emergen- cies. Temps are trained by the professional man- Communication has been a major problem. The agement but are supervised by students. Last students thought that if they left me notes, year, it was unclear who was in charge of the things would get done. I would take the notes temps. This year it is better. Most things are writ- to management, but important things were not ten in manuals.\u201d noted as being important. Mostly, the problems were repair and maintenance issues. People \u201cThe regular and temporary workers don\u2019t talk brooded that things didn\u2019t get done quickly. much to the students,\u201d continued Molly. \u201cTemps They didn\u2019t realize that most things have to go and full-timers think students are stupid; they have through a lot of channels, which takes time. an attitude toward students. It\u2019s hard for the students There is so much paperwork involved. Now the to get cooperation and respect from the temps.\u201d students make special notations when issues are urgent so that I can establish priorities. Lynn asked the students about their relation- ships with Drew. Shaun and Molly explained that An area that is related to communication is while most students don\u2019t interact with Drew ordering. There are a lot of problems with frequently, they, as supervisors, meet with him reg- Larry. Last year, we had a problem with the ularly. Most of the students think Drew is rude and person who filled a similar job but the job cold and unapproachable, but they have found he description has changed. Last year, the can be very patient. Additionally, many students kitchen workers were getting burnt out. Larry don\u2019t believe Drew is knowledgeable about food revised the menus and for a while the kitchen service operations. Molly and Shaun have discov- seemed better. Larry just doesn\u2019t do his job ered that he is, in fact, an astute person. They attrib- well and we constantly run out of things. uted his reputation to a lack of accessibility, noting that Drew is generally more accessible to the full- Roger asked about the student pay structure at time and temporary workers than to the students. Peppercorn. Molly told him the pay rate has been changed twice. The effect is that workers are kept Lynn further inquired about the students\u2019 reac- on the same pay grade because the raises push peo- tions to the forthcoming management changes. ple back to level one. The only workers who benefit Molly replied, \u201cSince most of the students don\u2019t from the changes are the student managers. work closely with Drew, we really can\u2019t foresee the change having much of an effect on them. Shaun noted that one of the most frustrating Most students don\u2019t have any preconceived ideas situations at Peppercorn was the lack of student inter- about the new management.\u201d est, something that could not be controlled. Even when the wages were raised, no one applied for Shaun disagreed with Molly stating, \u201cIt\u2019s going jobs. Shaun added that the student supervisors are to be hard for a new manager to come in mid-year. upset about paying for their meal plan tickets because The transition will cause problems since the new many of them worked their way through school. manager won\u2019t have the experience. I think that the new manager should change things quickly. It was getting late and the students had to New student workers are recruited by us in the attend classes the next morning. The consultants","SELECTED CASES 251 thanked the students for being so candid with greeted each other cordially and chatted for a few them. After the students left, the consultants dis- minutes. Drew, taking off his lab coat, said he was cussed their impressions of Peppercorn. due at a meeting on the other side of the campus. Roger commented that their earlier concerns Erica left the kitchen and went into the office to about the willingness of employees to speak with gather more information on the structure and opera- them were unfounded. Lynn agreed, noting that tions of Peppercorn. When she entered through the although most of the workers seemed to be quite open office door, she found Larry working at the open, Doug was an exception. He was eager to computer, placing orders with the central purchas- talk, but the discussion seemed contrived. He ing system. Larry explained to Erica that the com- seemed to be conveying information that he puter system had not been working properly. It is thought she should know and was careful to por- supposed to generate order lists and inventories tray himself and the operation in a favorable light. based on the menus that he inputs. He indicated, Lynn said she thought he was concerned about however, there must be some problem with the possible repercussions from his responses. system because the orders are not coming in, and when they do, they frequently are late. After provid- Lynn went on to recount the interactions she ing Erica with some literature such as employee had observed earlier in the day between Larry, handbooks, Larry suggested she talk to Patricia, Doug, and the student supervisor. She then com- the secretary at the main office. mented, \u201cLarry is an interesting player. All of the workers mention him. He seems to have a lot of Erica followed Larry\u2019s suggestion and on her power over the other workers, yet he seems to way out of the unit she met Roger. She explained govern by fear. The workers become timid in his she was planning to visit the main office and said presence, nonetheless, they don\u2019t appear to have she would meet her partners in the late afternoon much respect for him.\u201d to discuss her findings. Picking up on Lynn\u2019s train of thought, Roger noted Roger wandered around the unit for over an that in his conversations and observations throughout hour, observing the lunch service. During the first the day, he had begun to wonder about the social sys- hour, the cafeteria was packed with customers. tem at the unit. He commented, \u201cAlthough the orga- Roger noticed the student supervisors were busy nization was highly stratified, operations still seem to refilling the salad and beverage stations. Shaun run smoothly. While workers may be timid around helped by restocking glasses and trays. The cafe- Larry and even fear Drew, the fact that operations teria line became long and at one point, Drew, hav- are smooth and that the workers appear to be loyal ing returned from his meeting, helped serve food. indicates that personality conflicts and role ambiguity Roger noted that by the end of the lunch period, are symptoms of a larger problem.\u201d the cafeteria was short on silverware. \u201cThat\u2019s true,\u201d said Erica. \u201cThe unit always had As the lunch service slowed, Roger decided to a reputation for being a social environment. In the take a look at the student office. As he entered the past, we were able to overlook personality and downstairs dining room, he immediately noticed it role conflicts because there was a strong culture was very hot, that a large percentage of the tables at the unit.\u201d were dirty, and that many of the light bulbs in the dining room needed replacement. Roger located Noticing that the cleaning crew was beginning the student office and what appeared to be a to break down the dining room, the partners small gathering or meeting area. decided to call it a night. From the open office doorway, Roger could see DAY TWO: INTERVIEWS a bank of time cards on the wall. Roger also noted AND OBSERVATIONS the office contained a suggestion box. As he peered in the door, he was greeted by the sound of a Erica arrived at the dining hall at 10:30 A.M. As she woman\u2019s voice. Roger entered and introduced him- climbed the stairs beside the loading dock, she self. In response, the woman identified herself as noticed a worker was in the car wash, hosing Sarah Lange. Roger asked Sarah if she would be will- down the trash cans. As she entered the kitchen, ing to discuss her work experiences at Peppercorn. Erica spotted Drew helping out in the pantry. They","252 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT Sarah began by saying she had worked at Pep- worked seemed highly professional and reflective percorn for three years and had been a student of the long years the employees had worked supervisor two years. Sarah stated, \u201cWorking at together. Peppercorn is not as much fun as it used to be. Although the job was never easy, it has become When Doug finally noticed Lynn, he greeted increasingly difficult. As supervisors, we don\u2019t really her warmly and began to chat with her. As Doug manage any more, and the upper-level student man- and Lynn were talking, a man who Doug said was agers like Shaun don\u2019t work and don\u2019t care. He a short-order cook walked through the kitchen. He won\u2019t even help out when we are short staffed.\u201d stopped and stared at Lynn for a moment and then asked, \u201cAre you with the health department or the Sarah described an incident when Naomi, union?\u201d Lynn introduced herself and explained the another student supervisor, was working a snack nature of her project. The man stared at her again shift that was understaffed. Shaun, aware of the briefly and then walked away. problem, stayed downstairs at his desk. When Naomi went downstairs to ask him for help, he Doug excused himself and Lynn, left to her acted ambivalent. Shaun finally helped in the dining thoughts, wondered if the man had accurately room for about 20 minutes. stated the paranoia she had perceived in Doug the previous day. Doug returned a few minutes later \u201cIn contrast to Shaun,\u201d Sarah commented, with a cup of soup and offered it to Lynn, saying \u201cMolly is willing to pitch in when we are short he thought she should have the opportunity to staffed, but this has caused her to become burnt taste Peppercorn\u2019s good food. As Lynn was finish- out. Molly has a hard time dealing with problems ing the soup, she saw two students walk through that arise among the student supervisors. A few the kitchen carrying tacos. They proceeded to the days ago, she called a meeting and told us there loading dock and began to eat their meal. Lynn, was a new policy restricting the snacks that we wanting some fresh air, went out to the dock and were allowed to eat. She also told us that we began to converse with the students. were scheduled to work on special dining programs, which are always at dinnertime. The whole time The students told Lynn they had worked at Pep- that Molly spoke with us, she was really curt and percorn for three years. One of the students said, acted like she was annoyed. We don\u2019t even have \u201cPeppercorn used to be a better place to work. a student rep to complain to anymore. At least We used to have more students working here. The Molly is leaving at the end of the school year.\u201d unit always used to be cheerful, and they used to buy beer and have parties on Friday nights.\u201d Sarah said that although she is not very happy working at Peppercorn, she does not want to quit. Lynn asked what had caused the situation to She has loyalty to both her fellow workers and to change and the second student replied, \u201cDrew is the unit. Sarah said she would definitely quit if much tighter about things. The management is some of her friends, who are also supervisors at only concerned about customers and not about Peppercorn, stopped working at the unit. workers. When I first started working here, we had to mop the floor, but there were a lot of students so Roger thanked Sarah for talking with him and it was more fun. Then they didn\u2019t make us mop any wished her luck in the future. As he walked up the more. Now we have to mop again, but there is not stairs to the service area, Roger made a mental as much camaraderie among the workers.\u201d note to talk to his partners about information flow and to further discuss coalitions within the unit. The worker continued, \u201cWhat makes the situ- ation worse is that we can\u2019t even mop properly While Roger had been observing service, because we are always short of supplies. We Lynn, who arrived at 12:30, had entered the unit haven\u2019t had any bleach for a week.\u201d from the loading dock. Hoping the workers would be less self-conscious if she was undetected, Lynn Doug came out to the loading dock and said he quietly observed operations for almost an hour. was going on break. He wanted the students to During that time, Lynn noticed the steam kettles come inside so he could give them instructions were draining, and much like the previous day, before he left. Doug told the students that because the kitchen workers appeared unhurried but atten- there was not much work to be done, they could tive to their tasks. The manner in which they work at a slow pace or even sweep the floor so they could work their full shift.","SELECTED CASES 253 Lynn followed Doug and the students back new recipe by putting out small chaffing into the kitchen. Bob and Robert were finishing dishes in the meal plan dining room and then the lunch cleanup, and Chris was looking at the asking students for comments on the product. dinner menu while eating a snack. When Chris It worked out fairly well and we\u2019ve used the saw Lynn standing alone, he approached her and recipe several times. immediately began to tell her about his work experiences and views of Peppercorn. As Lynn was wondering about Drew\u2019s com- ment on being a participatory manager, Erica Chris told Lynn he likes working at Pepper- entered the kitchen and came over to tell her she corn. In the same breath, he said he had recently was able to gather some information from the seen ads for positions at a hotel and plans on main office. Lynn thanked Chris for speaking with applying for jobs. Chris said, \u201cI think the food ser- her, and she and Erica went into the service area to vice industry is hard. We\u2019re always working when find Roger. Roger was chatting with some custo- other people are off, and it\u2019s hard to get good finan- mers near the salad bar. When he saw his partners cial compensation.\u201d approaching, he concluded his conversation. Chris went on to explain that the management The consultants each purchased a beverage at Peppercorn does not give the kitchen staff feed- and on their way to the dining room, Roger told back. He believes this is because management his partners that customers generally had a favor- does not eat at Peppercorn often. He also said able impression of Peppercorn. They like the food the management is very cost oriented and won\u2019t but thought the service was too slow. The only bring in the best quality products. other comment the customers made was that the dining areas were too warm. Erica added that Chris went on to state: when she had worked at Peppercorn there were rarely any complaints about the food, but they con- Dining used to pay for us to attend profes- stantly received negative feedback about the heat. sional culinary classes. Now they don\u2019t want to spend the money, so they present lectures After the consultants were seated, Roger by campus chefs. It doesn\u2019t accomplish much asked Erica what she was able to discover about since we are usually taught things that we the structure of the All-American Dining organiza- already know how to make or things that are tion. Erica showed her partners copies of the orga- not within the budget constraints. It doesn\u2019t nizational chart, mission statement (Figure 5), and make sense that they are willing to shell out goals and objectives (Figure 6). Erica went on to bucks for things like unit specials and manage- describe a few of the things she had discovered ment classes and not spend any money on us. that day. For example, menu and staffing changes had to be approved by the central office. She also It\u2019s hard to get new recipes on the menu. found out that managers are frequently transferred I\u2019ve tried, but I\u2019m usually met with resistance. I between units. guess that in large quantities they can\u2019t afford mistakes. Once, they let us try to test market a FIGURE 5 \u00a9 Cengage Learning Mission The mission of All-American Dining is to meet the nutritional, social, aesthetic, and economic needs of the university community with varied and innovative dining services. By meeting these needs we: \u2022 Exert a strong and positive influence on community life. \u2022 Provide educational opportunities for students, staff, and faculty. \u2022 Create a living environment that will help maintain All-American\u2019s position as an outstanding center of learning. The challenge is to accomplish all this within the framework of the enterprise concept.","254 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT FIGURE 6 Goals and Objectives The goals of All-American Dining are closely interwoven with those of the Division of Campus Living and the University. These goals and related objectives are outlined below. I. Customer Satisfaction. The primary goal is to provide the All-American community with a nutritious, economical, and quality dining program. The objectives are to: \u2022 Provide high-quality cuisine at an affordable price. \u2022 Conduct surveys to determine customer satisfaction and provide guidelines for change. \u2022 Maintain a variety of quality dining services, including: cafeterias, professional catering, vending, and retail food outlets. \u2022 Offer special dining experiences such as gourmet cuisines, unit specials, and community dining events. \u2022 Create flexible and cost-effective meal plans and options that give customers a wide choice of dining times and locations. \u2022 Maintain the highest standards of health and safety. II. Excellent Facilities. The department\u2019s goal is to maintain dining facilities in superior condition. The objective is to continually assess and maintain the functional and aesthetic design of facilities in the comprehensive context of the following: \u2022 An ever-changing and varied customer market. \u2022 The need to assure that production and service areas are clean, safe, efficient, and comfortable. \u2022 Budgetary constraints. \u2022 Department and university master facilities planning processes. \u2022 Energy conservation goals. III. Professional Management. Recruit and maintain a professional management staff that can meet the challenges of a dynamic food service enterprise. The objectives are to: \u2022 Encourage a participatory, decentralized management style. \u2022 Recruit exceptional talent and support internal promotions. \u2022 Provide a stimulating work environment through interunit transfers, challenging staff assignments, and intradepartmental competition of programs and services. \u2022 Maintain a compensation program that attracts and motivates an innovative, skilled staff. \u2022 Maintain open and positive lines of communication among management, staff, and customers. \u2022 Provide and encourage education and training opportunities that promote professional and personal growth. \u2022 Conduct regular performance evaluations that are based on predetermined goals and objectives. \u2022 Maintain policy and procedural manuals that will ensure consistent and efficient administration.","SELECTED CASES 255 FIGURE 6 \u00a9 Cengage Learning Goals and Objectives, (continued ) IV. Sound Financial Management. Develop and maintain effective financial accounting and report- ing systems that facilitate effective planning, decision making, and accountability. The objectives are to: \u2022 Be financially self-sufficient. \u2022 Encourage financial responsibility by providing timely, accurate statements, emphasizing the management budget process and requiring managers to be financially accountable. \u2022 Maintain an effective system of internal controls. \u2022 Control labor costs through efficient use of employee time and control the costs of goods with purchasing, menuing, forecasting, and precosting policies and procedures. \u2022 Protect the department against fluctuation in meat costs through hedging in the commodi- ties market. \u2022 Evaluate and budget effectively for future facilities and equipment replacement needs. \u2022 Conduct thorough cost-benefit analyses of potential programs and products. \u2022 Cut costs with a comprehensive energy conservation program. \u2022 Use resources in a reasonable manner. \u2022 Evaluate short-term possibilities with long-range perspective. V. Contribution to the University Mission. Dining\u2019s program must contribute to the educational, economic, and community service goals of the University. The objectives are to: \u2022 Support the educational goals of the University through staff teaching and lecturing. \u2022 Provide educational opportunities for the students. \u2022 Use the diverse dining facilities as laboratories for student research and job training. \u2022 Contribute professional time in support of the community. \u2022 Encourage staff participation in University committees and projects. VI. Industry Leadership. Maintain Dining\u2019s position as a leader through continual educational and professional contributions to the food service industry. The objectives are to: \u2022 Develop active and creative food service leaders. \u2022 Participate in professional organizations and committees. \u2022 Communicate our ideas and problem-solving techniques to others in the industry. Erica then asked her partners what their thoughts alone adequate communication between manage- were on the structure of All-American Dining and ment and line employees.\u201d what effect it had at the unit level. Roger suggested that from the information that Erica had gathered, the The consultants continued to talk for a while organization seemed highly centralized. However, about the tension they had noticed at the unit. workers at the unit level are interested in making Since Drew was leaving, they wondered if their their own decisions. He added that the structure of presence at the unit would have any affect and if the organization could be contributing to the problems the feedback session would really serve its pur- that Drew perceived with productivity and morale. pose. The consultants decided they would spend several hours the following morning reviewing the Lynn, looking over the mission and goal state- information they had gathered. In order to facilitate ments that Erica had collected, commented, \u201cAll- their meeting, they quickly constructed a partial list American professes to be decentralized. Also, Drew of the individuals they had encountered during believes he is a participatory manager. It seems as their observations. This list included characteristics if this organization doesn\u2019t play by its own rules. the consultants believed might be important to I haven\u2019t seen any indication of participation, let their analysis (Figure 7).","256 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT FIGURE 7 All-American Dining and Peppercorn Dining Personnel Chart (partial) Name Job Title Education Seniority Part-time Age Full-time Student Management A.S.-Restaurant 8 yrs. Peppercorn 28 yrs. Navy cook 11 yrs. Drew Manager Navy cook 10 yrs. 37 X 48 X X Bob Day chef A.S.-Mgmt. 3 yrs. 44 X 10 yrs. 36 X Robert Day cook Senior-A&S 1 mo. 31 X Senior-E.E. 11 yrs. 28 X Doug Night chef Senior-Gov\u2019t. 32 2 yrs. 35 X Chris Night cook A.S.-Restaurant 4 yrs. 28 X B.S.-Hotel 4 yrs. 21 Carrie Server A.S.-Mgmt. 4 yrs. 21 B.A.-English 21 Larry Supervisor 12 yrs. 9 yrs. John Receiving 6 yrs. 8 yrs. Bonnie Cashier Molly Coordinator X X Shaun H.R. manager X Sarah Supervisor All-American Dining Nancy Director 41 X 32 X Stan Asst. director 32 X 34 X Larry Supervisor \u00a9 Cengage Learning Eric Vending manager As the consultants sat at the table, several of Questions the employees came over to speak with them. The workers seemed relaxed and joked with the con- 1. How effective was the OD consultants\u2019 sultants. Doug commented he was working on data gathering? The content of the data? putting his r\u00e9sum\u00e9 together, and Chris told the The process of how the data were partners about some new recipes he was develop- collected? ing. The pantry workers and dish room workers made small talk until the consultants said they 2. What concepts or models might help you had to depart. Roger, Lynn, and Erica thanked the analyze the data? What conclusions would you workers for being so cooperative and said they draw from the analysis? hoped to see them sometime soon. 3. How should the feedback session be designed?","SELECTED CASES 257 Selected Cases DIAGNOSIS AND FEEDBACK AT ADHIKAR* Adhikar is a human rights-based, non- governmental organization (NGO). Head- back on the analysis and recommendations for quartered in Jharkhand, India, it was action. Together, Pia and the OD practitioners founded in 1985 to empower society\u2019s agreed to one- to two-hour interviews with poor and marginalized populations. It has each coordinator concerning their views of worked from within socially marginalized com- the organization, its culture, and any concerns munities to organize against the unjust distribu- or suggestions. All the respondents were to be tion of wealth, resources, or power. Rajan assured of the confidentiality of their Mishra founded the organization and demon- responses. In addition, the OD practitioner strated the importance of self-determination would visit a field location in Ghatsila to interact by organizing people into unions and other col- with the workers and interview the regional lectives. The organization has grown from a coordinator, Mr. Dubey. During this visit, she handful of people inspired by Mishra\u2019s vision would sit in on one of the regional meetings during its early days to over 200 employees. and interview the field workers in small groups Adhikar\u2019s scope of work and involvement of four or five. This was done to understand the are outlined in Figure 1. Under the umbrella of organization from the view of the fieldworkers the Adivasi Sangathan unit, Adhikar organizes and gain insight into its issues through their regional laborers into unions. Adhikar also lens. works in the area of budgetary analysis and Finally, the OD practitioner would make expenditure monitoring of the state govern- systematic observations of nonverbal beha- ment through its financial education unit called viors, patterns of interaction, and descriptions Arthik Siksha. In addition, Adhikar administers a of the relationships among members during scholarship program that seeks to fund and interviews, focus groups, and the meetings train local level leaders and an emergency she attended. This would provide indications response program that delivers relief services of the organization\u2019s climate. in times of natural disasters. Following the data collection, a session INITIATING A CHANGE PROCESS\u2014 would be held with all the coordinators to pres- ENTRY AND CONTRACTING ent the findings. This would serve as both a mirroring (feedback) activity as well as a The Adhikar engagement began with contact forum for initiating dialogue and communica- between Ms. Pia Mishra, an Adhikar regional tion across the various units and members of coordinator and an OD practitioner with the organization. whom she had worked previously, to discuss Prior to the interviews, the OD practitioner the possibility of an intervention. The organiza- familiarized herself with Adhikar and its activi- tion had grown substantially, and its founder ties through a study of various reports and pub- had recently joined the central government, lications, including annual reports, budget necessitating his withdrawal from day-to-day analysis reports of Arthik Siksha, newspaper management. A second meeting was arranged clippings, and other documents relating to the to explain the nature of the intended engage- organization. The OD practitioner then met ment and seek formal permission to enter the each of the coordinators of Adhikar, starting organization, gather information, and report with Pia, who served as the point of contact throughout. Most of the issues and concerns *This case was abridged and adapted from N. Nair and described below surfaced through these ses- N. Vohra, \u201cThe case of OD in an NGO in India,\u201d Journal sions. She observed that while most coordina- of Management Development, 30 (2011): 148\u201359. tors opened up freely to discuss their concerns, others, like Ms. Devi (the Chaibasa The names of the organization, its location, and the Regional Coordinator), were less open and did various individuals have been disguised to maintain confidentiality.","258 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT FIGURE 1 Adhikar\u2019s Scope of Work \u00a9 Cengage Learning 2015 not share much about their views on Adhikar and direction of Adhikar as either rights-based or devel- its functioning. opmental or a combination of both did not have a consensus among all the coordinators. The view Most coordinators had been with the organiza- posed by some was that it was time for Adhikar tion since its inception. All of them echoed a strong to move into developmental work, given that sense of organizational identification and commit- much of the rights-based work had been success- ment. There was high regard for the founder, ful and the future lay in the area of capacity Mr. Mishra. However, Pia has had to prove herself building. in the organization, although she is professionally qualified and has been actively working in the Issues Related to Structure field. Interestingly, during meetings with Pia, she never mentioned that she was the daughter of There appeared to be a lack of clarity regarding the founder. The OD practitioner came to know Adhikar\u2019s structure. As the organization had this only during the course of her later interviews. grown, its structure had evolved. Adhikar was cur- rently structured along both geographic and pro- DIAGNOSTIC DATA gram dimensions (Figure 3). The various unions and programs were managed by different coordina- The data from the interviews were categorized tors that all reported directly to the Managing using Weisbord\u2019s six-box model (Figure 2) and are Trustee, Mr. Mishra. In addition, location coordina- described below. tors in Chaibasa, Ghatsila, and Saraikela worked to see that the programs were implemented locally Issues Related to Purpose and also reported to the Managing Trustee. There was considerable agreement on the organi- The structural confusion existed primarily zation\u2019s objective: facilitating social change through because of considerable overlap in reporting rela- rights-based mobilization and advocacy. However, tionships and responsibilities between programs some coordinators believed that the organization and regions. Interviewees cited instances when needed to work more towards the capacity build- this caused conflict regarding reporting relation- ing development of the tribal\/regional unions and ships or precedence of command. not just their formation. The vision and future","SELECTED CASES 259 FIGURE 2 Weisbord\u2019s Six-Box Model \u00a9 Cengage Learning 2015 FIGURE 3 Adhikar Reporting Structure \u00a9 Cengage Learning 2015","260 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT Coordinators had considerable autonomy. How- because of their dedication to the original cause. ever, some felt that the sense of responsibility and The newer employees (some better qualified pro- accountability that comes with empowerment was fessionally) were getting paid higher wages, which lacking in Adhikar. Various coordinating mechan- was perceived to be discriminatory and was a isms, such as periodic meetings among coordinators source of discontent among the older members. to make decentralization effective, were absent. In such a scenario, the different units seemed to be As a NGO that depended on external funding, operating in silos with little coordination and a total the issue of job security was also a matter of con- absence of centralization at any level. cern. With Mr. Mishra\u2019s declining involvement, there was a palpable fear that Adhikar might Issues Related to Relationships close its doors in the not too distant future. The interviewees suggested that some form of assur- The most common theme in the interviews was the ance from the leadership of Adhikar might ease the concern over a lack of coordination. Most of the sense of insecurity. program coordinators thought that there should be more integration among them. Each unit of Adhikar Issues Related to Helpful Mechanisms was performing well, but there was little sharing of information. Although there was a high degree of Some coordinators were concerned about the decentralization and autonomy at the coordinator irregularity of reporting. While some coordinators level, the coordinating mechanisms were absent. made progress reports on time, others were con- There had been a noticeable decline, over time, in sistently tardy and this was pointed out as an the number of meetings when all the coordinators example of inconsistency in leadership and author- met, and many cited this as a reason for the discon- ity. Most coordinators in the past had reported ver- nect they felt with Adhikar as a whole. bally on a regular basis to Mr. Mishra, who was able to fill in gaps of information whenever In talking with old versus new coordinators, required for other coordinators. Thus, the formal the data supported the conclusion that there was system of submitting and reading others\u2019 reports little trust between the two groups. The new coor- had never been emphasized. dinators felt their professional growth and program initiatives were stymied by the old guard who Issues Related to Leadership appeared to be protecting their turf. New coordina- tors did not feel welcomed by the more senior Adhikar\u2019s founder and leader was considered coordinators. On the other hand, the older mem- dynamic and charismatic\u2014a number of people bers in the organization believed that the new coor- had been attracted to the organization by his per- dinators were over-ambitious and got right into the sonality. At the time of the interviews, Mr. Mishra field without making an effort to understand the had taken a position in India\u2019s central government organization. This concern was voiced by a few and was moving away from day-to-day manage- but not all coordinators, but the OD practitioner ment. This behavior was interpreted as an appro- believed it had the potential to grow and create priate response to keep political alignments conflict if not properly addressed. transparent. However, it did create a leadership vacuum. A related theme was that new entrants did not go through any formal socialization process, which Perhaps because of his absence, many in the also manifested in a feeling of not being welcomed organization were worried about a dearth of into the organization. The interviewees provided second-level leaders in the organization. Even in examples where new entrants had to seek infor- his absence, Mr. Mishra still appeared to be the mation and figure things out for themselves, de facto leader. The organization seemed to be fac- which further created a feeling of isolation. ing a crisis in terms of a leader who could com- mand the same level of respect and following. Issues Related to Rewards Two women, Ms. Devi and Pia, were most Adhikar began as a rights-based organization and often cited as potential future leaders of Adhikar. most of the older employees chose to work there The Chaibasa coordinator, Ms. Devi, had been","SELECTED CASES 261 with the organization since its founding and was however, the OD practitioner got the sense that supported by the people in her region. In the they were open to having a woman leader. Some eyes of some others, however, Ms. Devi was a of the coordination issues were expected to be shadow of Mr. Mishra and a surrogate leader for addressed if a new leader was appointed. Pia. Ms. Devi was viewed consistently as a good worker, but lacked the vision needed to lead a Questions highly motivated team. Ms. Devi had not been very forthcoming in the interview. 1. Based on the data provided in the case, what\u2019s your analysis of the situation at Adhikar? Is the In the absence of her father, Pia appeared to organization in trouble? If so, how big is the be the chief decision maker. She had been with problem? Is the organization \u201cdoing fine?\u201d the organization for five years as the Program That is, are all the data presented just symp- Director of Ghatsila, and operated from the head- toms of an organization that is young and quarters while Ms. Devi preferred to work from her growing? Chaibasa location. 2. Design the feedback meeting. What\u2019s the Both women, independently, echoed reserva- purpose of the meeting, what\u2019s the agenda, tions as potential next leaders and mentioned their how will you present the data? gender as one of the reasons. They felt that the other male coordinators and the community they 3. What activities do you believe the Adhikar served might not be ready for a female leader. In organization should take? What problems do discussions with most of the other coordinators, you think these actions would solve?","262 PART 2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT MANAGING CHANGE: ACTION PLANNING FOR Selected Cases THE V\u00c9LO V PROJECT IN LYON, FRANCE The city of Lyon is located in the central part of France, about two hours south of Paris via time\u2014was that commuters and pedestrians TGV. It has a long and rich history as the cap- could pick up a bicycle at installations around the city\u2014near metro stops, businesses, or ital of Gaul in the Roman Empire, a world- large public venues\u2014and use it to shop, go to wide center of silk production, and a work, or simply get from one part of town to the stronghold of the French resistance during other more conveniently than a car or the bus, World War II. Today, Lyon is the third largest metro, or light-rail system. The original idea was city in France, has a thriving high tech and phar- that the bike could be used for free for less than maceutical industry, and is considered the gas- an hour and at very low prices if used for longer tronomical capital of a country known for its periods. (To get a picture of the system and cuisine and wine. Unfortunately, with size and its different parts today, go to www.velov industry came pollution, overcrowding, and traf- .grandlyon.com.) \u201cIt is our intent to turn bicycles fic jams. In the mid-1990s, only 18% of its citi- into a mode of daily travel for workers in the zens had easy access to public transportation city,\u201d said one government official. versus 30% in other towns of equivalent size. An initial budget of \u20ac2 million per year was By 2000, Lyon\u2019s city government had con- estimated to invest in bikes, registration sys- structed an above-ground light rail system to tems, installations, and support operations complement the existing underground metro until about 2007. To support the project, the and bus network in an effort to extend public city also envisioned construction or remodeling transportation to more people. However, the of several parking garages to encourage people outdoor station\u2019s stops needed shelters to pro- to park their cars on the outskirts of town and tect waiting passengers from the wind, rain, and then pick up a bike to finish the commute. Two snow. In an innovative program, the marketing parking garages in the downtown area had and advertising firm, JCDecaux, in cooperation already begun offering free bicycles for those with Lyon\u2019s development office, created \u201cstreet who parked their vehicle there. furniture\u201d to house the benches, ticket vend- The project\u2014named V\u00e9lo V\u2014was pre- ing machines, route maps, and time tables. sented by the city\u2019s mayor before the second JCDecaux constructed and maintained the annual \u201cday without a car\u201d festival. V\u00e9lo V sites in exchange for the revenue from adver- would be managed by JCDecaux. They would tisements placed on the shelters. The program own and maintain the bikes and finance opera- was a win\u2013win for both organizations. tions through advertising receipts. The head of The success of the cooperative tram and the city\u2019s development function suggested that bus shelter project, and the city\u2019s continued inter- it was a bold attempt to \u201ceffect a radical change est in easing pollution and traffic jams in the in the philosophy\u201d of the urban community. At commercial center of the city, led them to seek the time, less than 3% of the people in Lyon out additional change. They asked JCDecaux for used a bicycle, against 10% in Strasbourg and input. JCDecaux had been testing the idea of a other cities. The proposal was supported by Les self-service bicycle program in Vienna, Austria Verts, France\u2019s Green political party, but the and C\u00f3rdobo and Gijon, Spain and they proposed president of the local nongovernmental transpor- adopting and implementing a \u201cbike exchange\u201d tation union was upset that there had been little network in and around Lyon in mid-2002. For dialogue with various concerned organizations. Lyon and its neighboring city of Villeurbanne, it The goal was to launch a 24 hours\/day was a risky and large-scale proposal. operation in May 2005 with 1,200 bicycles The vision\u2014common now in many in 120 stations. According to a JCDecaux European cities, but completely novel at the regional manager, they expected 2,000 bikes","SELECTED CASES 263 in 180 stations by October and projected 3,000 bikes 2. Using the tools, methods, and processes in 2006 and 4,000 bikes in 2007. described in Chapter 8, construct a compre- hensive \u201caction plan\u201d for this project. Where Questions would you start? Who are the key stake- holders and how will you manage them? What 1. Assume you are a project manager at are the practical categories of activities that JCDecaux and have been assigned to work need to be addressed? What are the with the City of Lyon to implement this physi- sequences of change that have to happen? cal, organizational, and social change. What What do you see as the key activities and are the practical and philosophical implications initiatives? of this work?"]