448 PART 3 The Group Summary Leadership plays a central part in understanding group behavior because it’s the leader who usually directs us toward our goals. Knowing what makes a good leader should thus be valuable toward improving group performance. The Big Five personality framework shows strong and consistent relation- ships between personality and leadership. The behavioral approach’s major contribution was narrowing leadership into task-oriented (initiating structure) and people-oriented (consideration) styles. By considering the situation in which the leader operates, contingency theories promised to improve on the behavioral approach. Contemporary theories have made major contributions to our understanding of leadership effectiveness, and studies of ethics and positive leadership offer exciting promise. Implications for Managers ●● For maximum leadership effectiveness, ensure that your preferences on the initiating structure and consideration dimensions are a match for your work dynamics and culture. ●● Hire candidates who exhibit transformational leadership qualities and who have demonstrated success in working through others to meet a long-term vision. Personality tests can reveal candidates higher in extra- version, conscientiousness, and openness, which may indicate leadership readiness. ●● Hire candidates whom you believe are ethical and trustworthy for man- agement roles and train current managers in your organization’s ethical standards in order to increase leadership effectiveness. ●● Seek to develop trusting relationships with followers because, as organiza- tions have become less stable and predictable, strong bonds of trust are replacing bureaucratic rules in defining expectations and relationships. ●● Consider investing in leadership training such as formal courses, work- shops, and mentoring.
Leadership CHAPTER 12 449 ceOs start early POInT COunTErPOInT If you really get down to specifics, you can see that Ceos start Ceos who start early have good stories to tell when they become in leadership roles early in life. They have similar backgrounds, successful, but that doesn’t necessarily mean they represent childhood challenges, and coping strategies. In fact, it’s easy to the majority. Let’s look at a few other aspects of the tender see a Ceo-in-the-making at your neighborhood lemonade stand. years of Ceos. What’s the profile of burgeoning Ceos? It starts with their First, we know that much of our personality is attributable to parents, who are almost all successful through industriousness. For genetics, but it’s incorrect to infer that we can (a) map the genetic example, the father of Linda Zecher, Ceo of publisher Houghton mifflin trail for a personality trait from ancestors to Ceo, or (b) tell where a Harcourt, founded a number of businesses. Brent Frei, Ceo of software young person’s traits will lead. Likewise, we can’t say that if the parents company Smartsheet.com, grew up on an 800-acre farm his father are successful through industriousness, their children will be. Story’s owned and ran. Aspera Ceo michelle munson’s mother was a profes- parents worked in a cotton mill and a wastewater plant, and they sor and her father was the fifth-generation leader of her farm. “didn’t have a lot of money.” Frei’s family farm “was a little bit below the threshold for break-even.” mitch rothschild, Ceo of website vitals, Second, future Ceos are raised with responsibilities. Susan Story, observed, “Parents influence you either because you want to be like Ceo of utility company American Water, learned as a child that “no them or because you want to not be like them.” matter how bad things get, it’s about working hard and taking per- sonal responsibility, because nobody owes you anything.” Frei “had Second, what child is raised without responsibilities? none, even an opportunity to do big things early on. When I was 6 years old, my if all they have to do is go to school. There are plenty of Ceos who had dad ...put me in the pickup, put it in first gear, and I drove it home with a lot of responsibilities growing up, and others who did not. munson’s my 5-year-old sister in the passenger seat.” A number of Ceos grow up parents “emphasized two things. one was education, and the other working on family farms or taking care of their siblings. was participating in 4-H.” Zecher “had a paper route. I was a girl scout, and I was involved in a lot of clubs and sports in high school.” Third, burgeoning Ceos are successful leaders when they’re young. ruth rathblott, Ceo of Harlem educational Activities Fund, was pres- Third, it would be a mistake to conclude that Ceos start as young ident of her 7th grade class, then president of the middle school; leaders. The ones who don’t simply don’t talk about it. ron Kaplan, Brad Jefferson, Ceo of video slide show service Animoto, was the high Ceo of manufacturer Trex, was a marksmanship competitor. Zecher school quarterback, captain of the football team, and senior class didn’t have a plan or a leadership role until after college. president; and Hannah Paramore, founder of digital agency Paramore, “was always the one in charge. I was always captain of this and cap- The stories of Ceos who start early make for good press reports, tain of that.” but Ceos do not by definition start early. What we can say, though, is that genetics and experiences both shape young people, and that the Clearly, Ceos start early. relationship between those factors and Ceo success is complex. Sources: A. Bryant, “A Good excuse Doesn’t Fix a Problem,” The New York Times, December 28, 2014, 2; A. Bryant, “Always respect the opportunity,” The New York Times, october 19, 2014, 2; A. Bryant, “Don’t Let your Strengths run Amok,” The New York Times, may 18, 2014, 2; A. Bryant, “Knowing your Company’s Heartbeat,” The New York Times, may 30, 2014, B2; A. Bryant, “The Danger of ‘one Size Fits All,’” The New York Times, march 29, 2015, 2; A. Bryant, “The Job Description Is Just the Start,” The New York Times, September 14, 2014, 2; A. Bryant, “making Judgments, Instead of Decisions,” The New York Times, may 4, 2014, 2; A. Bryant, “Pushing Beyond Comfort Zones,” The New York Times, January 25, 2015, 2; A. Bryant, “Tell me What’s Behind your Title,” The New York Times, April 11, 2014, B2; and C. Crossland, J. Zyung, n. J. Hiller, and D. C. Hambrick, “Ceo Career variety: effects on Firm-Level Strategic and Social novelty,” Academy of Management Journal 57, no. 3 (2014): 652–74.
450 PART 3 The Group cHaPter review MyManagementLab Go to mymanagementlab.com to complete the problems marked with this icon. QuestiOns FOr review 12-5 In what ways can leaders create ethical 12-1 What are the conclusions of trait theories organizations? of leadership? 12-6 How can leaders have a positive impact on 12-2 What are the central tenets and main their organizations through building trust and mentoring? limitations of behavioral theories of leadership? 12-7 What are the challenges to our understanding 12-3 What are the contingency theories of of leadership? leadership? 12-4 How do the contemporary theories of leadership relate to earlier foundational theories? exPerientiaL exercise What Is Leadership? Break the class into six groups: GROUP A: Government brainstorming, but by deciding upon descrip- Leaders (president, senator, governor, representative, as- tors that most of the group agrees are defining semblyperson); GROUP B: Business Leaders (CEO, presi- characteristics. dent, leader in business); GROUP C: School Leaders (class 12-9. Reconvene the class. Draw six columns for each president, informal leader); GROUP D: Sports Leaders group and list the characteristics for each group. (team captain, informal team leader, coach); GROUPS E What similarities do you see between the lists? and F: Effective Managers (manager who demonstrates From the results of this exercise, does it appear competence/effectiveness in position). that what it takes to be a good leader is different depending on the classification? Does it seem 12-8. Each group identifies the defining charac- that the characteristics for leaders differ greatly teristics for the assigned role, not simply by from those needed for good managers? etHicaL DiLeMMa Smoking Success the largest directory for California medical-marijuana users to find accessible doctors and dispensaries, and charges “I’ve been high since I’m 13,” Justin Hartfield observed, subscribers $295+ per month; his other business through admitting that his résumé includes a stint as a high-school Ghost Group invests in start-up marijuana operations. “I’m marijuana distributor and a member of a group of website doing everything I can in this industry legally that isn’t go- hackers. Now in his 30s, Hartfield is a successful entrepre- ing to throw me in jail,” he said. neur and investor. So what if he’s dealing in the same ven- ues of his childhood passions—marijuana and websites? So far, the government has kept Hartfield in check. He says, “Marijuana is not going to be profitable to make Federally, marijuana is a controlled Schedule 1 narcotic in the long term, it’s going to be a dollar a gram. And so (sharing the class with cocaine and heroin), so he has con- someone . . . needs to step in and make it profitable to grow. centrated on the 20 states (and the District of Columbia) I’m the best guy to do it.” Hartfield envisions himself as the that allow medical marijuana use and, of course, Colo- top leader of a newly legalized industry. rado and Washington where the drug is legal for recre- ational use. Hartfield hopes recreational marijuana use is Obviously, he has no issue with the ethics of marijuana consumption or distribution. He created Weedmaps.com,
Leadership CHAPTER 12 451 legalized everywhere soon. “I care about the least amount who were heavy marijuana smokers lost up to 8 IQ of people suffering under prohibition,” he said, “and sec- points. Do you think that as a leader Hartfield has ondarily the more money I can make.” a responsibility for the health of his customers? 12-11. How do you think the ethical responsibilities of Questions leaders in this industry compare to those of leaders 12-10. Hartfield is a leader in his industry, and he hopes in, say, the tobacco and alcohol industries? 12-12. Would you take a leadership role in an organiza- to sell the most marijuana possible. Meanwhile, tion if you had an ethical issue with its product or a study published by the National Academy of service? Why or why not? Sciences indicated that New Zealand teenagers Sources: Justin Ross Hartfield website, www.justinhartfield.me; B. Weiss, “Thank You for Smoking— Marijuana,” The Wall Street Journal, March 15–16, 2014, A11; and K. Wagner, “Weedmaps CEO Justin Hartfield May Soon Be America’s Weed Guy,” Mashable, May 16, 2014, www.mashable .com/2014/05/16/weedmaps-ceo-justin-hartfield/. case inciDent 1 My Holiday the Virgin Way One day, Virgin Group founder Richard Branson received not work. With companies no longer able to accurately an excited e-mail from his daughter. She had read a news- track people’s time on the job, why track people’s time off paper article talking about a new vacation policy that the job? It was this point exactly that convinced Richard seemed like just the thing for Virgin. According to this Branson to introduce the new vacation policy within the policy, all salaried staff are permitted to take leave when- Virgin businesses, from entertainment and airline com- ever they want and for as long as they want. Employees panies to hotels and banking. Other businesses that did need no prior approval and absolutely no one is keeping the same experienced a boost in productivity, creativity, track of their holidays. If they feel like taking time off for a and morale. Adjusting to new developments and chal- day, a week, or even a month, it is up to them to decide— lenging situations seems the right thing to do for leaders on one condition. They need to be 100 percent sure their who strive to successfully launch their organizations into absence does not harm their company in any way. As a con- the future. sequence, they have to be certain that they and their team are up-to-date on every project. Questions 12-13. Do you expect Virgin’s new vacation policy to work Modern technology has radically changed the world and that includes our working day. Since the arrival of within all organizations? Why or why not? smart phones, laptops and tablets, we actually carry the 12-14. Path-goal theory suggests that leaders adjust their office around in our briefcases and pockets. We receive job-related e-mails and text messages anytime and any- behavior to people’s locus of control. Considering where, often expecting and indeed getting a prompt Branson’s new policy, which locus of control does response. Although people might not realize it very much, he expect his employees to have? Why? their work has overtaken their free time and private lives. 12-15. Some people might consider Virgin’s policy to be a Thus, it is hard to tell precisely when people do or do sign of laissez-faire leadership. Do you agree? Why or why not? Sources: R. Branson, The Virgin Way: How to Listen, Learn, Laugh and Lead (Virgin Books, 2014); P. Hersey and K.H. Blanchard, So You Want to Know Your Leadership Style? Training and Devel- opment Journal 28, no. 2 (1974): 22–37; J. Mesu, K. Sanders, and M. Van Riemsdijk, “Transfor- mational Leadership and Organisational Commitment in Manufacturing and Service Small to Medium-Sized Enterprises: The Moderating Effects of Directive and Participative Leadership,” Personnel Review 44, no. 6 (2015): 970–90; R.J. House, “A Path-Goal Theory of Leader Effective- ness,” Administrative Science Quarterly 16, no. 3 (1971): 321–39; R.J. House, “Path-Goal Theory of Leadership: Lessons, Legacy, and a Reformulated Theory,” Leadership Quarterly (Fall 1996): 353; B.M. Bass and R.E. Riggio, Transformational Leadership. Mahwah (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006).
452 PART 3 The Group case inciDent 2 Leadership Traits position—turning around a bank in trouble—and his inexperience in leading a large complex bank brought Researchers have been interested in leadership traits for about his medical problems. Some financial pundits over a century. Hundreds of studies have been conducted, believed that he would never recover sufficiently to re- resulting in a basic consensus on leadership traits or char- sume his leadership at the bank. However, on January 9, acteristics that separate leaders from non-leaders. Today, 2012, some two months later, Horta-Osorio proved them among the key traits we often attribute to leaders, determi- wrong. By his account, during his recovery process, he nation is one that can be seen in many who are influential reflected on the experience and learned that all peo- and successful. ple are human with strengths and weaknesses. Further- more, since his return to the bank, he has managed to The 19th century German philosopher Frederick strengthen the bank’s position in the industry showing Nietzsche’s maxim “That which does not kill us, makes as a top performer among major British banks. us stronger” can be applied to leaders of organizations today. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill offered Horta-Osorio’s persistence, in combination with slightly different advice to the students in his commence- other leadership traits, enabled him to succeed where ment speech at the Harrow School on October 29, 1941, non-leaders may not have. After getting a “reality check” when he said, “Never give in, never, never, never, never— on his personal and mental health, he persevered, de- in nothing, great or small, large or petty—never give in veloped his strategy, remained focused and spirited, and except to convictions of honor and good sense. Never called on others for support, rather than succumb to the yield to force; never yield to the apparently overwhelm- negativism of naysayers. ing might of the enemy.” Antonio Horta-Osorio, the Portuguese banker who became CEO of Santander UK Questions in 2006 and assumed the helm of Lloyds Banking Group 12-16. What leadership traits does Antonio Hotra-Osorio in March, 2011, demonstrates the kind of attitude that Churchill’s speech describes. Horta-Osorio encoun- demonstrate as a result of his ability to resume his tered serious personal problems that led the board to role at Lloyds Bank after such a personal issue? grant him a sabbatical from his leadership position at 12-17. Are there other examples of leaders who have the bank. An avid tennis player, a scuba diver who rou- been able to overcome such adversity? Who are tinely encountered sharks, and a 12-hour-a-day banker, they? Did they approach the problem as Hotra- Horta-Osorio had been in his position at Lloyds for just Osorio did? eight months when he was granted a medical leave of ab- 12-18. To what degree is it possible to develop leadership sence to recover from insomnia and exhaustion, which traits? Are they innate? What are some ways one were symptoms of stress. Confidential sources specu- can develop persistence? lated that he was unable to meet the demands of the Sources: Stuart Taylor, “How to Build a Sustainable High-Performance Organization,” Inside HR, http://www .insidehr.com.au/how-to-build-a-sustainable-high-performance-organisation/; Andrea Ovans, “What Resil- ience Means, and Why It Matters,” Harvard Business Review, January 05, 2015, https://hbr.org/2015/01/ what-resilience-means-and-why-it-matters; “Horta-Osório Steps Back at Lloyds,” FT.com, November 4, 2015, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/98e28be2-0709-11e1-90de-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3niXjZBHC; Patrick Jenkins, “Tennis with the FT: António Horta-Osório,” FT.com, July 27, 2012, http://www.ft.com/ intl/cms/s/2/f3a0c8e8-d6b9-11e1-ba60-00144feabdc0.html; James Quinn, “Antonio Horta-Osorio Is Leading Lloyds Back to Health with Aplomb,” The Telegraph, February 27, 2015, http://www.telegraph .co.uk/finance/newsbysector/banksandfinance/11441430/Antonio-Horta-Osorio-is-leading-Lloyds-back- to-health-with-aplomb.html; “Antonio Horta-Osorio Profile: The Banker Who Swims with Sharks and Had a Good Recession,” The Telegraph, November 10, 2011, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysec- tor/banksandfinance/8107440/Antonio-Horta-Osorio-profile-the-banker-who-swims-with-sharks-and-had- a-good-recession.html; Jill Treanor, “Lloyds Boss Defends His Record as Four Years of ‘Doing the Right Thing’,” The Guardian, March 28, 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/mar/28/lloyds-boss- antonio-horta-osorio-defends-record; Dan Milmo, “Lloyds Bank Boss Horta-Osório Returning to Work af- ter Sick Leave,” The Guardian, December 14, 2011, http://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/dec/14/ lloyds-bank-antonio-horta-osorio-returns; Julia Werdigier and Landon Thomas Jr., “At Lloyds, a Bank and Its Boss on the Rebound,” DealBook, December 27, 2013, http://dealbook.nytimes.com/2013/12/27/ at-lloyds-a-bank-and-its-boss-on-the-rebound/; Julia Werdigier, “Lloyds Chief, after Medical Leave, Turns Down Bonus,” DealBook, January 13, 2012, http://dealbook.nytimes.com/2012/01/13/lloyds-chief- turns-down-bonus/.
Leadership CHAPTER 12 453 MyManagementLab Go to mymanagementlab.com for the following Assisted-graded writing questions: 12-19. Considering the chapter and Case Incident 2, why would a personalized leadership development program be preferable to a best-practices teaching program? 12-20. Do you think leaders are more ethical now than ever before? Why or why not? 12-21. MyManagementLab Only – comprehensive writing assignment for this chapter. enDnOtes 11This research is updated in T. A. Judge, Performance and Satisfaction within a Path- R. F. Piccolo, and R. Ilies, “The Forgotten Goal Theory Framework,” Journal of Occupa- 1See T. A. Judge, J. E. Bono, R. Ilies, and Ones? The Validity of Consideration and Initiat- tional and Organizational Psychology 81 (2008): M. W. Gerhardt, “Personality and Leadership: ing Structure in Leadership Research,” Journal 71–82. A Qualitative and Quantitative Review,” Journal of Applied Psychology, February 2004, 36–51. 19V. H. Vroom and A. G. 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Brad- Project GLOBE,” Academy of Management sor–Subordinate Convergence in Descriptions ley, “Personality and Leadership Composition Perspectives, February 2006, 67–90. of Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Quality: in Top Management Teams: Implications 14For more current discussion on the model, Review and Testable Propositions,” Leadership for Organizational Effectiveness,” Personnel see S. Altmaee, K. Tuerk, and O.-S. Toomet, Quarterly 20, no. 6 (2009): 920–32. Psychology 67 (2014): 351-87. “Thomas-Kilmann’s Conflict Management 22B. Erdogan and T. N. Bauer, “Differentiated 4K.-Y. Ng, S. Ang, and K. Chan, “Personal- Modes and Their Relationship to Fiedler’s Leader–Member Exchanges: The Buffering ity and Leader Effectiveness: A Moderated Leadership Styles (Basing on Estonian Organi- Role of Justice Climate,” Journal of Applied Psy- Mediation Model of Leadership Self-Efficacy, zations),” Baltic Journal of Management 8, no. 1 chology 95, no. 6 (2010): 1104–20; S. J. 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454 PART 3 The Group 26R. Eisenberger, G. Karagonlar, F. Stinglham- 39A. Erez, V. F. Misangyi, D. E. Johnson, Studies 21, no. 4 (2014): 338–53; and T. A. ber, P. Neves, T. E. Becker, M. G. Gonzalez- M. A. LePine, and K. C. Halverson, “Stirring Judge and R. F. Piccolo, “Transformational Morales, and M. Steiger-Mueller, “Leader- the Hearts of Followers: Charismatic Leader- and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-Ana- Member Exchange and Affective Organizational ship as the Transferal of Affect,” Journal of lytic Test of Their Relative Validity,” Journal of Commitment: The Contribution of Supervisor’s Applied Psychology 93, no. 3 (2008): 602–15. Applied Psychology, October 2004, 755–68. Organizational Embodiment,” Journal of Applied For reviews on the role of vision in leadership, 47A. E. Colbert, M. R. Barrick, and B. H. Brad- Psychology 95, no. 6 (2010): 1085–103. see S. J. Zaccaro, “Visionary and Inspirational ley, “Personality and Leadership Composition 27J. Bagger and A. 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456 PART 3 The Group Servant Leadership,” Journal of Applied Psychol- 97J. A. Colquitt, B. A. Scott, and J. A. LePine, 108See, for example, L. Eby, M. Buits, and A. ogy, 96, no. 4 (July 2011): 851–62. “Trust, Trustworthiness, and Trust Propensity: Lockwood, “Protégés’ Negative Mentoring 88M. J. Neubert, K. M. Kacmar, D. S. Carlson, A Meta-Analytic Test of Their Unique Relation- Experiences: Construct Development and L. B. Chonko, and J. A. Roberts, “Regulatory ships with Risk Taking and Job Performance;” Nomological Validation,” Personnel Psychology, Focus as a Mediator of the Influence of Initiat- and F. D. Schoorman, R. C. Mayer, and J. H. Summer 2004, 411–47. ing Structure and Servant Leadership on Em- Davis, “An Integrative Model of Organizational 109C. R. Wanberg, E. T. Welsh, and ployee Behavior,” Journal of Applied Psychology Trust: Past, Present, and Future.” S. A. Hezlett, “Mentoring Research: A Review 93, no. 6 (2008): 1220–33. 98Cited in D. 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Leadership CHAPTER 12 457 115M. K. Feeney and B. Bozeman, “Mentor- 123A. S. Rosette, G. J. Leonardelli, and 130S. J. Zaccaro and P. Bader, “E-Leadership ing and Network Ties,” Human Relations K. W. Phillips, “The White Standard: Racial and the Challenges of Leading E-Teams: Mini- 61, no. 12 (2008): 1651–76; N. Bozionelos, Bias in Leader Categorization,” Journal of Ap- mizing the Bad and Maximizing the Good,” “Intra-Organizational Network Resources: plied Psychology 93, no. 4 (2008): 758–77. Organizational Dynamics 31, no. 4 (2003): How They Relate to Career Success and Or- 124A. M. Koenig, A. H. Eagly, A. A. Mitchell, 381–85. ganizational Commitment,” Personnel Review and T. Ristikari, “Are Leader Stereotypes 131C. E. Naquin and G. D. Paulson, 37, no. 3 (2008): 249–63; and S. A. Hezlett Masculine? A Meta-Analysis of Three Research “Online Bargaining and Interpersonal and S. K. Gibson, “Linking Mentoring and Paradigms,” Psychological Bulletin 137, no. 4 Trust,” Journal of Applied Psychology, February Social Capital: Implications for Career and (2011): 616–42. 2003, 113–20. Organization Development,” Advances in 125M. Van Vugt and B. R. Spisak, “Sex Dif- 132B. M. Bass, “Cognitive, Social, and Developing Human Resources 9, no. 3 (2007): ferences in the Emergence of Leadership Emotional Intelligence of Transformational 384–412. During Competitions within and between Leaders,” in R. E. Riggio, S. E. Murphy, and 116Comment by Jim Collins, cited in J. Useem, Groups,” Psychological Science 19, no. 9 (2008): F. J. Pirozzolo (eds.), Multiple Intelligences and “Conquering Vertical Limits,” Fortune, Febru- 854–58. Leadership (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, ary 19, 2001, 94. 126Ibid. 2002), 113–14. 117See, for instance, B. Schyns, J. Felfe, and 127R. E. Silverman, “Who’s the Boss? There 133“JCPenney Names Marvin Ellison Presi- H. Blank, “Is Charisma Hyper-Romanticism? Isn’t One,” The Wall Street Journal, June 20, dent and CEO-Designee,” JCPenney Press Empirical Evidence from New Data and a 2012, B 1, B8. Release August 1, 2015, http://ir.jcpenney Meta-Analysis,” Applied Psychology: An Interna- 128S. D. Dionne, F. J. Yammarino, L. E. .com/phoenix.zhtml?c=70528&p=irol- tional Review 56, no. 4 (2007): 505–27. Atwater, and L. R. James, “Neutralizing Sub- newsArticle&ID=1976923. 118M. J. Martinko, P. Harvey, D. Sikora, and S. stitutes for Leadership Theory: Leadership 134“Most Underachieving: CEOs,” Bloomberg, C. Douglas, “Perceptions of Abusive Supervi- Effects and Common-Source Bias,” Journal of 2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/visual- sion: The Role of Subordinates’ Attribution Applied Psychology, 87 (2002): 454–64; and data/best-and-worst//most-underachieving- Styles,” Leadership Quarterly, August 2011, J. R. Villa, J. P. Howell, P. W. Dorfman, and ceos. 751–64. D. L. Daniel, “Problems with Detecting 135See, for instance, P. Dvorak, “M.B.A. 119M. C. Bligh, J. C. Kohles, C. L. Pearce, Moderators in Leadership Research Using Programs Hone ‘Soft Skills,’” The Wall Street J. E. Justin, and J. F. Stovall, “When the Moderated Multiple Regression,” Leadership Journal, February 12, 2007, B3. Romance Is Over: Follower Perspectives of Quarterly 14 (2002): 3–23. 136J. Weber, “The Leadership Factor,” Business- Aversive Leadership,” Applied Psychology: An 129L. A. Hambley, T. A. O’Neill, and Week, June 12, 2006, 60–64. International Review 56, no. 4 (2007): 528–57. T. J. B. Kline, “Virtual Team Leadership: The 137D. Brady, “The Rising Star of CEO Consult- 120B. R. Agle, N. J. Nagarajan, J. A. Sonnen- Effects of Leadership Style and Communica- ing,” Bloomberg Businessweek, November 24, feld, and D. Srinivasan, “Does CEO Charisma tion Medium on Team Interaction Styles 2010, www.businessweek.com. Matter?” Academy of Management Journal 49, and Outcomes,” Organizational Behavior and 138D. S. DeRue, J. D. Nahrgang, J. R. Hol- no. 1 (2006): 161–74. Human Decision Processes 103 (2007): 1–20; lenbeck, and K. Workman, “A Quasi-Exper- 121Bligh, Kohles, Pearce, Justin, and Stovall, and B. J. Avolio and S. S. Kahai, “Adding the imental Study of After-Event Reviews and “When the Romance Is Over.” ‘E’ to E-Leadership: How It May Impact Your Leadership Development,” Journal of Applied 122Schyns, Felfe, and Blank, “Is Charisma Leadership,” Organizational Dynamics 31, no. 4 Psychology 97 (2012): 997–1015. Hyper-Romanticism?” (2003): 325–38.
13 Power and Politics 458 Source: Robin Alam/Icon Sportswire/ AP Images
Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 13-1 Contrast leadership and power. 13-5 Identify the causes and consequences of abuse 13-2 of power. Explain the three bases of formal power and the two bases of personal power. 13-6 Describe how politics work in organizations. 13-7 13-3 Explain the role of dependence in power Identify the causes, consequences, and ethics relationships. of political behavior. 13-4 Identify power or influence tactics and their contingencies. MyManagement If your professor has chosen to assign this, go to the Assignments section of mymanagementlab.com to complete the chapter warm up. Power in College SPortS Anyone who follows sports knows the huge media presence college football and basketball have. With all this attention comes big money: Estimates put direct revenues for college sports at $16 billion for the 2014–2015 academic year alone, with forecasts for subsequent increases. Revenues from successful sports are often sufficient to provide many scholarships and fund nearly all other athletic programs. TV coverage also draws massive media attention for the top-performing schools, enhancing their reputations and attracting donors. The resulting combi- nation of large sums of money, complex power dynamics, and loose regulation systems creates a perfect environment for power struggles. It seems the lure of money and the pres- sure to compete at the stratospheric level are sometimes so great that college officials may become willing to subvert the rules and use political tactics to secure financial advantages for their institutions. In this paradigm, coaches are often more powerful and highly paid than university presidents. Many observers worry that student athletes, who are not paid at all, might be the casualties of the intense poli- tics. Their compensation is a good university education, which sometimes just doesn’t happen. These students aren’t always academically qualified
460 PART 3 The Group when they are recruited for their sports abilities, and are often not given the extra help needed to catch up. As researcher Richard Southall notes, “We pretend that it’s feasible to recruit high school graduates with minimal academic qualifications, giving them a full-time job as a football or basket- ball player at a Division I NCAA school, and somehow have them get up to college-level reading and writing skills at the same time that they’re enrolled in college-level classes.” The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the governing body, requires that student athletes maintain certain grade point aver- ages (GPAs) and graduation rates, but these metrics sometimes put university administrators, coaches, and professors in a power struggle. Administrators, alumni, and others who can influence the university’s rep- utation or revenue stream can use their power to influence coaches and officials. Professors and tutors, feeling political pressure from coaches and students to pass student athletes, sometimes follow the path of least resistance, developing fictional classes with few requirements and top grades. Few people in the chain are able to ignore the power players. In many cases, resisters and whistle-blowers even face retaliation. Athlete men- tor from the University of Georgia Billy Hawkins asks, regarding students who have been pushed through the system, “Have they learned anything? Are they productive citizens now? That’s a thing I worry about. To get a degree is one thing, to be functional with that degree is totally different.” The need to develop a workable solution for the power struggle in college sports is clear. Scandals like “paper classes” and/or falsified grading at Florida State University (2009), the University of Michigan (2008), Auburn University (2006), and the University of Georgia (2003) shed light on the problem. Media exposure and organizational politics can, if managed correctly, become part of the solution. Internal pressures from those who put a strong value on academic performance, as well as the desire of uni- versities and the NCAA to preserve a positive face to external constituents, are creating much of the pressure to ensure student athletes truly receive the type of education that has been claimed. Sources: P. M. Barrett, “The Insurgents Who Could Bring Down the NCAA,” Bloomberg Busi- ness, August 21, 2014, http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2014-08-21/paying-ncaa- college-athletes-inside-the-legal-battle; P. M. Barrett, “In Fake Classes Scandal, UNC Fails Its Athletes—And Whistle Blower,” Bloomberg Business, March 3, 2014, http://www.bloomberg .com/bw/articles/2014-02-27/in-fake-classes-scandal-unc-fails-its-athletes-whistle-blower; S. Ganim, “Some College Athletes Play Like Adults, Read Like 5th Graders,” CNN, January 8, 2014,http://www.cnn.com/2014/01/07/us/ncaa-athletes-reading-scores/; and B. Wolver ton, “NCAA Says It’s Investigating Academic Fraud at 20 Colleges,” The Chronicle, January 21, 2015, http://chronicle.com/article/NCAA-Says-It-s-Investigating/151315/.
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 461 A s we can see in the opening story, politics can wreak havoc on an essentially good system—in this case, ensuring student athletes get a high-quality edu- cation. In both practice and research, power and politics have been described as dirty words. In fact, it is easier for most of us to talk about sex or money than about power or political behavior. People who have power deny it, people who want it try not to look like they’re seeking it, and those who are good at getting it are secretive about how they do so.1 In this chapter, we show that power determines what goals people pursue, discuss how power works in organizations, and reveal the effects of political behavior. We begin by exploring our natural association of power with leadership. Watch It! If your professor has assigned this, go to the Assignments section of mymanagementlab.com to complete the video exercise titled Power and Political Behavior. 13-1 Contrast leadership Power and Leadership and power. In organizational behavior (OB), power refers to a capacity that A has to influ- power A capacity that A has to influence ence the behavior of B so B acts in accordance with A’s wishes.2 Someone can the behavior of B so that B acts in thus have power but not use it; it is a capacity or potential. Probably the most accordance with A’s wishes. important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence. The greater B’s dependence on A, the greater A’s power in the relationship. Dependence, dependence B’s relationship to A when in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance B places on A possesses something that B requires. the alternative(s) A controls. A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire. If you want a college degree and have to pass a certain course to get it, and your current instructor is the only faculty member in the college who teaches that course, she has power over you because your alternatives are highly limited and you place a high degree of importance on the outcome. Similarly, if you’re attending college on funds provided by your parents, you probably recognize the power they hold over you. But once you’re out of school, have a job, and are making a good income, your parents’ power is reduced significantly. Money is a powerful variable for dependence. Who among us has not heard of a rich relative who controls family members merely through the implicit or explicit threat of “writing them out of the will”? Another example is found on Wall Street, where portfolio manager Ping Jiang allegedly was able to coerce his subordinate, analyst Andrew Tong, into taking female hormones and wearing lipstick and makeup. Why such power? Jiang controlled Tong’s access to day trading and thus his livelihood.3 A careful comparison of our description of power with our description of leadership in Chapter 12 reveals the concepts are closely intertwined. Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. How are the two terms different? Power does not require goal compatibility, just dependence. Leadership, on the other hand, requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led. A second difference relates to the direction of influence. Lead- ership research focuses on the downward influence on followers. It minimizes the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. Power research takes all factors into consideration. For a third difference, leadership research often emphasizes style. It seeks answers to questions such as: How supportive should a leader be? How much decision making should be shared with followers? In con- trast, the research on power focuses on tactics for gaining compliance. Lastly, leadership concentrates on the individual leader’s influence, while the study of
462 PART 3 The Group power acknowledges that groups as well as individuals can use power to control other individuals or groups. You may have noted that for a power situation to exist, one person or group needs to have control over resources the other person or group values. This is usually the case in established leadership situations. However, power relation- ships are possible in all areas of life, and power can be obtained in many ways. Let’s explore the various sources of power next. 13-2 Explain the three bases Bases of Power of formal power and the two bases of personal Where does power come from? What gives an individual or a group influence power. over others? We answer by dividing the bases or sources of power into two general groupings—formal and personal—and breaking each of these down coercive power A power base that is into more specific categories.4 dependent on fear of the negative results Formal Power from failing to comply. Formal power is based on an individual’s position in an organization. It can reward power Compliance achieved come from the ability to coerce or reward, or from formal authority. based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable. Coercive Power The coercive power base depends on the target’s fear of nega- tive results from failing to comply. On the physical level, coercive power rests on legitimate power The power a person the application, or the threat of application, of bodily distress through the in- receives as a result of his or her position in fliction of pain, the restriction of movement, or the withholding of basic physi- the formal hierarchy of an organization. ological or safety needs. At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming B values her job. If A can assign B work activities B finds unpleasant, or treat B in a manner B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B. Coercive power comes also from withholding key infor- mation. People in an organization who have data or knowledge others need can make others dependent on them. reward Power The opposite of coercive power is reward power, with which people comply because it produces positive benefits; someone who can distribute rewards others view as valuable will have power over them. These rewards can be financial—such as controlling pay rates, raises, and bonuses—or nonfinancial, including recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues, and preferred work shifts or sales territories.5 legitimate Power In formal groups and organizations, probably the most com- mon access to one or more of the power bases is through legitimate power. It represents the formal authority to control and use organizational resources based on the person’s structural position in the organization. Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward. Specifically, it includes members’ acceptance of the authority of a hierarchical position. We associate power so closely with the concept of hierarchy that just drawing longer lines in an organization chart leads people to infer the leaders are especially powerful.6 In general, when school principals, bank presidents, or army captains speak, teachers, tellers, and first lieutenants usually comply. Personal Power Many of the most competent and productive chip designers at Intel have power, but they aren’t managers and they have no formal power. What they have is
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 463 Internet entrepreneur Mark Zuckerberg, co-founder and CEO of Facebook, has expert power. Shown here talking with employees, Zuckerberg earned the title “software guy” during college because of his expertise in computer programming. Today, Facebook depends on his expertise to achieve company goals. Source: Tony Avelar/AP Images expert power Influence based on special personal power, which comes from an individual’s unique characteristics. There skills or knowledge. are two bases of personal power: expertise and the respect and admiration of others. Personal power is not mutually exclusive from formal power, but it can referent power Influence based on be independent. identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. expert Power Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, spe- cial skills, or knowledge. As jobs become more specialized, we become depen- dent on experts to achieve goals. It is generally acknowledged that physicians have expertise and hence expert power: Most of us follow our doctor’s advice. Computer specialists, tax accountants, economists, industrial psychologists, and other specialists wield power as a result of their expertise. referent Power Referent power is based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. If I like, respect, and admire you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you. Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person. It helps explain, for instance, why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials. Marketing research shows people such as LeBron James and Tom Brady have the power to influence your choice of athletic shoes and credit cards. With a little practice, you and I could probably deliver as smooth a sales pitch as these celebrities, but the buying public doesn’t identify with us. Some people who are not in formal leadership positions have referent power and exert influence over others because of their charismatic dynamism, likability, and emotional appeal. which Bases of Power Are Most effective? Of the three bases of formal power (coercive, reward, legitimate) and two bases of personal power (expert, referent), which are most important? Research suggests the personal sources of power are most effective. Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees’ satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and
464 PART 3 The Group legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. One source of formal power—coercive power—can be damaging. 13-3 Explain the role of dependence in Referent power can be a powerful motivator. Consider Steve Stoute’s company, power relationships. Translation, which matches pop-star spokespersons with corporations that want to promote their brands. Stoute has paired Justin Timberlake with McDonald’s, Beyoncé with Tommy Hilfiger, and Jay-Z with Reebok. Stoute’s business seems to be all about referent power. His firm aims to use the credibility of artists and performers to reach youth culture.7 The success of these well-known companies attests to Stoute’s expectation that the buying public identifies with and emulates his spokespersons and therefore thinks highly of the represented brands. Dependence: The Key to Power The most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence. In this section, we show how understanding dependence helps us understand the degrees of power. the general Dependence Postulate Let’s begin with a general postulate: The greater B’s dependence on A, the more power A has over B. When you possess anything others require that you alone control, you make them dependent on you, and therefore you gain power over them.8 As the old saying goes, “In the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king!” But if something is plentiful, possessing it will not increase your power. Therefore, the more you can expand your own options, the less power you place in the hands of others. This explains why most organizations develop multi- ple suppliers rather than give their business to only one. It also explains why so many people aspire to financial independence. Independence reduces the power others can wield to limit our access to opportunities and resources. what Creates Dependence? Dependence increases when the resource you control is important, scarce, and nonsubstitutable.9 importance If nobody wants what you have, it’s not going to create dependence. However, note that there are many degrees of importance, from needing the re- source for survival to wanting a resource that is in fashion or adds to convenience. Scarcity Ferruccio Lamborghini, who created the exotic supercars that still carry his name, understood the importance of scarcity and used it to his advantage during World War II. When Lamborghini was in Rhodes with the Italian army, his superiors were impressed with his mechanical skills because he demonstrated an almost uncanny ability to repair tanks and cars no one else could fix. After the war, he admitted his ability was largely due to his hav- ing been the first person on the island to receive the repair manuals, which he memorized and then destroyed so as to make himself indispensable.10 We see the scarcity–dependence relationship in the power situation of employment. Where the supply of labor is low relative to demand, workers can negotiate compensation and benefits packages far more attractive than those in occupations with an abundance of candidates. For example, college admin- istrators have no problem today finding English instructors since there is a high supply and low demand. The market for network systems analysts, in contrast, is comparatively tight, with demand high and supply limited. The resulting
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 465 Scientist Maria Kovalenko is in a position of power at Gilead Sciences, a research-based biopharmaceutical firm. Scientists are in a powerful occupational group at Gilead because they discover and develop medicines that improve the lives of patients and contribute to Gilead’s growth and success. Source: David Paul Morris/Bloomberg/Getty Images bargaining power of computer-engineering faculty allows them to negotiate higher salaries, lighter teaching loads, and other benefits. nonsubstitutability The fewer viable substitutes for a resource, the more power a person controlling that resource has. At universities that value faculty publish- ing, for example, the more recognition the faculty member receives through publication, the more control that person has because other universities want faculty who are highly published and visible. Social network Analysis: A tool for Assessing resources One tool to assess the exchange of resources and dependencies within an or- ganization is social network analysis.11 This method examines patterns of com- munication among organizational members to identify how information flows between them. Within a social network, or connections between people who share professional interests, each individual or group is called a node, and the links between nodes are called ties. When nodes communicate or exchange resources frequently, they are said to have very strong ties. Other nodes that are not engaged in direct communication with one another achieve resource flows through intermediary nodes. In other words, some nodes act as brokers between otherwise unconnected nodes. A graphical illustration of the associa- tions among individuals in a social network is called a sociogram and functions like an informal version of an organization chart. The difference is that a formal organization chart shows how authority is supposed to flow, whereas a sociogram shows how resources really flow in an organization. An example of a sociogram is in Exhibit 13-1. Networks can create substantial power dynamics. Those in the position of brokers tend to have more power because they can leverage the unique resources they can acquire from different groups. In other words, many people are dependent upon brokers, which gives the brokers more power. For example, organizational culture changes such as corporate social responsibility (CSR) awareness will often begin in a single connected group of individuals, grow in strength, and then slowly move to other connected groups through brokers
466 PART 3 The Group Exhibit 13-1 An organizational Sociogram Suppliers Operations Eric Albert Project Team Thomas Finance Martha Anne Sales & Marketing Customers Customer Service 13-4 Identify power or over time.12 Data from the United Kingdom’s National Health Service show influence tactics and that change agents—people entrusted with helping an organization to make a their contingencies. significant change—have more success if they are information brokers.13 These functions are not without cost, however. One study found that people identified power tactics Ways in which individuals as central to advice networks were more likely to quit their jobs, possibly because translate power bases into specific actions. they did a great deal of extra work without reward.14 There are many ways to implement a social network analysis in an organiza- tion.15 Some organizations keep track of the flow of e-mail communications or document sharing across departments. These big-data tools are an easy way to gather objective information about how individuals exchange information. Other organizations look at data from human resources (HR) information systems, analyzing how supervisors and subordinates interact with one another. These data sources can produce sociograms showing how resources and power flow. Leaders can then identify powerful brokers who exert the strongest influ- ence on many groups, and address these key individuals. Power Tactics What power tactics do people use to translate power bases into specific action? What options do they have for influencing their bosses, coworkers, or employees? Research has identified nine distinct influence tactics:16 • Legitimacy. Relying on your authority position or saying a request accords with organizational policies or rules. • Rational persuasion. Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable.
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 467 • Inspirational appeals. Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes, and aspirations. • Consultation. Increasing support by involving the target in deciding how to accomplish your plan. • Exchange. Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for acceding to a request. • Personal appeals. Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty. • Ingratiation. Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request. • Pressure. Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats. • Coalitions. Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree. Using Power tactics Some tactics are more effective than others. Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be the most effective, especially when the au- dience is highly interested in the outcomes of a decision process. The pressure tactic tends to backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine.17 You can increase your chance of success by using two or more tactics together or sequen- tially, as long as your choices are compatible.18 Using ingratiation and legitima- cy together can lessen negative reactions, but only when the audience does not really care about the outcome of a decision process or the policy is routine.19 Let’s consider the most effective way of getting a raise. You can start with a rational approach—figure out how your pay compares to that of your organiza- tional peers, land a competing job offer, gather data that testify to your perfor- mance, or use salary calculators like Salary.com to compare your pay with others in your occupation—then share your findings with your manager. The results can be impressive. Kitty Dunning, a vice president at Don Jagoda Associates, landed a 16 percent raise when she e-mailed her boss numbers showing she had increased sales.20 While rational persuasion may work in this situation, the effectiveness of some influence tactics depends on the direction of influence,21 and of course on the audience. As Exhibit 13-2 shows, rational persuasion is the only tac- tic effective across organizational levels. Inspirational appeals work best as a downward-influencing tactic with subordinates. When pressure works, it’s generally downward only. Personal appeals and coalitions are most effective as lateral influence. Other factors relating to the effectiveness of influence include the sequencing of tactics, a person’s skill in using the tactic, and the organizational culture. In general, you’re more likely to be effective if you begin with “softer” tactics that rely on personal power, such as personal and inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and consultation. If these fail, you can move to “harder” tactics, Exhibit 13-2 Preferred Power tactics by influence Direction Upward Influence Downward Influence Lateral Influence Rational persuasion Rational persuasion Rational persuasion Inspirational appeals Consultation Pressure Ingratiation Consultation Exchange Ingratiation Legitimacy Exchange Personal appeals Legitimacy Coalitions
468 PART 3 The Group such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure, which emphasize formal power and incur greater costs and risks.22 A single soft tactic is more effective than a single political skill The ability to influence hard tactic, and combining two soft tactics or a soft tactic and rational persua- others in such a way as to enhance one’s sion is more effective than any single tactic or combination of hard tactics.23 objectives. As we mentioned, the effectiveness of tactics depends on the audience.24 13-5 Identify the causes People especially likely to comply with soft power tactics tend to be more reflec- and consequences tive and intrinsically motivated; they have high self-esteem and a greater desire of abuse of power. for control. Those likely to comply with hard power tactics are more action- oriented and extrinsically motivated, and more focused on getting along with others than on getting their own way. Cultural Preferences for Power tactics Preference for power tactics varies across cultures.25 Those from individualist countries tend to see power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends, whereas those in collectivist countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others.26 A study comparing managers in the United States and China found U.S. managers preferred ra- tional appeal, whereas Chinese managers preferred coalition tactics.27 Reason- based tactics are consistent with the U.S. preference for direct confrontation and rational persuasion to influence others and resolve differences, while coali- tion tactics align with the Chinese preference for meeting difficult or controver- sial requests with indirect approaches. Applying Power tactics People differ in their political skill, or their ability to influence others to en- hance their own objectives. The politically skilled are more effective users of all the influence tactics. Political skill is also more effective when the stakes are high, such as when the individual is accountable for important organizational outcomes. Finally, the politically skilled are able to exert their influence without others detecting it, a key element in effectiveness (it’s damaging to be labeled political).28 These individuals are able to use their political skills in environ- ments with low levels of procedural and distributive justice. When an organiza- tion has fairly applied rules, free of favoritism or biases, political skill is actually negatively related to job performance ratings.29 Lastly, we know cultures within organizations differ markedly—some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative. Some encourage participation and consultation, some encourage reason, and still others rely on pressure. People who fit the culture of the organization tend to obtain more influence.30 Specifically, extraverts tend to be more influ- ential in team-oriented organizations, and highly conscientious people are more influential in organizations that value working alone on technical tasks. People who fit the culture are influential because they can perform especially well in the domains deemed most important for success. Thus, the organization itself will influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use. How Power Affects People To this point, we’ve discussed what power is and how it is acquired. But we’ve not yet answered one important question: Does power corrupt? There is certainly evidence that there are corrupting aspects of power. Power leads people to place their own interests ahead of others’ needs or
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 469 goals. Why does this happen? Interestingly, power not only leads people to focus on their self-interests because they can, it liberates them to focus inward and thus come to place greater weight on their own aims and inter- ests. Power also appears to lead individuals to “objectify” others (to see them as tools to obtain their instrumental goals) and to see relationships as more peripheral.31 That’s not all. Powerful people react—especially negatively—to any threats to their competence. People in positions of power hold on to it when they can, and individuals who face threats to their power are exceptionally willing to take actions to retain it whether their actions harm others or not. Those given power are more likely to make self-interested decisions when faced with a moral haz- ard (such as when hedge fund managers take more risks with other people’s money because they’re rewarded for gains but less often punished for losses). People in power are more willing to denigrate others. Power also leads to over- confident decision making.32 Frank Lloyd Wright, perhaps the greatest U.S. architect, is a good example of power’s corrupting effects. Early in his career, Wright worked for and was mentored by a renowned architect, Louis Sullivan (sometimes known as “the father of the skyscraper”). Before Wright achieved greatness, he was generous in his praise for Sullivan. Later in his career, that praise faded, and Wright even took credit for one of Sullivan’s noted designs. Wright was never a benevolent man, but as his power accumulated, so did his potential to behave in a “mon- strous” way toward others.33 Power Variables As we’ve discussed, power does appear to have some important disturbing effects on us. But that is hardly the whole story—power is more complicated than that. It doesn’t affect everyone in the same way, and there are even positive effects of power. Let’s consider each of these in turn. First, the toxic effects of power depend on the wielder’s personality. Research suggests that if we have an anxious personality, power does not corrupt us because we are less likely to think that using power benefits us.34 Second, the corrosive effect of power can be contained by organizational systems. One study found, for example, that while power made people behave in a self-serving manner, when accountability for this behavior was initiated, the self-serving behavior stopped. Third, we have the means to blunt the negative effects of power. One study showed that simply expressing gratitude toward powerful others makes them less likely to act aggressively against us. Finally, remember the saying that those with little power abuse what little they have? There seems to be some truth to this in that the people most likely to abuse power are those who start low in status and gain power. Why is this the case? It appears having low status is threatening, and the fear this creates is used in negative ways if power is later given.35 As you can see, some factors can moderate the negative effects of power. But there can be general positive effects. Power energizes and increases motivation to achieve goals. It also can enhance our motivation to help others. One study found, for example, that a desire to help others translated into actual work behavior when people felt a sense of power.36 This study points to an important insight about power. It is not so much that power corrupts as it reveals what we value. Supporting this line of reasoning, another study found that power led to self-interested behavior only in those with a weak moral identity (the degree to which morals are core to someone’s identity). In those with a strong moral identity, power enhanced their moral awareness and willingness to act.37
470 PART 3 The Group sexual harassment Any unwanted Sexual Harassment: Unequal Power in the workplace activity of a sexual nature that affects an Sexual harassment is defined as any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that individual’s employment and creates a hostile affects an individual’s employment or creates a hostile work environment. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), work environment. sexual harassment happens when a person encounters “unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature” on the job that disrupts work performance or that creates an “intimidating, hostile, or offensive” work environment.38 Although the defini- tion changes from country to country, most nations have at least some poli- cies to protect workers. Whether the policies or laws are followed is another question, however. Equal employment opportunity legislation is established in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Oman, for example, but studies suggest it might not be well implemented.39 Generally, sexual harassment is more prevalent in male-dominated societies. For example, a study in Pakistan found that up to 93 percent of female workers were sexually harassed.40 In Singapore, up to 54 percent of workers (women and men) reported they were sexually harassed.41 The per- centages in the United States and some other countries are generally much lower but still troubling. Surveys indicate about one-quarter of U.S. women and 10 percent of men have been sexually harassed.42 Data from the EEOC suggest that sexual harassment is decreasing: Sexual harassment claims now make up 10 percent of all discrimination claims, compared with 20 percent in the mid-1990s. Of this percentage, though, claims from men have increased from 11 percent of total claims in 1997 to 17.5 percent today.43 Sexual harass- ment is disproportionately prevalent for women in certain types of jobs. In the restaurant industry, for instance, 80 percent of female wait staff reported hav- ing been sexually harassed by coworkers or customers, compared to 70 percent of male wait staff.44 Most studies confirm that power is central to understanding sexual harass- ment.45 This seems true whether the harassment comes from a supervisor, coworker, or employee. And sexual harassment is more likely to occur when A federal jury awarded this woman a $95 million judgment in a sexual harassment lawsuit against her employer for harassment from her supervisor that included unwanted physical contact. The jury found the supervisor guilty of assault and battery and the company liable for negligent supervision and sexual harassment. Source: Bill Greenblatt/UPI/Newscom
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 471 there are large power differentials. The supervisor–employee dyad best characterizes an unequal power relationship, where formal power gives the supervisor the capacity to reward and coerce. Because employees want favor- able performance reviews, salary increases, and the like, supervisors control resources most employees consider important and scarce. When there aren’t effective controls to detect and prevent sexual harassment, abusers are more likely to act. For example, male respondents in one study in Switzerland who were high in hostile sexism reported higher intentions to sexually harass in organizations that had low levels of justice, suggesting that failure to have consistent policies and procedures for all employees might increase levels of sexual harassment.46 Sexual harassment can detrimentally impact individuals and the organiza- tion, but it can be avoided. The manager’s role is critical: 1. Make sure an active policy defines what constitutes sexual harassment, informs employees they can be fired for inappropriate behavior, and establishes procedures for making complaints. 2. Reassure employees they will not encounter retaliation if they file a complaint. 3. Investigate every complaint, and inform the legal and HR departments. 4. Make sure offenders are disciplined or terminated. 5. Set up in-house seminars to raise employee awareness of sexual harassment issues. The bottom line is that managers have a responsibility to protect their employees from a hostile work environment. They may easily be unaware that one of their employees is being sexually harassed, but being unaware does not protect them or their organization. If investigators believe a manager could have known about the harassment, both the manager and the company can be held liable. 13-6 Describe how politics Politics: Power in Action work in organizations. Whenever people get together in groups, power will be exerted. People in organizations want to carve out a niche to exert influence, earn rewards, and advance their careers. If they convert their power into action, we describe them as being engaged in politics. Those with good political skills have the ability to use their bases of power effectively.47 Politics are not only inevitable; they might be essential, too (see OB Poll). political behavior Activities that are not Definition of organizational Politics required as part of a person’s formal role in There is no shortage of definitions of organizational politics. Essentially, this type the organization but that influence, or attempt of politics focuses on the use of power to affect decision making in an organiza- tion, sometimes for self-serving and organizationally unsanctioned behaviors.48 to influence, the distribution of advantages For our purposes, political behavior in organizations consists of activities that are not required as part of an individual’s formal role but that influence, or and disadvantages within the organization. attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization.49 This definition encompasses what most people mean when they talk about organizational politics. Political behavior is outside specified job requirements. It requires some attempt to use power bases. It includes efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision making. Our definition is broad enough to include varied political behaviors such as withholding key infor- mation from decision makers, joining a coalition, whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information to the media, exchanging favors with
472 PART 3 The Group Ob POLL importance of Organizational Politics How do employees get ahead in your organization? 60% 51% 50% 40% 30% 27% 20% 18% 10% 4% 0% Creativity Initiative Hard work Politics Source: D. Crampton, “Is How Americans Feel about Their Jobs Changing?” (September 28, 2012), http://corevalues.com/employee-motivation/ is-how-americans-feel-about-their-jobs-changing. others for mutual benefit, and lobbying on behalf of or against a particular indi- vidual or decision alternative. In this way, political behavior is often negative, but not always. the reality of Politics Interviews with experienced managers show most believe political behavior is a major part of organizational life.50 Many managers report some use of political behavior is ethical, as long as it doesn’t directly harm anyone else. Whistle-blower Michael Woodford was fired from his position as CEO of Japanese camera-maker Olympus after informing company officials about accounting irregularities. Although not part of his job, Woodford uncovered a 13-year accounting fraud by some company executives. Source: Luke McGregor/Reuters
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 473 13-7 Identify the causes, They describe politics as necessary and believe someone who never uses politi- consequences, and cal behavior will have a hard time getting things done. Most also indicate they ethics of political have never been trained to use political behavior effectively. But why, you may behavior. wonder, must politics exist? Isn’t it possible for an organization to be politics- free? It’s possible—but unlikely. Organizations have individuals and groups with different values, goals, and interests.51 This sets up the potential for conflict over the allocation of limited resources, such as budgets, work space, and salary and bonus pools. If resources were abundant, all constituencies within an organization could satisfy their goals. But because they are limited, not everyone’s interests can be satisfied. Furthermore, gains by one individual or group are often perceived as coming at the expense of others within the organization (whether they are or not). These forces create competition among members for the organization’s limited resources. Maybe the most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization that most of the “facts” used to allocate limited resources are open to interpretation. When allocating pay based on performance, for instance, what is good performance? What’s an adequate improvement? What constitutes an unsatisfactory job? The manager of any major league baseball team knows a .400 hitter is a high performer and a .125 hitter is a poor performer. You don’t need to be a baseball genius to know you should play your .400 hitter and send the .125 hitter back to the minors. But what if you have to choose between play- ers who hit .280 and .290? Then less objective factors come into play: fielding expertise, attitude, potential, ability to perform in a clutch, loyalty to the team, and so on. More managerial decisions resemble the choice between a .280 and a .290 hitter than between a .125 hitter and a .400 hitter. It is in this large and ambiguous middle ground of organizational life—where the facts don’t speak for themselves—that politics flourish. Finally, because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity— where facts are rarely objective and thus open to interpretation—people within organizations will use whatever influence they can support their goals and inter- ests. That, of course, creates the activities we call politicking. One person’s “self- less effort to benefit the organization” is seen by another as a “blatant attempt to further his or her interest.” 52 Therefore, to answer the question of whether it is possible for an organiza- tion to be politics-free, we can say “yes”—if all members of that organization hold the same goals and interests, if organizational resources are not scarce, and if performance outcomes are completely clear and objective. But that doesn’t describe the organizational world in which most of us live. Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior Now that we’ve discussed the constant presence of politicking in organizations, let’s discuss the causes and consequences of these behaviors. Factors Contributing to Political Behavior Not all groups or organizations are equally political. In some organizations, politicking is overt and rampant, while in others politics plays a small role in influencing outcomes. Why this variation? Research and observation have identified a number of factors that appear to encourage political behavior. Some are individual characteristics, derived from the qualities of the people
474 PART 3 The Group Exhibit 13-3 Factors that influence Political Behavior Individual factors Political behavior Favorable outcomes • High self-monitors Low High • Internal locus of control • Rewards • High Mach personality • Averted punishments • Organizational investment • Perceived job alternatives • Expectations of success Organizational factors • Reallocation of resources • Promotion opportunities • Low trust • Role ambiguity • Unclear performance evaluation system • Zero-sum reward practices • Democratic decision making • High performance pressures • Self-serving senior managers the organization employs; others are a result of the organization’s culture or internal environment. Exhibit 13-3 illustrates how both individual and organi- zational factors can increase political behavior and provide favorable outcomes (increased rewards and averted punishments) for individuals and groups in the organization. individual Factors At the individual level, researchers have identified cer- tain personality traits, needs, and other factors likely to be related to political behavior. In terms of traits, we find that employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior. The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues, exhibits higher levels of social conformity, and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor. Because they believe they can control their environment, individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor. Not surprisingly, the Machiavellian personality—characterized by the will to manipulate and the desire for power—is consistent with using politics as a means to further personal interests. An individual’s investment in the organization and perceived alterna- tives influence the degree to which he or she will pursue illegitimate means of political action.53 The more a person expects increased future benefits from the organization, and the more that person has to lose if forced out, the less likely he or she is to use illegitimate means. Conversely, the more alternate job opportunities an individual has—due to a favorable job market, possession of scarce skills or knowledge, prominent reputation, or influential contacts outside the organization—the more likely the person is to employ politics. An individual with low expectations of success from political means is unlikely to use them. High expectations from such measures are most likely to be the province of both experienced and powerful individuals with polished political skills, and inexperienced and naïve employees who misjudge their chances.
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 475 Finally, some individuals engage in more political behavior because they simply are better at it. Such individuals read interpersonal interac- tions well, fit their behavior to situational needs, and excel at networking.54 These people are often indirectly rewarded for their political efforts. For example, a study of a construction firm in southern China found that politi- cally skilled subordinates were more likely to receive recommendations for rewards from their supervisors, and that politically oriented supervisors were especially likely to respond positively to politically skilled subordinates.55 Other studies from countries around the world have similarly shown that higher levels of political skill are associated with higher levels of perceived job performance.56 organizational Factors Although we acknowledge the role individual differ- ences can play, the evidence more strongly suggests that certain situations and cultures promote politics. Specifically, when an organization’s resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is changing, and when there should i become political? Career oBjectives My office is so political! Everyone is just revenge from those who feel they’ve people will be able to find many looking for ways to get ahead by plot- been wronged. allies who are genuinely supportive. ting and scheming rather than doing These support networks will result the job. Should I just go along with it If you want to provide a positive al- in performance levels that a lone po- and develop my own political strategy? ternative to political behavior in your litical person simply cannot match. workplace, there are a few steps you — Julia can take: Remember, in the long run a good Dear Julia: reputation can be your greatest asset! There’s definitely a temptation to join • Document your work efforts, and find in when other people are behaving data to back up your accomplish- Based on: A. Lavoie “How to Get Rid of Toxic politically. If you want to advance your ments. Political behavior thrives in Office Politics,” Fast Company, April 10, 2014, career, you need to think about social an ambiguous environment where http://www.fastcompany.com/3028856/ relationships and how to work with standards for success are subjec- work-smart/how-to-make-office-politicking-a- other people in a smart and diplomatic tive and open to manipulation. lame-duck; C. Conner, “Office Politics: Must way. But that doesn’t mean you have to The best way to shortcut poli- You Play?” Forbes, April 14, 2013, http:// give in to pressure to engage in organi- tics is to move the focus toward www.forbes.com/sites/cherylsnappconner/ zational politics. clear, objective markers of work 2013/04/14/office-politics-must-you-play- performance. a-handbook-for-survivalsuccess/; and J. A. Of course, in many workplaces, hard Colquitt and J. B. Rodell “Justice, Trust, and work and achievement aren’t recog- • Call out political behavior when you Trustworthiness: A Longitudinal Analysis In- nized, which heightens politicking and see it. Political behavior is, by its tegrating Three Theoretical Perspectives,” lowers performance. But politics aren’t very nature, secretive and under- Academy of Management Journal 54 (2011): just potentially bad for the company. handed. By bringing politics to light, 1183–206. People who are seen as political can you limit this capacity to manipulate be gradually excluded from social net- people against one another. The opinions provided here are of the manag- works and informal communication. ers and authors only and do not necessar- Coworkers can sabotage a person with • Try to develop a network with only ily reflect those of their organizations. The a reputation for dishonesty or manipu- those individuals who are interested authors or managers are not responsible for lation so they don’t have to deal with in performing well together. This any errors or omissions, or for the results ob- him or her. It’s also likely that a politi- makes it hard for a very political per- tained from the use of this information. In no cal person will be the direct target of son to get a lot done. On the other event will the authors or managers, or their hand, trustworthy and cooperative related partnerships or corporations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any deci- sion made or action taken in reliance on the opinions provided here.
476 PART 3 The Group Organizations foster politicking when they reduce resources. By announcing plans to downsize its global workforce of 100,000 employees to increase its competi- tiveness, French pharmaceutical firm Sanofi stimulated political activity among employees who organized protests against the job cuts. Source: Robert Pratta/Reuters zero-sum approach An approach that is opportunity for promotions, politicking is more likely to surface.57 When treats the reward “pie” as fixed, such that resources are reduced, people may engage in political actions to safeguard what they have. Also, any changes, especially those implying significant reallocation any gains by one individual are at the expense of resources within the organization, are likely to stimulate conflict and increase politicking. of another. Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum (win-lose) reward allocation practices, democratic decision making, high pressure for performance, and self-serving senior managers will also create breeding grounds for politicking.58 Because political activities are not required as part of the employee’s formal role, the greater the role ambiguity, the more employees can engage in unnoticed political activity. Role ambiguity means the prescribed employee behaviors are not clear. There are, therefore, fewer limits to the scope and functions of the employee’s political actions. The more an organizational culture emphasizes the zero-sum or win–lose approach to reward allocations, the more employees will be motivated to engage in politicking. The zero-sum approach treats the reward “pie” as fixed, so any gain one person or group achieves comes at the expense of another person or group. For example, if $15,000 is distributed among five employees for raises, any employee who gets more than $3,000 takes money away from one or more of the others. Such a practice encourages making others look bad and increas- ing the visibility of what you do. There are also political forces at work in the relationships between organiza- tions, where politics work differently depending on the organizational cultures.59 One study showed when two organizations with very political environments interacted with one another, the political interactions between them hurt perfor- mance in collaborative projects. On the other hand, when companies with less internal political behavior interacted with one another, even political disputes
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 477 Powerful Leaders Keep their (Fr)enemies close Myth or Science? T his statement appears to be true. knowledge and started his own, com- strong under certain conditions—when We all have heard the term peting company. the individual was socially dominant, “frenemies” to describe friends when the individual felt more competi- who are also rivals or people who act Is it really wise to keep your enemies tion from the team member, and when like friends but secretly dislike each close? And, if so, why? rewards and the ability to serve as lead- other. Some observers have argued er were dependent on performance. that frenemies are increasing at work New research suggests answers due to the “abundance of very close, to these questions. Three experimen- These results suggest the concept intertwined relationships that bridge tal studies found individuals chose to of frenemies is very real and that we people’s professional and personal work in the same room as their rival choose to keep our rivals close so we lives.” even when informed they would prob- can keep an eye on the competition ably perform better apart; sit closer they bring. Keeping enemies close may be one to rivals when working together; and reason Barack Obama appointed Hillary express an explicit preference to Sources: M. Thompson, “How to Work with Clinton secretary of state after their bit- be closer to the rival. The research- Your Startup Frenemies,” VentureBeat, ter battle for the U.S. presidency. Or, in ers further found the primary reason December 22, 2012, http://venturebeat the business world, why one entrepre- for the “being closer” effect was the .com/2012/12/22/frenemies/; and N. L. neur decided not to sue a former col- desire to monitor the rival’s behavior Mead and J. K. Maner, “On Keeping Your lege classmate who, after working for and performance. Enemies Close: Powerful Leaders Seek her startup as a consultant, took that Proximity to Ingroup Power Threats,” Journal The researchers also found the of Personality and Social Psychology 102 “keeping enemies closer” effect was (2012): 576–91. between them did not lead to lower performance in collaborative projects. This study shows companies should be wary of forming alliances with companies that have high levels of internal political behavior. How Do People respond to organizational Politics? Trish loves her job as a writer on a weekly U.S. television comedy series but hates the internal politics. “A couple of the writers here spend more time kissing up to the executive producer than doing any work. And our head writer clearly has his favorites. While they pay me a lot and I get to really use my creativity, I’m sick of having to be on alert for backstabbers and constantly having to self-promote my contributions. I’m tired of doing most of the work and getting little of the credit.” We all know friends or relatives like Trish who regularly complain about the politics at their jobs. But how do people in general react to organizational politics? Let’s look at the evidence. For most people who have modest political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game, outcomes tend to be predominantly negative. See Exhibit 13-4 for a diagram of this. However, very strong evidence indicates perceptions of orga- nizational politics are negatively related to job satisfaction.60 Politics may lead to self-reported declines in employee performance, perhaps because employees perceive political environments to be unfair, which demotivates them.61 Not sur- prisingly, when politicking becomes too much to handle, it can lead employees to quit.62 When employees of two agencies in a study in Nigeria viewed their work environments as political, they reported higher levels of job distress and were less likely to help their coworkers. Thus, although developing countries such as Nigeria present perhaps more ambiguous and therefore more political environments in which to work, the negative consequences of politics appear to be the same as in the United States.63
478 PART 3 The Group Exhibit 13-4 employee responses to organizational Politics Decreased job satisfaction Organizational Increased politics may anxiety and stress threaten employees Increased turnover Reduced performance defensive behaviors Reactive and There are some qualifiers. First, the politics–performance relationship protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, appears to be moderated by an individual’s understanding of the “hows” and “whys” of organizational politics. Researchers noted, “An individual who has a or change. clear understanding of who is responsible for making decisions and why they were selected to be the decision makers would have a better understanding of how and why things happen the way they do than someone who does not understand the decision-making process in the organization.”64 When both politics and understanding are high, performance is likely to increase because these individuals see political activity as an opportunity. This is consistent with what you might expect for individuals with well-honed political skills. But when understanding is low, individuals are more likely to see politics as a threat, which can have a negative effect on job performance.65 Second, political behavior at work moderates the effects of ethical leadership.66 One study found male employees were more responsive to ethi- cal leadership and showed the most citizenship behavior when levels of both politics and ethical leadership were high. Women, on the other hand, appeared most likely to engage in citizenship behavior when the environment was consis- tently ethical and apolitical. Third, when employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with defensive behaviors—reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change.67 (Exhibit 13-5 provides some examples.) In the short run, employees may find that defensiveness protects their self-interest, but in the long run it wears them down. People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that even- tually it is the only way they know how to behave. At that point, they lose the trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees, and clients. impression Management We know people have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate them. For example, North Americans spend billions of dollars on diets, health club memberships, cosmetics, and plastic surgery—all intended to make them more attractive to others. Being perceived positively by others has benefits in an organizational setting. It might, for instance, help us initially to get the jobs we
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 479 Exhibit 13-5 Defensive Behaviors Avoiding Action Overconforming. Strictly interpreting your responsibility by saying things like “The rules clearly state...”or “This is the way we’ve always done it.” Buck passing. Transferring responsibility for the execution of a task or decision to someone else. Playing dumb. Avoiding an unwanted task by falsely pleading ignorance or inability Stretching. Prolonging a task so that one person appears to be occupied—for example, turning a two-week task into a 4-month job. Stalling. Appearing to be more or less supportive publicly while doing little or nothing privately. Avoiding Blame Bluffing. Rigorously documenting activity to project an image of competence and thoroughness, known as “covering your rear.” Playing safe. Evading situations that may reflect unfavorably. It includes taking on only projects with a high probability of success, having risky decisions approved by superiors, qualifying expressions of judgment, and taking neutral positions in conflicts. Justifying. Developing explanations that lessen one’s responsibility for a negative outcome and/or apologizing to demonstrate remorse, or both. Scapegoating. Placing the blame for a negative outcome on external factors that are not entirely blameworthy. Misrepresenting. Manipulation of information by distortion, embellishment, deception, selective presentation, or obfuscation. Avoiding Change Prevention. Trying to prevent a threatening change from occurring. Self-protection. Acting in ways to protect one’s self-interest during change by guarding information or other resources. impression management (IM) The want in an organization and, once hired, to get favorable evaluations, superior process by which individuals attempt to salary increases, and more rapid promotions. The process by which individu- als attempt to control the impression others form of them is called impression control the impression others form of them. management (IM).68 Who might we predict will engage in IM? No surprise here. It’s our old friend, the high self-monitor.69 Low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detri- mental effects for them. In contrast, high self-monitors are good at reading situ- ations and molding their appearances and behavior to fit each situation. If you want to control the impression others form of you, what IM techniques can you use? Exhibit 13-6 summarizes some of the most popular with examples. Keep in mind when people engage in IM, they are sending a false message that might be true under other circumstances.70 Excuses, for instance, may be offered with sincerity. Referring to the example in Exhibit 13-6, you can actually believe that ads contribute little to sales in your region. But misrepresentation can have a high cost. If you “cry wolf” once too often, no one is likely to believe you when the wolf really comes. So the impression manager must be cautious not to be perceived as insincere or manipulative.71 One study found that when managers attributed an employee’s citizenship behaviors to impression management, they actually felt angry (probably because they felt manipulated) and gave subordinates lower performance ratings. When managers attributed the same behaviors to prosocial values and concern about the organization, they felt happy and gave higher performance ratings.72 In sum,
480 PART 3 The Group Exhibit 13-6 impression Management (iM) techniques Conformity Agreeing with someone else’s opinion to gain his or her approval is a form of ingratiation. Example: A manager tells his boss, “You’re absolutely right on your reorganization plan for the western regional office. I couldn’ t agree with you more. Favors Doing something nice for someone to gain that person’ s approval is a form of ingratiation. Example: A salesperson says to a prospective client, “I’ve got two tickets to the theater tonight that I can’t use. Take them. Consider it a thank-you for taking the time to talk with me.” Excuses Explaining a predicament-creating event aimed at minimizing the apparent severity of the predicament is a defensive IM technique. Example: A sales manager says to her boss, “We failed to get the ad in the paper on time, but no one responds to those ads anyway.” Apologies Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for the action is a defensive IM technique. Example: An employee says to his boss, “I’m sorry I made a mistake on the report. Please forgive me.” Self-Promotion Highlighting your best qualities, downplaying your deficits, and calling attention to your achievements is a self-focused IM technique. Example: A salesperson tells his boss, “Matt worked unsuccessfully for three years to try to get that account. I sewed it up in six weeks. I’m the best closer this company has.” Enhancement Claiming that something you did is more valuable than most other members of the organizations would think is a self-focused IM technique. Example: A journalist tells his editor, “My work on this celebrity divorce story was really a major boost to our sales” (even though the story only made it to page 3 in the entertainment section). Flattery Complimenting others about their virtues in an effort to make yourself appear perceptive and likeable is an assertive IM technique. Example: A new sales trainee says to her peer, “You handled that client’s complaint so tactfully! I could never have handled that as well as you did.” Exemplification Doing more than you need to in an effort to show how dedicated and hard working you are is an assertive IM technique. Example: An employee sends e-mails from his work computer when he works late so that his supervisor will know how long he’s been working. Sources: M. C. Bolino, K. M. Kacmar, W. H. Turnley, and J. B. Gilstrap, “A Multi-Level Review of Impression Management Motives and Behaviors,” Journal of Management 34, no. 6 (2008): 1080–109. people don’t like to feel others are manipulating them through impression man- agement, so such tactics should be employed with caution. Not all impression management consists of talking yourself up, either. Recent research suggests mod- esty, in the form of generously providing credit to others and understating your own contributions to success, may create a more positive impression on others.73
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 481 An ethical Choice How Much should You Manage interviewer impressions? A lmost everyone agrees that interviewer moods, which also improved let an employer know about your skills dressing professionally, high- the applicant’s ratings. and accomplishments, and be sure to lighting previous accomplish- show your enthusiasm for the job. At ments, and expressing interest in the Despite evidence that making an ef- the same time, keep your statements job are reasonable impression man- fort to impress an interviewer can pay as accurate as possible, and be care- agement tactics to improve your pre- off, you can go too far. Evidence that ful not to overstate your abilities. In sentation in an interview. Strategies a person misrepresented qualifications the long run, you’re much more likely like flattering the interviewer and using in the hiring process is usually grounds to be happy and successful in a job positive nonverbal cues like smiling and for immediate termination. Even “white where both you and the interviewer can nodding are also often advised. lies” are a problem if they create un- assess fit honestly. founded expectations. For example, if Is there an upside to such impres- you noted you managed budgets in the Sources: C. Chen and M. Lin, “The Effect of sion management? Research generally past when all you were doing was track- Applicant Impression Management Tactics shows there is. The more effort appli- ing expenditures, you lack skills your on Hiring Recommendations: Cognitive and cants put into highlighting their skills, boss will expect you to have. When you Affective Processes,” Applied Psychology: motivation, and admiration for the fail to deliver, it will look very bad for An International Review 63, no. 4, (2014): organization, the more likely they are you. However, if you describe your ex- 698–724; J. Levashina, C. J. Hartwell, to be hired. A recent study in Taiwan perience more accurately but note your F. P. Morgeson, and M. A. Campion “The examined this relationship, finding that desire to learn, the company will know Structured Employment Interview: Narrative interviewers saw applicants who talked you need additional training and that and Quantitative Review of the Research confidently about their qualifications as you’ll need a bit of extra time. Literature,” Personnel Psychology, Spring a better fit for the job, and applicants 2014, 241–93; and M. Nemko, “The Effec- who said positive things about the orga- So what does an ethical, effective tive, Ethical, and Less Stressful Job Inter- nization as a better fit for the organiza- interview strategy entail? The key is to view,” Psychology Today, March 25, 2014, tion. Positive nonverbal cues improved find a positive but truthful way to man- https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ age impressions. Don’t be afraid to how-do-life/201503/the-effective-ethical- and-less-stressful-job-interview. Most of the studies to test the effectiveness of IM techniques have related IM to two criteria: interview success and performance evaluations. Let’s consider each of these. interviews and iM The evidence indicates most job applicants use IM tech- niques in interviews and that it works.74 To develop a sense of how effective dif- ferent IM techniques are in interviews, one study grouped data from thousands of recruiting and selection interviews into appearance-oriented efforts (like looking professional), explicit tactics (like flattering the interviewer or talking up your own accomplishments), and verbal cues (like using positive terms and showing general enthusiasm).75 Across all the dimensions, it was quite clear that IM was a powerful predictor of how well people did. However, there was a twist. When interviews were highly structured, meaning the interviewer’s questions were written out in advance and focused on applicant qualifications, the effects of IM were substantially weaker. Manipulative behaviors like IM are more likely to have an effect in ambiguous and unstructured interviews. Performance evaluations and iM In terms of performance evaluations, the picture is quite different. Ingratiation is positively related to performance rat- ings, meaning those who ingratiate with their supervisors get higher perfor- mance evaluations. However, self-promotion appears to backfire: Those who self-promote actually may receive lower performance ratings.76 There is an
482 PART 3 The Group important qualifier to these general findings. It appears that individuals high in political skill are able to translate IM into higher performance appraisals, whereas those lower in political skill are more likely to be hurt by their IM attempts.77 Another study of 760 boards of directors found that individuals who ingratiated themselves to current board members (expressed agreement with the director, pointed out shared attitudes and opinions, complimented the director) increased their chances of landing on a board.78 Finally, interns who attempted to use ingratiation with their supervisors in one study were usually disliked—unless they had high levels of political skill. For those who had this ability, ingratiation led to higher levels of liking from supervisors, and higher performance ratings.79 What explains these consistent results across multiple studies and contexts? If you think about them, they make sense. Ingratiating always works because everyone—both interviewers and supervisors—likes to be treated nicely. However, self-promotion may work only in interviews and backfire on the job because, whereas the interviewer has little idea whether you’re blowing smoke about your accomplishments, the supervisor knows because it’s his or her job to observe you. Are our conclusions about responses to politics globally valid? Should we expect employees in Israel, for instance, to respond the same way to workplace politics that employees in the United States do? Almost all our conclusions on employee reactions to organizational politics are based on studies conducted in North America. The few studies that have included other countries suggest some minor modifications.80 One study of managers in U.S. culture and three Chinese cultures (People’s Republic of China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) found U.S. managers evaluated “gentle persuasion” tactics such as consultation and inspirational appeal as more effective than did their Chinese counterparts.81 Other research suggests effective U.S. leaders achieve influence by focusing on the personal goals of group members and the tasks at hand (an analytical approach), whereas influential East Asian leaders focus on relationships among group members and meeting the demands of people around them (a holistic approach).82 the ethics of Behaving Politically Although there are no clear-cut ways to differentiate ethical from unethical politicking, there are some questions you should consider. For example, what is the utility of engaging in politicking? Sometimes we do it for little good reason. Major League Baseball player Al Martin claimed he played football at USC when in fact he never did. As a baseball player, he had little to gain by pretending to have played football! Outright lies like this may be a rather rare and extreme example of impression management, but many of us have at least distorted information to make a favorable impression. One thing to keep in mind is whether it’s worth the risk. Another question is this: How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out harm (or potential harm) it will do to others? Compliment- ing a supervisor on her appearance in order to curry favor is probably much less harmful than grabbing credit for a project that others deserve. Finally, does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice? Sometimes it is difficult to weigh the costs and benefits of a political action, but its ethicality is clear. The department head who inflates the performance evaluation of a favored employee and deflates the evaluation of a disfavored employee—and then uses these evaluations to justify giving the former a big raise and the latter nothing—has treated the disfavored employee unfairly. Unfortunately, powerful people can become very good at explaining self-serving behaviors in terms of the organization’s best interests. They can
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 483 persuasively argue that unfair actions are really fair and just. Those who are powerful, articulate, and persuasive are most vulnerable to ethical lapses because they are more likely to get away with them. When faced with an ethical dilemma regarding organizational politics, try to consider whether playing poli- tics is worth the risk and whether others might be harmed in the process. If you have a strong power base, recognize the ability of power to corrupt. Remember it’s a lot easier for the powerless to act ethically, if for no other reason than they typically have very little political discretion to exploit. PERsonAl InvEnToRy AssEssmEnTs P I A PERSONAL INVENTORY Gaining Power and Influence ASSESSMENT Do you like power and influence? Take this PIA to learn more about gaining both. Mapping Your Political Career As we have seen, politics is not just for politicians. You can use the concepts presented in this chapter in some very tangible ways we have outlined in your organization. However, they also have another application: You. One of the most useful ways to think about power and politics is in terms of your own career. What are your ambitions? Who has the power to help you achieve them? What is your relationship to these people? The best way to answer these questions is with a political map, which can help you sketch out your relationships with the people upon whom your career depends. Exhibit 13-7 contains such a political map.83 Let’s walk through it. Assume your future promotion depends on five people, including Jamie, your immediate supervisor. As you can see in the exhibit, you have a close relationship with Jamie (you would be in real trouble otherwise). You also have a close relationship with Zack in finance. However, with the others you have either a loose relationship (Lane) or none at all (Jia, Marty). One obvi- ous implication of this map is the need to formulate a plan to gain more influence over, and a closer relationship with, these people. How might you do that? The map also provides for a useful way to think about the power network. Assume the five individuals all have their own networks. In this case, though, assume these aren’t so much power networks like yours as they are influence networks of the people who influence the individuals in power positions. One of the best ways to influence people is indirectly. What if you played in a tennis league with Mark, Jamie’s former coworker who you know remains friends with Jamie? To influence Mark, in many cases, may also be to influence Marty. Why not post an entry on CJ’s blog? You can complete a similar analysis for the other four decision-makers and their networks. Of course, this map doesn’t show you everything you need to know—no map does. For example, rarely would all five people have the same amount of power. Moreover, maps are harder to construct in the era of large social networks. Try to keep this basic, limited to the people who really matter to your career. All of this may seem a bit Machiavellian to you. However, remember, only one person gets the promotion, and your competition may have a map of his or her own. As we noted in the early part of the chapter, power and politics are a part of organizational life. To decide not to play is deciding not to be effective. Better to be explicit with a political map than to proceed as if power and politics didn’t matter.
484 PART 3 The Group Exhibit 13-7 Drawing Your Political Map Jamie Operations You Zack Finance Jia Marty Lane Sales IT HR Anna Jamie Chris Senior Operations Jamie’s Spouse VP, CJ Tamar Jamie’s Jamie’s Drew’s Favorite Best Boss Blogger Friend Mark Area of Detail Jamie’s Former Co-worker Green is a close connection. Gold is a loose connection. Red is no connection at all. Source: Based on Clark, “A Campaign Strategy for Your Career,” Harvard Business Review, November 2012, 131–34. Summary Few employees relish being powerless in their jobs and organizations. People respond differently to the various power bases. Expert and referent power are derived from an individual’s personal qualities. In contrast, coercion, reward, and legitimate power are essentially organizationally granted. Competence especially appears to offer wide appeal, and its use as a power base results in high performance by group members. An effective manager accepts the political nature of organizations. Some people are more politically astute than others, meaning they are aware of the underlying politics and can manage impressions. Those who are good at playing politics can be expected to get higher performance evaluations and, hence, larger salary increases and more promotions than the politically naïve or inept. The politically astute are also likely to exhibit higher job satisfaction and be better able to neutralize job stressors.
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 485 Implications for Managers ●● To maximize your power, increase others’ dependence on you. For instance, increase your power in relation to your boss by developing a needed knowledge or skill for which there is no ready substitute. ●● You will not be alone in attempting to build your power bases. Others, particularly employees and peers, will be seeking to increase your depen- dence on them, while you are trying to minimize it and increase their dependence on you. ●● Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they have no power. ●● By assessing behavior in a political framework, you can better predict the actions of others and use that information to formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you and your work unit. ●● Consider that employees who have poor political skills or are unwill- ing to play the politics game generally relate perceived organization- al politics to lower job satisfaction and self-reported performance, increased anxiety, and higher turnover. Therefore, if you are adept at organizational politics, help others understand the importance of becoming politically savvy.
486 PART 3 The Group everyone Wants Power PoInt CountErPoInt We don’t admit to everything we want. For instance, one psy- Of course it’s true that some people desire power—and often chologist found people would seldom admit to wanting behave ruthlessly to get it. For most of us, however, power is not money, but they thought everyone else wanted it. They were high in priority, and for some, it’s actually undesirable. half right—everyone wants money. And everyone wants power. Research shows most individuals feel uncomfortable when placed in powerful positions. one study asked individuals, before they began Harvard psychologist David mcClelland was justifiably famous for work in a four-person team, to “rank, from 1 [highest] to 4 [lowest], in his study of underlying motives. mcClelland measured people’s moti- terms of status and influence within the group, what rank you would vation for power based on how they described pictures (this method like to achieve.” only about one-third (34 percent) of participants is called the Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT). Why didn’t he simply chose the highest rank. In a second study, researchers focused on ask people how much they wanted power? Because he believed that employees participating in Amazon’s mechanical Turk online service. many more people really wanted power than would admit or even con- They found that the main reason people wanted power was to earn sciously realize. And that’s exactly what he found. respect. If they could get respect without gaining power, that was pre- ferred. In a third study, researchers found individuals desired power Why do we want power? Because it is good for us. It gives us more only when they had high ability—in other words, when their influence control over our own lives. It gives us more freedom to do as we wish. helped their groups. There are few things worse in life than feeling helpless, and few better than feeling in charge of your destiny. Research shows people with These studies suggest that we often confuse the desire for power power and status command more respect from others, have higher with other things—like the desire to be respected and to help our self-esteem (no surprise there), and enjoy better health than those groups and organizations succeed. In these cases, power is something of less stature. most of us seek for more benevolent ends—and only when we think it does good. Take steve Cohen, founder of sAC Capital Advisors and one of the most powerful men on Wall street. Worth $11.1 billion, Cohen buys Another study confirmed that most people want respect from their Picassos, lives in a mansion, has white-gloved butlers, and travels the peers, not power. Cameron Anderson, the author of this research, sums world first class. People will do almost anything to please him—or to it up nicely: “you don’t have to be rich to be happy, but instead be a even get near him. one writer notes, “Inside his offices, vast fortunes valuable contributing member to your groups. What makes a person are won and lost. Careers are made and unmade. Type-A egos are high in status in a group is being engaged, generous with others, and inflated and crushed, sometimes in the space of hours.” All this is bad making self sacrifices for the greater good.” for steve Cohen how? oh, and about steve Cohen ...you realize he pleaded guilty and Usually, people who tell you power doesn’t matter are those who paid a $1.2 billion fine for failing to prevent insider trading and then have no hope of getting it. Wanting power, like being jealous, can be had to shut down sAC, right? one of those secrets people just won’t admit to. Sources: B. Burrough and B. mclean, “The Hunt for steve Cohen,” Vanity Fair, June 2013, http://www.vanityfair.com/news/ business/2013/06/steve-cohen-insider-trading-case; C. Anderson, R. Willer, G. J. Kilduff, and C. E. Brown, “The origins of Deference: When Do People Prefer lower status?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102 (2012): 1077–88; C. Anderson, m. W Kraus, A. D. Galinsky, and D. Keltner, “The local-ladder Effect: social status and subjective Well-Being,” Psychological Science 23(7) (2012): 764–71; s. Kennelly, “Happiness Is about Respect, not Riches,” Greater Good, July 13, 2012, http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/happiness_is_about_respect_not_riches; and P. lattman and B. Protess, “$1.2 Billion Fine for Hedge Fund sAC Capital in Insider Case,” The New York Times Dealbook, november 4, 2013, http://dealbook.nytimes.com/2013/11/04/sac-capital-agrees-to-plead-guilty-to-insider-trading/?_r=0.
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 487 cHaPter revieW MyManagementLab Go to mymanagementlab.com to complete the problems marked with this icon. QuestiOns FOr revieW 13-5 What are the causes and consequences 13-1 How is leadership different from power? of abuse of power? 13-2 What are the similarities and differences 13-6 How do politics work in organizations? among the five bases of power? 13-7 What are the causes, consequences, and 13-3 What is the role of dependence in power ethics of political behavior? relationships? 13-4 What are the most often identified power or influence tactics and their contingencies? exPerientiaL exercise Comparing Influence Tactics Students working in groups of three are each assigned to a power base (coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, or refer- role. One person is the influencer, one will be influenced, ent) would reinforce this tactic. The influencer confirms and one is the observer. These roles can be randomly or denies the approach used. determined. Change the roles and cards throughout the rounds. To begin, students create a deck of cards for the seven Afterward, the class discusses: tactics to be used in the exercise. These are legitimacy, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, 13-8. Based on your observations, which influence situ- exchange, ingratiation, and pressure (defined in the ation would probably have resulted in the best chapter). Only the influencer draws cards from the set, outcome for the person doing the influencing? and no one else may see what has been drawn. 13-9. Was there a good match between the tactics drawn The influencer draws a card and quickly formulates and the specific role each person took? In other and acts out a strategy to use this tactic on the party being words, was the tactic useful for the influencer given influenced. The person being influenced reacts realisti- his or her base of power relative to the person cally in a back-and-forth exchange over a brief period and being influenced? states whether or not the tactic was effective. The observer attempts to determine which tactic is being used and which 13-10. What lessons about power and influence does this exercise teach us? etHicaL DiLeMMa How Much Should You Defer to Those in Power? Though it is not always easy to admit to ourselves, often we More often than we acknowledge, powerful individuals adapt our behavior to suit those in power. To some degree, in organizations push our actions into ethical gray areas, it is important for organizational success that we do so. or worse. For example, managers of restaurants and stores After all, people are in positions of authority for a reason, (including McDonald’s, Applebee’s, Taco Bell, Winn and if no one paid attention to the rules these people put Dixie, and others) were persuaded to strip-search cus- in place, chaos would rule. But is it always ethical for us to tomers or employees when an individual impersonating defer to the powerful? a police officer phoned in and instructed them to do so.
488 PART 3 The Group What would you do if you thought a police officer, definite- deferring to those in power might cause us to cross ethical ly a symbol of power, ordered you to do something you’d lines is enough to keep us thinking. never choose to do as manager? Questions Outright abuses aside, power is wielded over us in more 13-11. Do you think people tailor their behavior to suit prosaic ways. For example, many stock analysts report pres- sure from their bosses to promote funds from which the those in power more than they admit? Is that some- organization profits most (a fact that is not disclosed to thing you do? their clients). These might be good funds that the analysts 13-12. One writer commented that bending behavior to would promote anyway. But maybe they’re not. Should the suit those in power reminds “anyone who is under analyst ever promote the funds without discussing the con- pressure to carry out orders from ‘above’ to con- flict of interest with the client? stantly question the validity and prudence of what they’re being asked to do.” Why don’t we question Few of us might think we would perform strip-searches. this more often? But examples of power taken to the limit highlight the 13-13. What factors influence how we respond to those disturbing tendency of many of us to conform to the wish- with power? es of those in power. For all of us, knowing that blindly Sources: J. Sancton, “Milgram at McDonald’s,” Bloomberg Businessweek, September 2, 2012, 74–75; and A. Wolfson, “Compliance’ Re-Creates McDonald’s Strip-Search Ordeal,” USA Today, September 1, 2012, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/story/2012-09-01/Compliance-strip-search-hoax/ 57509182/1). case inciDent 1 Reshaping the Dubai Model In early 2013, analysts were warning that Dubai was suffer- of Dubai Holdings; and Mohammed Alabbar, Chairman of ing from the global downturn. Managers and employees Emaar Properties, all lost influence. New, more conserva- across all sectors were worrying about their jobs. Property tive decision-makers were on the rise, such as Mohammed owners were seeing spectacular falls in the value of their al-Shaibani, Ahmed al-Tayer, and Abdulrahman al-Saleh. investments. Dubai had been renowned for its extravagant The new decision-makers already had a reputation for projects and schemes. What had been seen as a glowing careful mergers and acquisitions, cost-cutting exercises example of growth and prosperity was now being cited as and dealing with financial problems. an example of a country in crisis management. Dubai’s debt burden had reached US $100 billion. The “new” men are a combination of close advisers to the ruler, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid al-Maktoum, Dubai has always been a magnet for investors. It went members of old merchant families and, above all, more tax-free at the beginning of the twentieth century, but by conservative in their financial approach. the 1960s, oil revenue funded huge infrastructure proj- ects. Dubai does not have significant oil reserves, so the Questions focus has been on commerce, tourism, and aviation. To 13-14. How would you prioritize and delegate the tasks of some extent it has embraced western lifestyles and court- ed multi-nationals. While the UAE as a whole, with its the new key decisions-makers in Dubai? rich reserves of oil, had the capacity to ride out the global 13-15. Control of decision-making and financial expen- downturn, Dubai itself would need a radical rethink. diture was the root cause of the debt situation in The rethink would come in the shape of new leader- Dubai. Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Mak- ship. Out went the ambition to be the regional hub for toum has delegated to people who can make deci- 2 billion people. Just nine years before, Dubai had been able sions on his behalf. Would a more “hands on” to confidently state that investors in Dubai would see greater approach be more effective, or would this hinder returns on their capital (then around 18 per cent) than leav- progress? ing their funds in the bank. Dubai could boast that no one 13-16. Abu Dhabi provides much of the funding for the who had invested in the city had ever gone bankrupt. UAE central bank. They have bankrolled Dubai at cost in terms of political and economic freedom. Key decision makers like Sultan bin Sulayem, Chair- To what extent do you think Dubai is losing its man of Dubai World; Mohammed al-Gergawi, Chairman ability to make its own decisions? Sources: Roula Khalaf, Simeon Kerr, and Andrew England, “Reinventing Dubai,” Business Spectator, http://www.businessspectator.com.au/article/2013/2/22/global-financial-crisis/reinventing-dubai, accessed January 23, 2014.
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 489 case inciDent 2 Barry’s Peer Becomes His Boss As Barry looked out the window of his office in Toronto, friends in the company showed Barry e-mails in which Ra- the gloomy October skies obscured his usual view of CN phael had failed to make Berry look good. Tower. “That figures,” Barry thought to himself—his mood was just as gloomy. “Raphael is not the person I thought he was,” thought Barry. Five months earlier, Barry’s company, CTM, a relatively small but growing technology firm, reorganized itself. Al- What was his future in the company if no one under- though such reorganizations often imperil careers, Barry stood his contributions? He thought about looking for felt the change only improved his position. His cowork- another job, but that prospect only darkened his mood er, Raphael, was promoted out of the department, which further. He liked the company. He felt he did good work made sense because Raphael had been with the company there. for a few more years and had worked with the CEO on a successful project. Because Raphael was promoted and As Barry looked out his window again, a light rain began their past work roles were similar, Barry thought his own to fall. The CN Tower was no more visible than before. He promotion was soon to come. just didn’t know what to do. However, 6 weeks ago, Barry’s boss left. Raphael Questions was transferred back to the department and became 13-17. Should Barry complain about his treatment? To Barry’s boss. Although Barry felt a bit overlooked, he knew he was still relatively junior in the company and felt his whom? If he does complain, what power tactics good past relationship with Raphael would bode well for should Barry use? his future prospects. 13-18. Studies have shown those prone to complaining or “whining” tend to have less power in an organiza- The new arrangement, however, brought nothing but tion. Do you think whining leads to diminished disappointment. Although Raphael often told Barry he power and influence, or the other way around? was doing a great job, Barry felt that opinion was not be- How can Barry avoid appearing to be a “whiner”? ing shared with the higher-ups. Worse, a couple of Barry’s 13-19. Do you think Barry should look for another job? Why or why not? Sources: Based on M. G. McIntyre, “Disgruntlement Won’t Advance Your Career,” Pittsburgh Post- Gazette, September 23, 2012, http://www.post-gazette.com/business/employment/2012/09/23/ Office-Coach-Disgruntlement-won-t-advance-career/stories/201209230192); and S. Shellenbarger, “What to Do with a Workplace Whiner,” The Wall Street Journal, September 12, 2012, D1, D3. MyManagementLab Go to mymanagementlab.com for the following Assisted-graded writing questions: 13-20. In Case Incident 1, how would you expect employees who have to sign over their rights to their creative projects react in the short term? In the long term? 13-21. After reading the chapter and Case Incident 2, what impression management techniques would you say Raphael is using? 13-22. MyManagementLab Only – comprehensive writing assignment for this chapter.
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492 PART 3 The Group 54G. R. Ferris, D. C. Treadway, P. L. Perrewe, Perceptions of Politics in the Context of Feed- 69D. J. Howard and R. A. Kerin, “Individual R. L. Grouer, C. Douglas, and S. Lux, “Politi- back Environment, Employee Attitudes, and Differences in the Name Similarity Effect: The cal Skill in Organizations,” Journal of Manage- Job Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology Role of Self-Monitoring,” Journal of Individual ment 33 (2007): 290–320. 91, no. 1 (2006): 211–30. Differences 35, no. 2 (2014): 111–18. 55J. Shi, R. E. Johnson, Y. Liu, and M. Wang, 61S. Aryee, Z. Chen, and P. S. Budhwar, “Ex- 70D. H. M. Chng, M. S. Rodgers, E. Shih, and “Linking Subordinate Political Skill to Super- change Fairness and Employee Performance: X.-B. Song, “Leaders’ Impression Manage- visor Dependence and Reward Recommenda- An Examination of the Relationship between ment During Organizational Decline: The tions: A Moderated Mediation Model,” Journal Organizational Politics and Procedural Roles of Publicity, Image Concerns, and of Applied Psychology 98 (2013): 374–84. Justice,” Organizational Behavior & Human Incentive Compensation,” The Leadership 56W. A. Gentry, D. C. Gimore, M. L. Shuffler, Decision Processes, May 2004, 1–14. Quarterly 26, no. 2 (2015): 270–85; and L. and J. B. Leslie, “Political Skill as an Indica- 62C. Kiewitz, W. A. Hochwarter, G. R. Ferris, Uziel, “Life Seems Different with You around: tor of Promotability among Multiple Rater and S. L. Castro, “The Role of Psychological Differential Shifts in Cognitive Appraisal in Sources,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 33 Climate in Neutralizing the Effects of Or- the Mere Presence of Others for Neuroticism (2012): 89–104; I. Kapoutsis, A. Paplexandris, ganizational Politics on Work Outcomes,” and Impression Management,” Personality and A. Nikolopoulous, W. A. Hochwarter, and Journal of Applied Social Psychology, June 2002, Individual Differences 73 (2015): 39–43. G. R. Ferris, “Politics Perceptions as a Mod- 1189–207; and M. C. Andrews, L. A. Witt, and 71J. Ham and R. Vonk, “Impressions of Im- erator of the Political Skill-Job Performance K. M. Kacmar, “The Interactive Effects of Or- pression Management: Evidence of Spontane- Relationship: A Two-Study, Cross-National, ganizational Politics and Exchange Ideology ous Suspicion of Ulterior Motivation,” Journal Constructive Replication,” Journal of Vocational on Manager Ratings of Retention,” Journal of of Experimental Social Psychology 47, no. 2 Behavior 78 (2011): 123–35. Vocational Behavior, April 2003, 357–69. (2011): 466–71; and W. M. Bowler, J. R. B. Hal- 57M. Abbas, U. Raja, W. Darr, and D. Bouck- 63O. J. Labedo, “Perceptions of Organisational besleben, and J. R. B. Paul, “If You’re Close enooghe, “Combined Effects of Perceived Politics: Examination of the Situational An- with the Leader, You Must Be a Brownnose: Politics and Psychological Capital on Job tecedent and Consequences among Nigeria’s The Role of Leader–Member Relationships in Satisfaction, Turnover Intentions, and Extension Personnel,” Applied Psychology: An Follower, Leader, and Coworker Attributions Performance,” Journal of Management 40, no. International Review 55, no. 2 (2006): 255–81. of Organizational Citizenship Behavior Mo- 7 (2014): 1813–30; and C. C. Rosen, D. L. Fer- 64K. M. Kacmar, M. C. Andrews, K. J. Harris, tives,” Human Resource Management Review 20, ris, D. J. Brown, and W.-W. Yen, “Relationships and B. Tepper, “Ethical Leadership and no. 4 (2010): 309–16. among Perceptions of Organizational Politics Subordinate Outcomes: The Mediating Role 72J. R. B. Halbesleben, W. M. Bowler, (POPs), Work Motivation, and Salesperson of Organizational Politics and the Moderating M. C. Bolino, and W. H Turnley, “Organiza- Performance,” Journal of Management and Role of Political Skill,” Journal of Business Ethics tional Concern, Prosocial Values, or Impres- Organization 21, no. 2 (2015): 203–16. 115, no. 1 (2013): 33–44. sion Management? How Supervisors Attribute 58See, for example, M. D. Laird, P. Harvey, 65Ibid. Motives to Organizational Citizenship Behav- and J. Lancaster, “Accountability, Entitle- 66K. M. Kacmar, D. G. Bachrach, K. J. Harris, ior,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 40, no. 6 ment, Tenure, and Satisfaction in Generation and S. Zivnuska, “Fostering Good Citizenship (2010): 1450–89. Y,” Journal of Managerial Psychology 30, no. 1 through Ethical Leadership: Exploring the 73G. Blickle, C. Diekmann, P. B. Schneider, (2015): 87–100; J. M. L. Poon, “Situational Moderating Role of Gender and Organiza- Y. Kalthöfer, and J. K. Summers, “When Mod- Antecedents and Outcomes of Organizational tional Politics,” Journal of Applied Psychology 96 esty Wins: Impression Management through Politics Perceptions,” Journal of Managerial (2011): 633–42. Modesty, Political Skill, and Career Success—A Psychology 18, no. 2 (2003): 138–55; and 67C. Homburg and A. Fuerst, “See No Evil, Two-Study Investigation,” European Journal of K. L. Zellars, W. A. Hochwarter, S. E. Lanivich, Hear No Evil, Speak No Evil: A Study of Work and Organizational Psychology, Decem- P. L. Perrewe, and G. R. Ferris, “Accountability Defensive Organizational Behavior towards ber 1, 2012, 899–922. for Others, Perceived Resources, and Well Customer Complaints,” Journal of the Acad- 74L. A. McFarland, A. M. Ryan, and Being: Convergent Restricted Non-Linear emy of Marketing Science 35, no. 4 (2007): S. D. Kriska, “Impression Management Results in Two Samples,” Journal of Occupa- 523–36. Use and Effectiveness across Assessment tional and Organizational Psychology 84, no. 1 68See, for instance, M. C. Bolino and Methods,” Journal of Management 29, no. (2011): 95–115. W. H. Turnley, “More Than One Way to 5 (2003): 641–61; C. A. Higgins and T. A. 59J. Walter, F. W. Kellermanns, and C. Lech- Make an Impression: Exploring Profiles of Judge, “The Effect of Applicant Influence ner, “Decision Making within and between Impression Management,” Journal of Manage- Tactics on Recruiter Perceptions of Fit and Organizations: Rationality, Politics, and Alli- ment 29, no. 2 (2003): 141–60; S. Zivnuska, Hiring Recommendations: A Field Study,” ance Performance,” Journal of Management 38 K. M. Kacmar, L. A. Witt, D. S. Carlson, and Journal of Applied Psychology 89, no. 4 (2004): (2012): 1582–610. V. K. Bratton, “Interactive Effects of Impres- 622–32; and W. C. Tsai, C.-C. Chen, and 60W. A. Hochwarter, C. Kiewitz, S. L. Castro, sion Management and Organizational Politics S. F. Chiu, “Exploring Boundaries of the P. L. Perrewe, and G. R. Ferris, “Positive on Job Performance,” Journal of Organizational Effects of Applicant Impression Management Affectivity and Collective Efficacy as Modera- Behavior, August 2004, 627–40; and M. C. Tactics in Job Interviews,” Journal of Manage- tors of the Relationship between Perceived Bolino, K. M. Kacmar, W. H. Turnley, and J. B. ment, February 2005, 108–25. Politics and Job Satisfaction,” Journal of Applied Gilstrap, “A Multi-Level Review of Impression 75M. R. Barrick, J. A. Shaffer, and S. W. Social Psychology, May 2003, 1009–35; and Management Motives and Behaviors,” Journal DeGrassi. “What You See May Not Be What C. C. Rosen, P. E. Levy, and R. J. Hall, “Placing of Management 34, no. 6 (2008): 1080–109. You Get: Relationships among Self-Presentation
Power and Politics CHAPTER 13 493 Tactics and Ratings of Interview and Job Perfor- Journal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 3 (2007): Relations, November 2001, 1483–1518; and mance,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, no. 6 848–55. Y. Zhu and D. Li, “Negative Spillover Impact (2009): 1394–411. 78J. D. Westphal and I. Stern, “Flattery Will of Perceptions of Organizational Politics on 76E. Molleman, B. Emans, and N. Turusbeko- Get You Everywhere (Especially if You Are a Work-Family Conflict in China,” Social Behav- va, “How to Control Self-Promotion among Male Caucasian): How Ingratiation, Board- ior and Personality 43, no. 5 (2015): 705–14. Performance-Oriented Employees: The Roles room Behavior, and Demographic Minority 81J. L. T. Leong, M. H. Bond, and P. P. Fu, of Task Clarity and Personalized Responsibil- Status Affect Additional Board Appointments “Perceived Effectiveness of Influence Strate- ity,” Personnel Review 41 (2012): 88–105. of U.S. Companies,” Academy of Management gies in the United States and Three Chinese 77K. J. Harris, K. M. Kacmar, S. Zivnuska, Journal 50, no. 2 (2007): 267–88. Societies,” International Journal of Cross Cultural and J. D. Shaw, “The Impact of Political Skill 79Y. Liu, G. R. Ferris, J. Xu, B. A. Weitz, and Management, May 2006, 101–20. on Impression Management Effectiveness,” P. L. Perrewé, “When Ingratiation Backfires: 82 Y. Miyamoto and B. Wilken, “Culturally Journal of Applied Psychology 92, no. 1 (2007): The Role of Political Skill in the Ingratiation- Contingent Situated Cognition: Influencing 278–85; and D. C. Treadway, G. R. Ferris, Internship Performance Relationship,” Other People Fosters Analytic Perception in A. B. Duke, G. L. Adams, and J. B. Thatcher, Academy of Management Learning and Education the United States but Not in Japan,” Psychologi- “The Moderating Role of Subordinate 13 (2014): 569–86. cal Science 21, no. 11 (2010): 1616–22. Political Skill on Supervisors’ Impressions 80See, for example, E. Vigoda, “Reactions 83D. Clark, “A Campaign Strategy for Your of Subordinate Ingratiation and Ratings to Organizational Politics: A Cross-Cultural Career,” Harvard Business Review, November of Subordinate Interpersonal Facilitation,” Examination in Israel and Britain,” Human 2012, 131–34.
Conflict and 14 Negotiation 494 Source: Taylor Hill/FilmMagic/Getty Images
Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 14-1 Describe the three types of conflict and the 14-4 Apply the five steps of the negotiation process. three loci of conflict. 14-5 Show how individual differences influence 14-2 Outline the conflict process. negotiations. 14-3 Contrast distributive and integrative 14-6 Assess the roles and functions of third-party bargaining. negotiations. MyManagement If your professor has chosen to assign this, go to the Assignments section of mymanagementlab.com to complete the chapter warm up. A ChAnge of Tune While most of us are accustomed to instant access to nearly any music we want over the Internet, digital music distribution is actu- ally a relatively new and volatile market. As recently as 2005, almost all music sales came from physical media like compact discs. By 2015, however, digital downloads overtook CDs in revenue and legal streaming services comprised nearly a third of the overall music market. In Sweden and South Korea, as an extreme example, streaming music services provided 90 per- cent of recorded music revenues. This rapid shift for the indus- try in a short period of time has created ongoing high-stakes negotiations. When Daniel Ek (pictured here) started Spotify in 2006, now one of the most successful streaming services, the music producers were suspicious that his service would lower their revenues. Ek claimed his intention was not to cheat the sys- tem, but to beat music pirates at their own game by offering a service that made legally listening to tracks easier and more pleasant than illegal downloads. He noted, “It’s not like people want to be pirates. They just want a great experience. So we started sketching what that would look like.” Through many conflicts and negotiations, Ek main- tained that Spotify offered greater profits for everyone in the music industry, and eventually the industry’s players agreed. The basic terms between record companies and Spotify are simple— Spotify acquires the right to distribute music to fans by paying royalties to
496 PART 3 The Group the copyright holders. In turn, Spotify can make money from either running advertisements or charging users. To maintain legal access to the music, Ek must continually negotiate with all the recording companies that admin- ister copyrights. Spotify remains completely responsible for ensuring adher- ence to copyright laws. This seemingly straightforward negotiation process of exchanging rights for revenues is actually quite complex in practice, especially since pricing models are still being worked out by the players in the industry. Spotify also needs to demonstrate to recording companies that cooperating with stream- ing services creates better value for them than different music distribution methods, even as prices change. The possibilities for lucrative negotiations are high—but so are the possibilities for conflict. A number of factors have strengthened Spotify’s bargaining position. For one, any record label that walks away from a deal with Spotify risks losing access to many listeners who rely exclusively on streaming services for their music. For another, it’s better for record labels to make money through an agreement with Spotify than to make nothing from pirated copies of their music. At the same time, the major labels have their own bargaining resources. First and foremost, if media companies won’t deal with Spotify, the service will quickly lose its appeal. Second and related to this, if Spotify cannot ob- tain music rights for popular artists, disappointed listeners may easily turn to other services and threaten its existence. The highest-profile defector so far is Taylor Swift, who moved from Spotify to another streaming service that offered her a higher rate of return on plays. The impact of the music star’s defection isn’t completely known but may be costly since the decision was very public in the media. The stakes of these negotiations are high. One thing is for sure: in such a turbulent market, there will surely be a lot of time spent at the bargaining table in the years to come. Sources: J. Seabrook, “Revenue Streams,” The New Yorker, November 24, 2014, http://www .newyorker.com/magazine/2014/11/24/revenue-streams; S. Dredge, “Ministry of Sound Boss Attacks Major Labels for Streaming ‘Short Termism,’” The Guardian, May 15, 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/may/15/ministry-of-sound-major-labels- music-streaming-spotify; and N. Prins “Spotify Racks Up a Streaming Milestone: Artists Settle in for the Fight,” Forbes, May 14, 2015, http://www.forbes.com/sites/nomiprins/ 2015/05/14/spotify-racks-up-a-streaming-milestone-artists-settle-in-for-the-fight/. A s the music industry example demonstrates, forms of conflict and nego- tiation are often complex—and controversial—interpersonal processes. While we generally see conflict as a negative topic and negotiation as a positive one, what we deem positive or negative often depends on our perspective.
Conflict and Negotiation CHAPTER 14 497 Conflict can turn personal. It can create chaotic conditions that make it nearly impossible for employees to work as a team. However, conflict also has a less well-known positive side. We’ll explain the difference between negative and positive conflicts in this chapter and provide a guide to help you understand how conflicts develop. We’ll also present the specifics about the topic closely akin to conflict: negotiation. 14-1 Describe the three types A Definition of Conflict of conflict and the three loci of conflict. There has been no shortage of definitions of conflict,1 but common to most is conflict A process that begins when one the idea that conflict is a perception. If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed no conflict exists. Also needed to begin the conflict process are party perceives that another party has opposition or incompatibility, and interaction. negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares We define conflict broadly as a process that begins when one party perceives about. another party has affected or is about to negatively affect something the first party cares about. Conflict describes the point in ongoing activity when inter- functional conflict Conflict that action becomes disagreement. People experience a wide range of conflicts in supports the goals of the group and improves organizations over an incompatibility of goals, differences in interpretations of its performance. facts, disagreements over behavioral expectations, and the like. Our definition dysfunctional conflict Conflict that covers the full range of conflict levels, from overt and violent acts to subtle hinders group performance. forms of disagreement. task conflict Conflict over content There is no consensus over the role of conflict in groups and organizations. and goals of the work. In the past, researchers tended to argue about whether conflict was uniformly relationship conflict Conflict based good or bad. Such simplistic views eventually gave way to approaches recogniz- on interpersonal relationships. ing that not all conflicts are the same and that different types of conflict have process conflict Conflict over how work different effects. gets done. Contemporary perspectives differentiate types of conflict based on their effects. Functional conflict supports the goals of the group, improves its perfor- mance, and is thus a constructive form of conflict. For example, a debate among members of a work team about the most efficient way to improve production can be functional if unique points of view are discussed and compared openly. Conflict that hinders group performance is destructive or dysfunctional conflict. A highly personal struggle for control in a team that distracts from the task at hand is dysfunctional. Exhibit 14-1 provides an overview depicting the effect of levels of conflict. To understand different types of conflict, we will discuss next the types of conflict and the loci of conflict. Types of Conflict One means of understanding conflict is to identify the type of disagreement, or what the conflict is about. Is it a disagreement about goals? Is it about people who just rub one another the wrong way? Or is it about the best way to get things done? Although each conflict is unique, researchers have classified conflicts into three categories: task, relationship, or process. Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal relationships. Process conflict is about how the work gets done. Studies demonstrate that relationship conflicts, at least in work settings, are almost always dysfunctional.2 Why? It appears that the friction and inter- personal hostilities inherent in relationship conflicts increase personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding, which hinders the completion of organizational tasks. Of the three types, relationship conflicts also appear to be the most psychologically exhausting to individuals.3 Because they tend to revolve around personalities, you can see how relationship conflicts can become destructive. After all, we can’t expect to change our coworkers’ personalities,
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