Class-XII-Contemporary-World-Politics

40 Contemporary World Politics possess both the ability and the desire to establish certain norms for order and must sustain the global structure. The hegemon usually does this to its own advantage but often to its relative detriment, as its competitors take advantage of the openness of the NCERpTublishedThe US today spends more on its military capability than the next 12 repowers combined. As you can see here, most of the other countries world economy without paying the costs of maintaining its openness. that are big military spenders are US friends and allies. Thus, balancing US power is not a feasible strategy today. Hegemony in this second sense is reflected in the role © eserious weaknesses is in policing played by the US in providing ban occupied territory. global public goods. By public goods we mean those goods that can be consumed by one person without reducing the amount of the good available for someone else. Fresh air and roads are examples of public goods. In the context of the world economy, the best examples of a global public good ar e sea-lanes of communication (SLOCs), the sea routes commonly used by merchant ships. Free trade in an open world economy would not be possible without open SLOCs. toHEGEMONY AS STRUCTURAL © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. POWER t The second notion of hegemony is o very different from the first. It n emerges from a particular understanding of the world economy. The basic idea is that an open world economy requires a hegemon or dominant power to support its creation and existence. The hegemon must Dollar World

US Hegemony in World Politics 41 It is the naval power of the sectors of the world economy and hegemon that underwrites the in all areas of technology. The US law of the sea and ensures share of the world economy freedom of navigation in remains an enormous 28 per cent. international waters. Since the decline of British naval power The US also accounts for 15 after the Second World War, the multi-oceanic US Navy has per cent of world trade, if intra- played this role. European Union trade is included Another example of a global public good is the Internet. in world trade data. There is not How can this country Although it is seen today as a single sector of the world be so rich? I see so making the virtual world of the economy in which an American many poor people World Wide Web possible, we firm does not feature in the “top here. Most of them should not forget that the Internet are non-White. is the direct outcome of a US dthree” list. military research project that eIt is important to remember began in 1950. Even today, the Internet relies on a global network that the economic preponderance of satellites, most of which are owned by the US government. hof the US is inseparable from its RT lisstructural power, which is the As we know, the US is present power to shape the global ©in all parts of the world, in all economy in a particular way. After not to all, the Bretton Woods system, set E bup by the US after the Second C uWorld War, still constitutes the basic structure of the world Nbe repeconomy. Thus, we can regard the The American economy is the largest in the world, but unlike in the sphere of military power, the US faces credible competitors in the world economy. This becomes even clearer if we consider the world economy in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) terms as in the graphic on the right. PPP is what a nation’s currency actually buys in goods and services.

42 Contemporary World Politics World Bank, International win the consent of dominated Monetary Fund (IMF) and World classes, by persuading the Trade Organisation (WTO) as the dominated classes to view the products of American hegemony. world in a manner favourable to the A classic example of the ascendancy of the dominant class. structural power of the US is the Adapted to the field of world academic degree called the politics, this notion of hegemony notIf I had opted for the Master’s in Business Administration suggests that a dominant power (MBA). The idea that business is deploys not only military power but Science subjects a profession that depends upon also ideological resources to shape I would have to sit for skills that can be taught in a the behaviour of competing and the entrance exams to lesser powers. The behaviour of the medical or duniversity is uniquely American. weaker countries is influenced in engineering college. eThe first business school in the ways that favour the interests of That would mean the most powerful country, in competing with so world, the Wharton School at the particular its desire to remain pre- many others who wish eminent. Consent, in other words, to become doctors or hUniversity of Pennsylvania, was goes hand-in-hand with, and is engineers so as to go often more effective than, coercion. to the US. established in 1881. The first MBA The predominance of the US in RT liscourses were initiated around the world today is based not only on its military power and economic 1900. The first MBA course prowess, but also on its cultural outside the US was established presence. Whether we choose to recognise the fact or not, all ideas E bonly in 1950. Today, there is no of the good life and personal success, most of the dreams of country in the world in which the individuals and societies across the globe, are dreams churned out C uMBA is not a prestigious academic by practices prevailing in N pdegree. This takes us back to our twentieth-century America. America is the most seductive, and South African friend Jabu. in this sense the most powerful, reStructural hegemony explains why Jabu’s father is insisting that his son gives up painting and © estudies for the MBA instead. bHEGEMONY AS SOFT POWER toIt would however be a mistake to see US hegemony in purely military and economic terms without culture on earth. This attribute is considering the ideological or the called ‘soft power’: the ability to cultural dimension of US persuade rather than coerce. Over hegemony. This third sense of time we get so used to hegemony hegemony is about the capacity to that we hardly notice it, any more ‘manufacture consent’. Here, than we notice the rivers, birds, hegemony implies class and trees around us. ascendancy in the social, political You couldn’t have forgotten and particularly ideological Andrei and his ‘cool’ pair of blue spheres. Hegemony arises when jeans. When his parents were the dominant class or country can youngsters in the Soviet Union,

US Hegemony in World Politics 43 blue jeans were the ultimate NbeCEreRpTublished symbol of ‘liberation’ for their generation. Young men and women often spent over a year’s salary to buy blue jeans from foreign tourists on the black market. Somehow, for an entire Soviet generation blue jeans came to represent aspirations of the ‘good life’ that were not available in their own country. During the Cold War, the US found it difficult to score victories against the Soviet Union in the realm of hard power. It was in the area of structural power and soft power that the US scored notable victories. Although the Soviet centrally-planned economy provided an alternate model of internal economic organisation, the world economy throughout the Cold War years remained a world capitalist economy. But it was in the area of soft power that the US was ultimately triumphant. ©As the example of blue jeans in to That is strange! I never think of the US when buying jeans for myself. tHow can I still be oa victim of US nhegemony? All these images are from Jakarta in Indonesia. Identify elements of US hegemony in each of these photographs. Can you identify similar elements on your way back from school to home?

44 Contemporary World Politics the Soviet Union clearly shows, three branches of government the US was able to engineer a places significant brakes upon the generational divide in Soviet unrestrained and immoderate society on the basis of a cultural exercise of America’s military product. power by the executive branch. CONSTRAINTS ON AMERICAN The second constraint on American power is also domestic POWER in nature, and stems from the open nature of American society. History tells us that empires Although the American mass decline because they decay from media may from time to time impose or promote a particular dwithin. Similarly, the biggest perspective on domestic public econstraints to American opinion in the US, there is nevertheless a deep scepticism hegemony lie within the heart of regarding the purposes and methods of gover nment in hhegemony itself. We can identify American political culture. This RT listhree constraints on American factor, in the long run, is a huge constraint on US military action power. None of these constraints overseas. seemed to operate in the years following 9/11. However, it now However, it is the third constraint on the US that is E bappears that all three of these perhaps the most important. C uconstraints are slowly beginning There is only one organisation in the international system that to operate again. not N pThe first constraint is the reinstitutional architecture of the American state itself. A system of t©o bedivision of powers between the These two photographs are from an exhibition on the Human Costs of the Iraq War by the American Friends Service Committee organised at the National Convention of the Democratic Party in 2004. To what extent do protests like this constrain the US government?

US Hegemony in World Politics 45 could possibly moderate the interrelated. Consider the exercise of American power today, following facts: and that is the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). The The US absorbs about 65 per US obviously has an enormous cent of India’s total exports in interest in keeping the alliance of the software sector. democracies that follow the market economies alive and 35 per cent of the technical therefore it is possible that its allies in the NATO will be able to staff of Boeing is estimated to moderate the exercise of US hegemony. be of Indian origin. As soon as I say I am from India, they ask INDIA’S RELATIONSHIP WITH 300,000 Indians work in me if I am a THE US Silicon Valley. computer engineer. That feels nice. During the Cold War years, India d15 percent of all high-tech found itself on the opposite side estart-ups are by Indian- of the divide from the US. India’s closest friendship during those Americans. years was with the Soviet Union. After the collapse of the Soviet hLike all other countries, India Union, India suddenly found itself RT listoo has to decide exactly what type friendless in an increasingly hostile internationalenvironment. However, of relationship it wants with the US in this phase of global hegemony. ©these were also the years when E bThe choices are not exactly easy. India decided to liberalise its economy and integrate it with the Within India, the debate seems to global economy. This policy and India’s impressive economic C ube around three possible strategies. N pThose Indian analysts who see togrowth rates in recent years have international politics largely in made the country an attractive economic partner for a number of reterms of military power are tcountries including the US. fearful of the growing oIt is important that we do not closeness between India and nlose sight of the fact that two new ethe US. They would prefer that factors have emerged in Indo-US bIndia maintains its aloofness relations in recent years. These from Washington and focuses factors relate to the technological dimension and the role of the upon increasing its own Indian-American diaspora. Indeed, these two factors are comprehensive national power. Other analysts see the growing Collect news convergence of interests clippings and between the US and India as a articles about historic opportunity for India. the recent They advocate a strategy that Indo-US civil would allow India to take nuclear deal. advantage of US hegemony Summarise the and the mutual convergences position of the to establish the best possible supporters and options for itself. Opposing the opponents of US, they argue, is a futile the deal.

46 Contemporary World Politics LOK SABHA DEBATES INDO-US strategy that will only hurt RELATIONS India in the long run. A third group of analysts Here are three extracts from the speeches by the Prime would advocate that India should take the lead in Minister and two opposition leaders during the debate establishing a coalition of in Lok Sabha on the Indo-US agreement on nuclear countries from the developing energy. Are these three positions in some way linked to the three strategies mentioned in the chapter? world. Over time, this coalition would become more powerful Dr Manmohan Singh, Congress and may succeed in weaning “Sir, I would respectfully urge this august House to the hegemon away from its dominating ways. drecognise the changed mood of the world towards India-US relations are perhaps India. This is not to say that power politics is a thing of too complex to be managed by a single strategy. India needs to ethe past; that there will never be any attempt to twist develop an appropriate mix of foreign policy strategies to deal our arms. We will protect ourselves to ensure against with the US. hthe risks that are there. But it would be wrong for us OW CAN EGEMONY BE not to take advantage of the opportunities that are VERCOME RT lisnow on the horizon. I sincerely believe that it is in theHow long will hegemony last? How do we get beyond hegemony? interest of our country to have good relations with all These become, for obvious the major powers. I make no apology that we seek reasons, some of the burning questions of our time. History E bgood relations with the United States. The United States provides us with some fascinating clues to answer these questions. is a pre-eminent power.” But what about the present and the future? In international C uH HShri Basu Deb Acharia, CPI(M) politics, very few factors formally N pO ?“Since Independence, we have been pursuing curtail the exercise of military power by any country. There is no independent foreign policy because of our national world government like the government of a country. As we reinterest. What have we seen in case of Iraq and in shall see in Chapter 6, case of Iran? After the July statement, and when there was voting in International Atomic Energy Agency, we ©found that we sided with the United States of America. eWe supported the resolution moved by US and P 5. That was not expected before that. When we were btrying to bring gas from Iran via Pakistan which we need, we supported America’s stand in regard to Iran. There we find that the independent foreign policy has tobeen affected.” Maj. Gen. (Retd.) B. C. Khanduri, BJP t“We have also to take note of the fact that today US is — whether we like it or not — the only super power oin this unipolar world. But at the same time, we must nalso remember that India is also emerging as a world power, and a super power. Therefore, we feel that international organisation is not world government. Thus, we should have good relations with the USA in the international politics is ‘politics international scenario, but it should not be at the cost of our security.” without government’. There are some rules and norms called the laws of war that restrict, but do

US Hegemony in World Politics 47 not prohibit, war. But few states © Cam Cardow, Cagle Cartoons Inc. will entrust their security to international law alone. Does this mean that there is no escape from war and hegemony? In the short term, we must hedHow long do you think the US will stay on the super-power recognise that no single power is RT lisstage? If you were to draw this, who would you show as waiting anywhere near balancing the US militarily. A military coalition in the wings? against the US is even less likely given the differences that exist seem to be viable for the big, among big countries like China, India, and Russia that have the E bsecond-rank powers for very long. potential to challenge US C uWhile it may be an attractive, hegemony. viable policy for small states, it is Some people argue that it is strategically more prudent to take N phard to imagine mega-states like advantage of the opportunities China, India, and Russia or huge that hegemony creates. For reagglomerations such as the EU instance, raising economic growth being able to hide for any rates requires increased trade, substantial length of time. technology transfers, and eSome people believe that investment, which are best acquired by working with rather bresistance to American hegemony than against the hegemon. Thus, may not come from other states, which as we have seen are ©it is suggested that instead of powerless to confront the US today, but rather from non-state engaging in activities opposed to actors. These challenges to the hegemonic power, it may be American hegemony will emerge advisable to extract benefits by in the economic and cultural operating within the hegemonic realms, and will come from a system. This is called the combination of non-governmental organisations (NGOs), social to‘bandwagon’ strategy. movements, and public opinion; Another strategy open to it may arise from sections of the media and intellectuals, artists, tstates is to ‘hide’. This implies and writers. These various actors staying as far removed from the odominant power as possible. nThere are many examples of this behaviour. China, Russia, the European Union—all of them, in different ways, are seeking to stay below the radar, as it were, and not overly and unduly antagonise the US. However, this would not

48 Contemporary World Politics may well form links across national boundaries, including with Americans, to criticise and resist US policies. You might have heard the saying that we now live in a ‘global village’. In this global STEPS village, we are all neighbours of the village headman. If the ‹ Assign students to major geo-political regions of behaviour of the headman becomes intolerable, we will not dthe world from the vantage point of the US have the option of leaving the e(Central America, South America, Africa, global village, because this is the only world we know and the only Europe, former USSR, West Asia, South Asia, East village we have. Resistance will then be the only option available. hAsia and Australia). Alternatively, you could RT lisassign students to major conflict zones of the All this sounds like a lot of jealousy. What post-Cold War period in which the US was is our problem with US involved. (e.g., Afghanistan, Iraq, Israel-Palestine hegemony? Just that or Kosovo or any active conflict at the time of we were not born E bteaching). C u‹ Group the students in equal strength according to the number of areas identified. Each group is N pto prepare a fact-file on the role of the US in these regions or conflicts. The fact-file should refocus on the US interest in the region, its activities and the public opinion about the US in the ©region. Students can also collect and present erelated pictures/cartoons from all available sources. b‹ Each group is to present their fact-file before the class. toIdeas for the Teacher Using the fact-file as the background information, the teacher has to refocus on the intervention made by the US and whether tthese interventions have been in line with the principles advocated by the UN. o Invite the students to reflect on the future of the region or nconflict twenty years from now. How long will the US continue to be hegemonic? Which other powers may be in a position there? Or something to challenge US hegemony in that region? else?

US Hegemony in World Politics 49 WHAT DOES HISTORY TEACH US ABOUT HEGEMONY? Exercises Given the logic of balance of power, hegemony is a rather unusual condition in international affairs. This is for a very simple reason: in the absence of world government, every state must ensure its own security and, in extreme circumstances, its own survival. Thus, states are acutely aware of power distribution in the international political system, and would not normally allow a single state to become so powerful as to pose a mortal threat to other states. The balance of power logic of international politics, as outlined above, is amply supported by history. By convention, we regard 1648 as the year in which the sovereign territorial state emerged as the principal actor in world politics. In the over three and a half centuries since then, there have been only two previous occasions when a single state succeeded in gaining preponderance in the system to a similar degree as the US predominates the system today. France from 1660 to 1713 in the context of European continental politics din the first instance of hegemony, Britain with its global maritime empire from 1860 to 1910 is the second. History also tells us that although at its height hegemony seems formidable, it does not last forever. To the econtrary, balance of power politics over time reduces the relative power of the hegemon. In 1660, France under Louis XIV was unchallenged; by 1713, England, Habsburg Austria and Russia were contesting French hpower. In 1860, the high noon of the Victorian period, Pax Britannica looked secure forever. By 1910, it was RT lisclear that Germany, Japan and the US had emerged as contenders to British power. Thus, twenty years from now, another great power, or may be a coalition of great powers could well emerge just as US capabilities are declining in relative terms. E bBased on an article by Christopher Layne, “The Unipolar Illusion: Why New Great Powers Will Rise” NCrepu1. Which among the following statements about hegemony is incorrect? ©a. The word implies the leadership or predominance of one State. eb. It was used to denote the predominance of Athens in the ancient Greece. bc. The country having hegemonic position will possess unchallenged military power. tod. Hegemonic position is fixed. Once a hegemon, always a hegemon. t2. Which among the following statements is wrong about the contemporary world order? oa. There is an absence of world government, which could regulate nthe State’s behaviour. b. The US is the predominant player in world affairs. c. States are using force against one another. d. States, which violate international law, are severely punished by the UN.

50 Contemporary World Politics notExercises 3. Which among the following statements is wrong with regard to ‘Operation Iraqi Freedom’? a. More than forty countries joined in the US-led coalition of the willing to invade Iraq. b. The reason given for invading Iraq was to prevent it from developing weapons of mass destruction. c. The action was taken with the prior approval of the UN. d. The US-led coalition did not face major resistance from Iraqi forces d4. Give an example each of the three kinds of hegemony that are dealt with in the chapter. Do not cite examples that are in the echapter. h5. Mention three ways in which US dominance since the Cold War is different from its position as a superpower during the Cold War. RT lis6. Match the following: i. Operation Infinite Reach E bii. Operation Enduring Freedom C uiii. Operation Desert Storm iv. Operation Iraqi Freedom N repa. War against Al-Qaeda and Taliban b. Coalition of the willing © c. Missile attack in Sudan ed. First Gulf War b7. What are the constraints on American hegemony today? Which toone of these do you expect to get more important in the future? 8. Read the three extracts in the chapter from the Lok Sabha debate on the Indo-US deal. Develop any one of these into a full speech defending a certain position on Indo-US relations. 9. “If big and resourceful states cannot resist the US hegemony, it is unrealistic to expect much smaller and weaker non-state actors to offer any resistance.” Examine this proposition and give your opinion.

Chapter 4 OAofltePornwaetivr e Centres RT lishedVERVIEW After the end of the bipolar E bstructure of world politics in the early 1990s, it became clear that C ualternative centres of political and economic power could limit N pAmerica’s dominance. Thus, in reEurope, the European Union (EU) and, in Asia, the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), © ehave emerged as forces to reckon with. While evolving regional bsolutions to their historical enmities and weaknesses, both the EU and the ASEAN have developed toalternative institutions and conventions that build a more peaceful and cooperative regional torder and have transformed the ocountries in the region into nprosperous economies. The economic rise of China has made The two images here represent two phases of the history of a dramatic impact on world China. The red poster – “The Socialist Road is the Broadest of politics. In this chapter, we take a All” – represents the ideology that guided China during its look at some of these emerging early phase after the Revolution. The photograph below is alternative centres of power and that of the city of Shanghai, the symbol of China’s new assess their possible role in the economic power. future.

52 Contemporary World Politics EUROPEAN UNION (OEEC) was established in 1948 to channel aid to the west As the Second World War came to European states. It became a an end, many of Europe’s leaders forum where the western grappled with the ‘Question of European states began to Europe’. Should Europe be cooperate on trade and allowed to revert to its old rivalries economic issues. The Council of or be reconstructed on principles Europe, established in 1949, and institutions that would not contribute to a positive conception was another step forward in of international relations? The political cooperation. The process of economic integration dSecond World War shattered many of European capitalist countries proceeded step by step (see of the assumptions and structures Timeline of European Integration) leading to the formation of the eon which the European states had European Economic Community hbased their relations. In 1945, the in 1957. This process acquired a political dimension with the European states confronted the cr eation of the European Parliament. The collapse of the RT lisruin of their economies and the Soviet bloc put Europe on a fast track and resulted in the destruction of the assumptions establishment of the European and structures on which Europe Union in 1992. The foundation was thus laid for a common E bhad been founded. foreign and security policy, European integration after cooperation on justice and home affairs, and the creation C u1945 was aided by the Cold War. of a single currency. N pAmerica extended massive The European Union has financial help for reviving evolved over time from an economic union to an reEurope’s economy under what increasingly political one. The EU was called the ‘Marshall Plan’. ©The US also created a new ecollective security structure under NATO. Under the Marshall bPlan, the Organisation for toEuropean Economic Cooperation has started to act more as a nation state. While the attempts to have a Constitution for the EU have failed, it has its own flag, anthem, founding date, and currency. It also has some form The European Union Flag of a common foreign and security The circle of gold stars stands for solidarity and harmony between policy in its dealings with other the peoples of Europe. It has twelve stars, as the number twelve is nations. The European Union traditionally the symbol of perfection, completeness and unity. has tried to expand areas of Source: http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/emblem/index_en.htm cooperation while acquiring new

Alternative Centres of Power 53 EUROPEAN UNION MAP Older Members New Members RT lishedIreland Sweden Finland Denmark Estonia Netherlands Latvia Lithuania United Poland Kingdom Belgium Germany E bItalyCzech Luxembourg Republic Slovakia Austria C uSpain France Hungary © N repMalta Slovenia bemembers, especially from thePortugal toerstwhile Soviet bloc. The process Greece has not proved easy, for people in many countries are not very Cyprus tenthusiastic in giving the EU more than $12 trillion in 2005, Oh, now I know what a slightly larger than that of the Schengen visa means! powers that were exercised by the United States. Its currency, the Under the Schengen euro, can pose a threat to the ogovernment of their country. dominance of the US dollar. Its nThere are also reservations about share of world trade is three times larger than that of the United States allowing it to be more including some new countries assertive in trade disputes with agreement, you have to within the EU. the US and China. Its economic get a visa from just one The EU has economic, political power gives it influence over its of the EU countries and that allows you entry in and diplomatic, and military closest neighbours as well as in most of the other influence. The EU is the world’s Asia and Africa. It also functions as European Union biggest economy with a GDP of an important bloc in international countries.

54 Contemporary World Politics TIMELINE OF EUROPEAN France, hold permanent seats on INTEGRATION the UN Security Council. The EU includes several non-permanent 1951 April: Six west European countries, France, West members of the UNSC. This has Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg enabled the EU to influence some sign the Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal and US policies such as the current US Steel Community (ECSC). position on Iran’s nuclear 1957 March 25: These six countries sign the Treaties of Rome programme. Its use of diplomacy, establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and economic investments, and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). negotiations rather than coercion and military force has been d1973 January: Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom effective as in the case of its dialogue with China on human join the European Community (EC). rights and environmental degradation. e1979 June: First direct elections to the European Parliament h1981 January: Greece joins the EC. Militarily, the EU’s combined RT lis1985 June: The Schengen Agreement abolishes border ar med forces are the second largest in the world. Its total controls among the EC members. spending on defence is second after the US. Two EU member E b1986 January: Spain and Portugal join the EC. states, Britain and France, also C u1990 October: Unification of Germany. have nuclear arsenals of N p1992 February 7: The Treaty of Maastricht was signed approximately 550 nuclear reestablishing the European Union (EU). warheads. It is also the world’s second most important source of 1993 January: The single market was created. space and communications technology. © e1995 January: Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU. As a supranational organi- 2002 January: Euro, the new currency, was introduced in sation, the EU is able to intervene in economic, political and social bthe 12 EU members. areas. But in many areas its to2004 May: Ten new members, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, member states have their own foreign relations and defence Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia policies that are often at odds and Slovenia join the EU. with each other. Thus, Britain’s Prime Minister Tony Blair was t2007 January: Bulgaria and Romania join the EU. America’s partner in the Iraq noSlovenia adopts the Euro. economic organisations such as invasion, and many of the EU’s the World Trade Organisation newer members made up the US- (WTO). led ‘coalition of the willing’ whereas Germany and France The EU also has political and opposed American policy. There diplomatic influence. Two is also a deep-seated ‘Euro- members of the EU, Britain and skepticism’ in some parts

Alternative Centres of Power 55 © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. ERT blishedThe cartoon appeared in 2003 when the European Union’s initiative to draft a common Constitution failed. Why does the cartoonist use the image of the ship Titanic to represent EU? NC puof Europe about the EU’s reintegrationist agenda. Thus, for region of Asia? Before and during the Second World War, this region example, Britain’s former prime of Asia suffered the economic and minister, Margaret Thatcher, political consequences of repeated colonialisms, both ©kept the UK out of the European European and Japanese. At the eMarket. Denmark and Sweden end of the war, it confronted bhave resisted the Maastricht problems of nation-building, the ravages of poverty and economic Treaty and the adoption of the backwardness and the pressure euro, the common European to align with one great power or another during the Cold War. This tocurrency. This limits the ability was a recipe for conflict, which the countries of Southeast Asia of the EU to act in matters of could ill afford. Efforts at Asian foreign relations and defence. and Third World unity, such as otASSOCIATION OF SOUTH nEAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN) the Bandung Conference and the Imagine what would Non-Aligned Movement, were happen if they have Take a look at the political map of ineffective in establishing the a European Union the world. Which countries would conventions for informal football team! you say fall in the southeastern cooperation and interaction. Hence, the Southeast Asian

56 Contemporary World Politics cultural development’. A secondary MAP OF EAST AND SOUTH EAST ASIA objective was to promote regional peace and stability based on the rule of law and the principles of the United Nations Charter. Over the years, Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar (Burma) and Cambodia joined © NeCEreRpTublished“Courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas bat Austin” ASEAN taking its strength to ten. ot toWhoare nthe Unlike the EU there is little desire in ASEAN for supranational structures and institutions. ASEAN countries have celebrated what has become known as the ‘ASEAN Way’, a form of interaction that is informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative. The respect for national sovereignty is critical to the functioning of ASEAN. With some of the fastest growing economies in the world, ASEAN broadened its objectives beyond the economic and social spheres. In 2003, ASEAN moved along the path of the EU by agreeing to establish an ASEAN Community comprising three pillars, namely, the ASEAN Security Community, the ASEAN Economic Community and the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community. nations sought an alternative by establishing the Association for South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). ASEAN was established in 1967 by five countries of this members region — Indonesia, Malaysia, the of the Philippines, Singapore and The ASEAN Flag ASEAN Thailand — by signing the Regional Bangkok Declaration. The In the ASEAN logo, the ten stalks of Forum objectives of ASEAN were primarily paddy (rice) represent the ten (ARF)? to accelerate economic growth and Southeast Asian countries bound through that ‘social progress and together in friendship and solidarity. The circle symbolises the unity of ASEAN. Source : www.aseansec.org

Alternative Centres of Power 57 The ASEAN security organisation. Its Vision 2020 has community was based on the conviction that outstanding defined an outward-looking role territorial disputes should not escalate into armed confrontation. for ASEAN in the international By 2003, ASEAN had several agreements in place by which community. This builds on the member states promised to uphold peace, neutrality, cooperation, existing ASEAN policy to non-interference, and respect for national differences and sovereign encourage negotiation over rights. The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which was conflicts in the region. Thus, Isn’t India a part of established in 1994, is the organisation that carries out ASEAN has mediated the end of Southeast Asia? The coordination of security and foreign policy. north-eastern states are so close to the ASEAN was and still remains ASEAN countries. principally an economic the Cambodian conflict, the East association. While the ASEAN Timor crisis, and meets annually region as a whole is a much to discuss East Asian cooperation. smaller economy compared to the US, the EU, and Japan, its dThe current economic strength economy is growing much faster eof ASEAN, especially its economic than all these. This accounts for the growth in its influence both in relevance as a trading and ©the region and beyond. The hinvestment partner to the growing RT lisAsian economies such as India objectives of the ASEAN Economic Community are to create a and China, makes this an common market and production attractive proposition. During the base within ASEAN states and to Cold War years Indian foreign toaid social and economic E bpolicy did not pay adequate development in the region. The attention to ASEAN. But in recent Economic Community would also C uyears, India has tried to make tlike to improve the existing ASEAN N pamends. It signed FTAs with two be reASEAN members, Singapore and Dispute Settlement Mechanism to Keshav, The Hindu oresolve economic disputes. ASEAN nhas focused on creating a Free India’s ‘Look East’ Policy since 1991 has led to greater economic interaction with the East Asian nations (ASEAN, China, Japan and Trade Area (FTA) for investment, South Korea). labour, and services. The US and China have already moved fast to negotiate FTAs with ASEAN. ASEAN is rapidly growing into a very important regional

58 Contemporary World Politics Thailand. It is trying to sign an af fairs. The strength of its FTA with ASEAN itself. ASEAN’s economy, together with other strength, however, lies in its factors such as population, land policies of interaction and mass, resources, regional location consultation with member states, and political influence, adds to its with dialogue partners, and with power in significant ways. other non-regional organisations. After the inception of the Why did ASEAN It is the only regional association People’s Republic of China in 1949, succeed where in Asia that provides a political following the communist revolution SAARC did not? Is this forum where Asian countries and under the leadership of Mao, its because they do not the major powers can discuss economy was based on the Soviet have one dominant model. The economically backward country in that dpolitical and security concerns. communist China chose to sever region? heLocate the its links with the capitalist world. RT lisASEAN It had little choice but to fall back not on its own resources and, for a members on brief period, on Soviet aid and the map. Find advice. The model was to create a the location ofstate-owned heavy industries sector from the capital E bthe ASEAN accumulated from agriculture. As it was short of foreign exchange Secretariat. that it needed in order to buy technology and goods on the NC puTHE RISE OF THE CHINESE world market, China decided to reECONOMY substitute imports by domestic ©Let us now turn to the third major goods. ealternative centre of power and This model allowed China to our immediate neighbour, China. use its resources to establish the foundations of an industrial bThe cartoon on the following page economy on a scale that did not exist before. Employment and sums up the current mood all over tothe world about the rise of China as an economic power. China’s social welfare was assured to all economic success since 1978 has citizens, and China moved ahead been linked to its rise as a great of most developing countries in power. China has been the fastest educating its citizens and ensuring growing economy since the better health for them. The reforms first began there. It is economy also grew at a respectable projected to overtake the US as the rate of 5-6 per cent. But an annual world’s largest economy by 2040. growth of 2-3 per cent in population Its economic integration into the meant that economic growth was region makes it the driver of East insufficient to meet the needs of a Asian growth, thereby giving it growing population. Agricultural enormous influence in regional production was not sufficient to

Alternative Centres of Power 59 generate a surplus for industry. In CERTublishedThe Great Wall and Dragon are two symbols most commonly © Deng Coy Miel, Cagle Cartoons Inc. Chapter 2, we discussed the crisis of the state controlled economy in associated with China. This cartoon uses both these to depict the USSR. A similar crisis was to face China too: its industrial N pChina’s economic rise. Who do you think is the little man in this production was not growing fast cartoon? Can he stop the dragon? enough, international trade was rePrivatisation of agriculture led to minimal and per capita income was a remarkable rise in agricultural very low. eproduction and rural incomes. The Chinese leadership took bHigh personal savings in the rural major policy decisions in the economy lead to an exponential 1970s. China ended its political and economic isolation with the growth in rural industry. The establishment of relations with the United States in 1972. Chinese economy, including both Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the ‘four modernisations’(agriculture, industry and agriculture, grew at industry, science and technology and military) in 1973. By 1978, a faster rate. The new trading laws the then leader Deng Xiaoping announced the ‘open door’ policy and the creation of Special and economic reforms in China. The policy was to generate higher Economic Zones led to a productivity by investments of capital and technology from phenomenal rise in foreign trade. ©abroad. China has become the most China followed its own path in introducing a market economy. The important destination for foreign Chinese did not go for ‘shock therapy’ but opened their economy direct investment (FDI) anywhere A total of 6 SEZs in step by step. The privatisation of in the world. It has large foreign China and more exchange reserves that now allow than 200 approved toagriculture in 1982 was followed it to make big investment in other SEZs in India! Is this by the privatisation of industry in countries. China’s accession to the good for India? 1998. Trade barriers were teliminated only in Special Economic Zones (SEZs) where oforeign investors could set up nenterprises. In China, the state played and continues to play a central role in setting up a market economy. The new economic policies helped the Chinese economy to break from stagnation.

60 Contemporary World Politics © Mike Lane, Cagle Cartoons Inc. WTO in 2001 has been a further step in its opening to the outside world. The country plans to deepen its integration into the world economy and shape the future world economic order. While the Chinese economy has © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. China then and now © improved dramatically, not to everyone in China has received the not benefits of the reforms. Unemployment has risen in China dwith nearly 100 million people elooking for jobs. Female employment and conditions of hwork are as bad as in Europe of RT listhe eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.Environmental degradation and corruption have increased besides a rise in economic E binequality between rural and urban residents and coastal and C uinland provinces. N p However, regionally and re globally, China has become an economic power to reckon with. The integration of China’s economy and the inter-dependencies that e this has created has enabled China b to have considerable influence with its trade partners. Hence, its outstanding issues with Japan, the US, ASEAN, and Russia have been tempered by economic considerations. It hopes to resolve its differences with Taiwan, which it regards as a renegade province, by integrating it closely into its economy. Fears of China’s rise Chinese bicycle have also been mitigated by its Like the opening images for this chapter, the first cartoon contributions to the stability of the comments on the change in China’s orientation. The second ASEAN economies after the 1997 cartoon uses the symbol of the bicycle — China is the largest user financial crisis. Its more outward of bicycles in the world — to comment on a duality in today’s looking investment and aid China. What is this duality? Can we call this a contradiction?

Alternative Centres of Power 61 policies in Latin America and military conflict over a border Africa are increasingly projecting dispute between the two countries it as a global player on the side of marred that hope. Soon after developing economies. independence, both states were involved in differences arising from INDIA – CHINA RELATIONS the Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1950 and the final settlement of India and China were great the Sino-Indian border. China and powers in Asia before the advent India were involved in a border of Western imperialism. China conflict in 1962 over competing had considerable influence and territorial claims principally in control on the periphery of its borders based on its unique dArunachal Pradesh and in the tributary system. At different times in China’s long history of Aksai Chin region of Ladakh. dynastic rule, Mongolia, Korea, parts of Indo-China, and Tibet eThe conflict of 1962, in which accepted China’s authority. hIndia suffered military reverses, Various kingdoms and empires RT lishad long-term implications for in India also extended their influence beyond their borders. India–China relations. Diplomatic In both cases this influence was relations between the two political, economic and cultural. countries were downgraded until However, the regions where India and China exercised influence E b1976. Thereafter, relations rarely ever overlapped. Thus, between the two countries began ©there was limited political and C uto improve slowly. After the change cultural interaction between the N pin China’s political leadership two. The result was that neither country was very familiar with from the mid to late 1970s, the other. In the twentieth reChina’s policy became more tocentury, when both nations pragmatic and less ideological. So confronted each other, they had it was prepared to put off the some difficulty evolving a foreign esettlement of contentious issues tpolicy to deal with each other. bwhile improving relations with oAfter India regained its India. A series of talks to resolve independence from Britain, and the border issue were also initiated in 1981. nChina expelled the foreign powers, Since the end of the Cold there was hope that both would come together to shape the future War, there have been significant of the developing world and of Asia particularly. For a brief while, changes in India– the slogan of ‘Hindi-Chini bhai- bhai’ was popular. However, China relations. Their relations now The Chinese have a strategic as President Hu Jintao well as an economic was in India during dimension. Both view November 2006. themselves as rising Find out about the powers in global agreements signed politics, and both during his visit. would like to play a

62 Contemporary World Politics per year since 1999, a more positive perspective on relations with China has emerged. Bilateral trade between India and China has STEPS increased from $338 million in 1992 to more than $18 billion in ‹ Divide the classroom into three groups. 2006. More recently, both countries have agreed to cooperate ‹ Assign each group one organisation to work on with each other in areas that could a fact file on the EU, ASEAN and SAARC. otherwise create conflict between the two, such as bidding for energy ‹ Students have to prepare a fact file that deals abroad. At the global level, India and China have adopted dcontains information on the objectives, similar policies in international efunctions and recent activities of these economic institutions like the World Trade Organisation. organisations. Pictures of the conferences / India’s nuclear tests in 1998, hsummit meetings can be collected. sometimes justified on the RT lis‹ Each group is to present its fact file before the grounds of a threat from China, did not stop greater interaction. class. It is true that China was seen as contributing to the build up of Ideas for the Teacher Pakistan’s nuclear programme. China’s military relations with E b The teacher is to focus on the functions of these organisations.Bangladesh and Myanmar were viewed as hostile to Indian Draw the attention of students to the achievements of regional interests in South Asia. However, none of these issues is likely to C uorganisations. lead to conflict between the two. One sign of this is that the talks to Link the role of regional economic organisations to the over resolve the boundary question have continued without interruption and N pall development of the member countries. military-to-military cooperation is re Sensitise students to the growing importance of regional increasing. Indian and Chinese leaders and officials visit Beijing economic organisations as an alternative approach to the and New Delhi with greater peace and security of the world. frequency, and both sides are now becoming more familiar © emajor role in the Asian economy band politics. toRajiv Gandhi’s visit to China in December 1988 provided the impetus for an improvement in t India–China relations. Since then both governments have taken o measures to contain conflict and n maintain ‘peace and tranquility’ on the border. They have also signed with each other. Increasing agreements on cultural exchanges transportation and communication Some people say and cooperation in science and links, common economic interests Chinese products are technology, and opened four and global concerns should help going to flood our border posts for trade. With India– establish a more positive and market? But where China trade growing at 30 per cent sound relationship between the are they? two most populous countries of

Alternative Centres of Power 63 JAPAN You might have heard about famous Japanese brands such as Sony, Panasonic, Canon, Suzuki, Honda, Toyota, Mazda. They have a reputation for making high-technology products. Japan has very few natural resources and imports most of the its raw materials. Even then it progressed rapidly after the end of the Second World War. It is the second largest economy in the world. It is the only Asian member of the G-8. It is the tenth most populous nation in the world. Japan is the only nation that suffered the destruction caused by nuclear bombs. It is the second largest contributor to the regular budget of the UN, contributing almost 20 per cent of the total. Japan has a security alliance with the US since 1951. As per Article 9 of the Japanese dConstitution, “the Japanese people forever renounce war as a esovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes.” Although Japan’s military expenditure is honly one per cent of its GDP, it is the fourth largest in the world. Keeping all this in mind, do you think Japan can effectively function as RT lisan alternative centre of power? Also find out about the agreements signed during the visit of the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to Japan during December 2006. ASIMO, The World’s Most Advanced Humanoid Robot Credit: http://world.honda.com/news/ 2005/c051213_13.html NCE pubtheworld. re1. Arrange the following in chronological order. Exercises a. China’s accession to WTOb. Establishment of the EEC d. Birth of ARF ©c. Establishment of the EU e2. The ‘ASEAN Way’ ba. Reflects the life style of ASEAN members b. A form of interaction among ASEAN members that is informal toand cooperative c. The defence policy followed by the ASEAN members td. The road that connects all the ASEAN members 3. Who among the following adopted an ‘open door’ policy? noa. China b. EU c. Japan d. USA 4. Fill in the blanks: a. The border conflict between China and India in 1962 was principally over ______________ and __________________ region. b. ARF was established in the year ______________________ .

64 Contemporary World Politics notExercises c. China entered into bilateral relations with __________ (a major country) in 1972. d. ____________ Plan influenced the establishment of the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation in 1948. e. ___________ is the organisation of ASEAN that deals with security. 5. What are the objectives of establishing regional organisations? 6. How does geographical proximity influence the formation of regional organisations? 7. What are the components of the ASEAN Vision 2020? d8. Name the pillars and the objectives of the ASEAN Community. e9. In what ways does the present Chinese economy differs from its hcommand economy? RT lis10. How did the European countries resolve their post-Second World War problem? Briefly outline the attempts that led to the formation of the European Union. E b11. What makes the European Union a highly influential regional organisation? C u12. The emerging economies of China and India have great potential N pto challenge the unipolar world. Do you agree with the statement? Substantiate your arguments. re13. The Peace and prosperity of countries lay in the establishment and strengthening of regional economic organisations. Justify this ©statement. e14. Identify the contentious issues between China and India. How could to bthese be resolved for greater cooperation? Give your suggestions.

Chapter 5 Contemporary South Asia OVERVIEW Source: Subhas Rai’s adaptation of ‘Liberty Leading the People’, painted by Eugene Delacroix in 1830. Courtesy of Let us shift our gaze from the larger Himal Southasian, (January 2007) The Southasia Trust, Nepal global developments in the post-Cold War era to developments in our own region, South Asia. When India and Pakistan joined the club of nuclear powers, this region suddenly became the focus of global attention. The focus was, of course, on the various kinds of conflict in this region: there are pending border and water sharing disputes between the states of the region. Besides, there are conflicts arising out of insurgency, ethnic strife and resource sharing. This makes the region very turbulent. At the same time, many people in South Asia recognise the fact that this region can develop and prosper if the states of the region cooperate with each other. In this chapter, we try to understand the nature of conflict and cooperation among different countries of the region. Since much of this is rooted in or conditioned by the domestic politics of these countries, we first introduce the region and the domestic politics of some of the big countries in the region. 2015-16(21/01/2015)

66 Contemporary World Politics WHAT IS SOUTH ASIA? The various countries in South Asia do not have the same kind of Identify some We are all familiar with the political systems. Despite many features gripping tension during an India- problems and limitations, Sri common to all Pakistan cricket match. We have Lanka and India have successfully the South Asian also seen the goodwill and operated a democratic system countries but hospitality shown to visiting since their independence from the different from Indian and Pakistani fans by their British. You will study more about countries in hosts when they come to watch a the evolution of democracy in West Asia or cricket match. This is symbolic of India in the textbook that deals Southeast Asia. the larger pattern of South Asian with politics in India since affairs. Ours is a region where independence. It is, of course, rivalry and goodwill, hope and possible to point out many despair, mutual suspicion and limitations of India’s democracy; trust coexist. but we have to remember the fact that India has remained a Is there a fixed Let us begin by asking an democracy throughout its definition of these elementary question: what is South existence as an independent regions? Who Asia? The expression ‘South Asia’ country. The same is true of Sri decides that? usually includes the following Lanka. countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan Pakistan and Bangladesh have and Sri Lanka. The mighty experienced both civilian and Himalayas in the north and the vast military rulers, with Bangladesh Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and remaining a democracy in the the Bay of Bengal in the south, west post-Cold War period. Pakistan and east respectively provide a began the post-Cold War period natural insularity to the region, with successive democratic which is largely responsible for the governments under Benazir linguistic, social and cultural Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif distinctiveness of the sub- respectively. But it suffered a continent. The boundaries of the military coup in 1999 and has region are not as clear in the east been run by a military regime and the west, as they are in the since then. Till 2006, Nepal was a north and the south. Afghanistan constitutional monarchy with the and Myanmar are often included danger of the king taking over in discussions of the region as a executive powers. In 2006 a whole. China is an important player successful popular uprising led to but is not considered to be a part the restoration of democracy and of the region. In this chapter, we reduced the king to a nominal shall use South Asia to mean the position. From the experience of seven countries mentioned above. Bangladesh and Nepal, we can say Thus defined, South Asia stands for that democracy is becoming an diversity in every sense and yet accepted norm in the entire region constitutes one geo-political space. of South Asia. 2015-16(21/01/2015)

Contemporary South Asia 67 Similar changes are taking place in the two Both these graphs are based on interviews with smallest countries of the region. Bhutan is still more than 19,000 ordinary citizens in the five a monarchy but the king has initiated plans for countries of South Asia. Source: SDSA Team, State of its transition to multi-party democracy. The Democracy in South Asia, New Delhi: Oxford Maldives, the other island nation, was a University Press, 2007 Sultanate till 1968 when it was transformed into a republic with a presidential form of government. In June 2005, the parliament of the Maldives voted unanimously to introduce a multi-party system. The Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) dominates the political affairs of the island. Democracy strengthened in the Maldives after the 2005 elections when some opposition parties were legalised. Despite the mixed record of the democratic experience, the people in all these countries share the aspiration for democracy. A recent survey of the attitudes of the people in the five big countries of the region showed that there is widespread support for democracy in all these countries. Ordinary citizens, rich as well as poor and belonging to different religions, view the idea of democracy positively and support the institutions of representative democracy. They prefer democracy over any other form of democracy and think that democracy is suitable for their country. These are significant findings, for it was earlier believed that democracy could flourish and find support only in prosperous countries of the world. 2015-16(21/01/2015)

68 Contemporary World Politics TIMELINE OF SOUTH ASIA In that sense the South Asian SINCE 1947 experience of democracy has expanded the global imagination of 1947: India and Pakistan emerge as independent nations democracy. after the end of British rule 1948: Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) gains independence; Indo- Let us look at the experience Pak conflict over Kashmir of democracy in each of the four 1954-55: Pakistan joins the Cold War military blocs, SEATO big countries of the region other and CENTO than India. 1960 September: India and Pakistan sign the Indus Waters Treaty THE MILITARY AND 1962: Border conflict between India and China 1965: Indo-Pak War; UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission DEMOCRACY IN PAKISTAN 1966: India and Pakistan sign the Tashkent Agreement; Six-point proposal of Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman for greater After Pakistan framed its first autonomy to East Pakistan constitution, General Ayub Khan 1971 March: Proclamation of Independence by leaders of took over the administration of Bangladesh the country and soon got himself August : Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship signed for 20 years elected. He had to give up office December : Indo-Pak War, Liberation of Bangladesh when there was popular 1972 July: India and Pakistan sign the Shimla Agreement dissatisfaction against his rule. 1974 May: India conducts nuclear test This gave way to a military 1976: Pakistan and Bangladesh establish diplomatic takeover once again under relations General Yahya Khan. During 1985 December: South Asian leaders sign the SAARC Yahya’s military rule, Pakistan Charter at the first summit in Dhaka faced the Bangladesh crisis, and 1987: Indo-Sri Lanka Accord; Indian Peace Keeping Force after a war with India in 1971, (IPKF) operation in Sri Lanka (1987-90) East Pakistan broke away to 1988: India sends troops to the Maldives to foil a coup emerge as an independent country attempt by mercenaries called Bangladesh. After this, an India and Pakistan sign the agreement not to attack elected government under the nuclear installations and facilities of each other leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto 1988-91: Democracy restoration in Pakistan, Bangladesh came to power in Pakistan from and Nepal 1971 to 1977. The Bhutto 1996 December: India and Bangladesh sign the Farakka government was removed by Treaty for sharing of the Ganga Waters General Zia-ul-Haq in 1977. 1998 May: India and Pakistan conduct nuclear tests General Zia faced a pro-democracy December: IndiaandSriLankasigntheFreeTradeAgreement(FTA) movement from 1982 onwards and 1999 February: Indian PM Vajpayee undertakes bus journey and an elected democratic to Lahore to sign a Peace Declaration government was established once June-July: Kargil conflict between India and Pakistan again in 1988 under the leadership 2001 July: Vajpayee - Musharraf Agra Summit unsuccessful of Benazir Bhutto. In the period 2004 January: SAFTA signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in that followed, Pakistani politics Islamabad centred around the competition between her party, the Pakistan 2015-16(21/01/2015)

Contemporary South Asia 69 People’s Party, and the Muslim Surendra, The Hindu League. This phase of elective democracy lasted till 1999 when This cartoon comments on the dual role of Pakistan’s ruler Pervez the army stepped in again and Musharraf as the President of the country and as the army General. General Pervez Musharraf removed Read the equations carefully and write down the message of this Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. In cartoon. 2001, General Musharraf got himself elected as the President. countries have encouraged the Pakistan continues to be ruled by military’s authoritarian rule in the the army, though the army rulers past, for their own reasons. Given have held some elections to give their fear of the threat of what they their rule a democratic image. call ‘global Islamic terrorism’ and the apprehension that Pakistan’s Several factors have nuclear arsenal might fall into the contributed to Pakistan’s failure hands of these terrorist groups, in building a stable democracy. the military regime in Pakistan The social dominance of the has been seen as the protector of military, clergy, and landowning Western interests in West Asia and aristocracy has led to the frequent South Asia. overthrow of elected governments and the establishment of military DEMOCRACY IN BANGLADESH If Germany can be government. Pakistan’s conflict reunited, why can’t with India has made the pro- Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan the people of India military groups more powerful. from 1947 to 1971. It consisted and Pakistan at least These groups have often said that of the partitioned areas of Bengal travel more easily to political parties and democracy in and Assam from British India. The each other’s Pakistan are flawed, that people of this region resented the country? Pakistan’s security would be domination of western Pakistan harmed by selfish-minded parties and the imposition of the Urdu and chaotic democracy, and that language. Soon after the partition, the army’s stay in power is, therefore, justified. While democracy has not been fully successful in Pakistan, there has been a strong pro-democracy sentiment in the country. Pakistan has a courageous and relatively free press and a strong human rights movement. The lack of genuine international support for democratic rule in Pakistan has further encouraged the military to continue its dominance. The United States and other Western 2015-16(21/01/2015)

70 Contemporary World Politics they began protests against the to convene the assembly. Sheikh unfair treatment meted out to the Mujib was arrested. Under the Bengali culture and language. They military rule of General Yahya also demanded fair representation Khan, the Pakistani army tried to in administration and a fair share suppress the mass movement of in political power. Sheikh Mujib- the Bengali people. Thousands ur Rahman led the popular were killed by the Pakistan army. struggle against West Pakistani This led to a large scale migration domination. He demanded into India, creating a huge refugee autonomy for the eastern region. problem for India. The government In the 1970 elections in the then of India supported the demand of Pakistan, the Awami League led the people of East Pakistan for by Sheikh Mujib won all the seats their independence and helped in East Pakistan and secured a them financially and militarily. majority in the proposed This resulted in a war between constituent assembly for the India and Pakistan in December whole of Pakistan. But the 1971 that ended in the surrender government dominated by the of the Pakistani forces in East West Pakistani leadership refused Pakistan and the formation of A mural in Dhaka University to remember Noor Hossain who was killed by the police during pro-democracy protests against General Ershad in 1987. Painted on his back: “Let Democracy be Freed” . Photo credit: Shahidul Alam/ Drik 2015-16(21/01/2015)

Contemporary South Asia 71 Bangladesh as an independent common people of Nepal have Let’s know more country. wanted a more open and about responsive system of government. Bangladesh’s Bangladesh drafted its But the king, with the help of the Grameen Bank. constitution declaring faith in army, retained full control over the Can we make secularism, democracy and government and restricted the use of the idea socialism. However, in 1975 Sheikh expansion of democracy in Nepal. to reduce Mujib got the constitution amended to shift from the poverty in parliamentary to presidential form The king accepted the demand India? of government. He also abolished for a new democratic constitution all parties except his own, the in 1990, in the wake of a strong Awami League. This led to conflicts pro-democracy movement. and tensions. In a dramatic and However, democratic governments tragic development, he was had a short and troubled career. assassinated in a military uprising During the nineties, the Maoists in August 1975. The new military of Nepal were successful in ruler, Ziaur Rahman, formed his spreading their influence in many own Bangladesh National Party parts of Nepal. They believed in and won elections in 1979. He was armed insurrection against the assassinated and another military monarch and the ruling elite. This takeover followed under the led to a violent conflict between leadership of Lt Gen H. M. Ershad. the Maoist guerrillas and the The people of Bangladesh soon rose armed forces of the king. For in support of the demand for some time, there was a triangular democracy. Students were in the conflict among the monarchist forefront. Ershad was forced to forces, the democrats and the allow political activity on a limited Maoists. In 2002, the king scale. He was later elected as abolished the parliament and President for five years. Mass public dismissed the government, thus protests made Ershad step down ending even the limited in 1990. Elections were held in democracy that existed in Nepal. 1991. Since then representative democracy based on multi-party In April 2006, there were elections has been working in massive, country wide, pro- Bangladesh. democracy protests. The struggling pro-democracy forces achieved their MONARCHY AND first major victory when theking was DEMOCRACY IN NEPAL forced to restore the House of Representatives that had been Nepal was a Hindu kingdom in the dissolved in April 2002. The largely past and then a constitutional non-violent movement was led by monarchy in the modern period the Seven Party Alliance (SPA), the for many years. Throughout this Maoists and social activists. period, political parties and the Nepal’s transition to democracy is not complete. At the moment, Nepal is undergoing a 2015-16(21/01/2015)

72 unique moment in its history Contemporary World Politics because it is moving towards the Nepal sounds really formation of a constituent since its independence in 1948. exciting. I wish I was assembly that will write the But it faced a serious challenge, in Nepal! constitution for Nepal. Some not from the military or monarchy sections in Nepal still think that a but rather from ethnic conflict nominal monarchy is necessary leading to the demand for for Nepal to retain its link with the secession by one of the regions. past. The Maoist groups have agreed to suspend armed struggle. After its independence, politics They want the constitution to in Sri Lanka (it was then known include the radical programmes of as Ceylon) was dominated by social and economic restructuring. forces that represented the interest All the parties in the SPA may not of the majority Sinhala agree with this programme. The community. They were hostile to a Maoists and some other political large number of Tamils who had groups are also deeply suspicious migrated from India to Sri Lanka of the Indian government and its and settled there. This migration role in the future of Nepal. continued even after independence. The Sinhala nationalists thought ETHNIC CONFLICT AND that Sri Lanka should not give ‘concessions’ to the Tamils because DEMOCRACY IN SRI LANKA Sri Lanka belongs to the Sinhala people only. The neglect of Tamil We have already seen that Sri concerns led to militant Tamil Lanka has retained democracy nationalism. From 1983 onwards, the militant organisation, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam Democracy activist, Durga Thapa, participating in a pro-democracy rally in Kathmandu in 1990. The second picture shows the same person in 2006, this time celebrating the success of the second democracy movement. Photo credit: Min Bajracharya 2015-16(21/01/2015)

Contemporary South Asia 73 (LTTE) has been fighting an armed Keshav, The Hindu struggle with the army of Sri Lanka The cartoon depicts the dilemma of the Sri Lankan leadership in and demanding ‘Tamil Eelam’ or a trying to balance Sinhala hardliners or the Lion and Tamil militants separate country for the Tamils of or the Tiger while negotiating peace. Sri Lanka. The LTTE controls the northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. In spite of the ongoing conflict, Sri Lanka has registered The Sri Lankan problem considerable economic growth involves people of Indian origin, and recorded high levels of human and there is considerable pressure development. Sri Lanka was one from the Tamil people in India to of the first developing countries to the effect that the Indian successfully control the rate of government should protect the growth of population, the first interests of the Tamils in Sri country in the region to liberalise Lanka. The government of India the economy, and it has had the has from time to time tried to highest per capita gross domestic negotiate with the Sri Lankan product (GDP) for many years government on the Tamil question. right through the civil war. Despite But in 1987, the government of the ravages of internal conflict, it India for the first time got directly has maintained a democratic involved in the Sri Lankan Tamil political system. question. India signed an accord with Sri Lanka and sent troops to INDIA-PAKISTAN CONFLICTS stabilise relations between the Sri Lankan government and the Let us now move from domestic Tamils. Eventually, the Indian politics and take a look at some Army got into a fight with the of the areas of conflict in the inter- LTTE. The presence of Indian national relations in this region. troops was also not liked much The post-Cold War era has not by the Sri Lankans. They saw this meant the end of conflicts and as an attempt by India to interfere in the internal affairs of Sri Lanka. In 1989, the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) pulled out of Sri Lanka without attaining its objective. The Sri Lankan crisis continues to be violent. However, international actors, particularly the Scandinavian countries such as Norway and Iceland have been trying to bring the warring groups back to negotiations. The future of the island hinges on the outcome of these talks. 2015-16(21/01/2015)

74 Contemporary World Politics Keshav, The Hindu Kashmir and the Indian province of A view of the current phase of the Indo-Pak negotiations. Jammu and Kashmir divided by the Line of Control. In 1971, India won Discussion on Kashmir tensions in this region. We have a decisive war against Pakistan but sounds like a property already noted the conflicts around the Kashmir issue remained dispute between the internal democracy or ethnic unsettled. rulers of India and differences. But there are also Pakistan! What do the some very crucial conflicts of an India’s conflict with Pakistan is Kashmiris feel about it? international nature. Given the also over strategic issues like the position of India in this region, control of the Siachen glacier and most of these conflicts involve over acquisition of arms. The arms India. race between the two countries assumed a new character with The most salient and over- both states acquiring nuclear whelming of these conflicts is, of weapons and missiles to deliver course, the one between India and such arms against each other in Pakistan. Soon after the partition, the 1990s. In 1998, India the two countries got embroiled in conducted nuclear explosion in a conflict over the fate of Kashmir. Pokaran. Pakistan responded The Pakistani government claimed within a few days by carrying out that Kashmir belonged to it. Wars nuclear tests in the Chagai Hills. between India and Pakistan in Since then India and Pakistan 1947-48 and 1965 failed to settle seem to have built a military the matter. The 1947-48 war relationship in which the resulted in the division of the possibility of a direct and full-scale province into Pakistan-occupied war has declined. But both the governments continue to be suspicious of each other. The Indian government has blamed the Pakistan government for using a strategy of low-key violence by helping the Kashmiri militants with arms, training, money and protection to carry out terrorist strikes against India. The Indian government also believes that Pakistan had aided the pro- Khalistani militants with arms and ammunitions during the period 1985-1995. Its spy agency, Inter Services Intelligence (ISI), is alleged to be involved in various anti-India campaigns in India’s northeast, operating secretly through Bangladesh and Nepal. 2015-16(21/01/2015)

Contemporary South Asia unhappy with Bangladesh’s 75 The government of Pakistan, in denial of illegal immigration to Why is it that every turn, blames the Indian one of our government and its security India, its support for anti-Indian neighbours has a agencies for fomenting trouble in problem with India? the provinces of Sindh and Islamic fundamentalist groups, Is there something Balochistan. wrong with our Bangladesh’s refusal to allow foreign policy? Or is India and Pakistan also have it just our size? had problems over the sharing of Indian troops to move through its river waters. Until 1960, they were locked in a fierce argument over territory to northeastern India, the use of the rivers of the Indus basin. Eventually, in 1960, with and its decision not to export the help of the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the Indus natural gas to India or allow Waters Treaty which has survived to this day in spite of various Myanmar to do so through military conflicts in which the two countries have been involved. Bangladeshi territory. There are still some minor differences about the interpretation Bangladeshi governments have felt of the Indus Waters Treaty and the use of the river waters. The two that the Indian government countries are not in agreement over the demarcation line in Sir behaves like a regional bully over Creek in the Rann of Kutch. The dispute seems minor, but there is the sharing of river waters, an underlying worry that how the dispute is settled may have an encouraging rebellion in the impact on the control of sea resources in the area adjoining Sir Chittagong Hill Tracts, trying to Creek. India and Pakistan are holding negotiations on all these extract its natural gas and being issues. unfair in trade. The two countries INDIA AND ITS OTHER NEIGHBOURS have not succeeded in resolving The governments of India and their boundary dispute. Bangladesh have had differences over several issues including the Despite their differences, India sharing of the Ganga and and Bangladesh do cooperate on Brahmaputra river waters. The many issues. Economic relations Indian government has been have improved considerably in the last ten years. Bangladesh is a part of India’s Look East policy that wants to link up with Southeast Asia via Myanmar. On disaster management and environmental issues, the two states have cooperated regularly. Efforts are on to broaden the areas of cooperation further by identifying common threats and being more sensitive to each other’s needs. Nepal and India enjoy a very special relationship that has very few parallels in the world. A treaty between the two countries allows the citizens of the two countries to travel to and work in the other country without visas and 2015-16(21/01/2015)

76 Contemporary World Politics STEPS passports. Despite this special relationship, the governments of the Divide the classroom into seven groups (as many two countries have had trade- as the number of countries). The number of related disputes in the past. The students in each group may vary, reflecting the Indian government has often size of the countries of South Asia. expressed displeasure at the warm relationship between Nepal and Name each group after a country and hand over China and at the Nepal a brief country profile to respective groups. Besides government’s inaction against anti- the basic information, include a short note on the Indian elements. Indian security contentious issues/disputes among the South Asian agencies see the Maoist movement countries. The issues could be those discussed in in Nepal as a growing security this chapter or an issue of relevance but not threat, given the rise of Naxalite discussed in the chapter. groups in various Indian states from Bihar in the north to Andhra Allow students to select an issue of their choice. Pradesh in the south. Many leaders The dispute could be bilateral or multilateral (the and citizens in Nepal think that the issue could be related to India, given the Indian government interferes in its geographic peculiarity of the region). internal affairs, has designs on its river waters and hydro-electricity, Assign each group to find out what initiatives the and prevents Nepal, a landlocked governments involved have taken and the reasons country, from getting easier access for their failures in resolving the disputes. to the sea through Indian territory. Nevertheless, Indo-Nepal relations Students should assume the role of representing are fairly stable and peaceful. their respective countries and share their findings. Despite differences, trade, scientific cooperation, common natural Ideas for the Teacher resources, electricity generation Pair up the countries sharing the common issue/dispute. It and interlocking water could be two groups in the case of a bilateral issue or more in management grids hold the two case of a multilateral issue (examples of bilateral issues include countries together. There is a hope the Jammu and Kashmir dispute between India and Pakistan, that the consolidation of democracy the migrant problem between India and Bangladesh; in Nepal will lead to improvements multilateral issues include the creation of a free trade zone or in the ties between the two tackling terrorism). countries. Groups should negotiate on the proposals and counter- proposals within a time limit. The teacher is to take note of the The difficulties in the outcome of the negotiations. The focus should be on the areas relationship between the of agreement and disagreement. governments of India and Sri Lanka Link the outcome of the negotiations with the prevailing are mostly over ethnic conflict in situation among the countries of South Asia. Talk about the the island nation. Indian leaders difficulties involved in negotiating on a political issue based and citizens find it impossible to on the observation made. Conclude by discussing the remain neutral when Tamils are importance of accommodating each other’s interest for the politically unhappy and are sake of peaceful coexistence. being killed. After the military intervention in 1987, the Indian 2015-16(21/01/2015)

Contemporary South Asia the region. The smaller countries 77 fear that India wants to be a government now prefers a policy of regionally-dominant power. If the chapter, on US disengagement vis-à-vis Sri Lanka’s was called ‘US internal troubles. India signed a free Not all conflicts in South Asia Hegemony’ why is trade agreement with Sri Lanka, are between India and its this chapter not which strengthened relations neighbours. Nepal and Bhutan, as called ‘Indian between two countries. India’s help well as Bangladesh and Myanmar, Hegemony’? in post-tsunami reconstruction in have had disagreements in the past Sri Lanka has also brought the two over the migration of ethnic countries closer. Nepalese into Bhutan and the Rohingyas into Myanmar, India enjoys a very special respectively. Bangladesh and Nepal relationship with Bhutan too and have had some differences over the does not have any major conflict future of the Himalayan river with the Bhutanese government. waters. The major conflicts and The efforts made by the Bhutanese differences, though, are between monarch to weed out the guerrillas India and the others, partly and militants from northeastern because of the geography of the India that operate in his country region, in which India is located have been helpful to India. India is centrally and is therefore the only involved in big hydroelectric country that borders the others. projects in Bhutan and remains the Himalayan kingdom’s biggest Surendra, The Hindu source of development aid. India’s ties with the Maldives remain warm What does this cartoon tell you about the role of India and and cordial. In November 1988, Pakistan in the process of regional cooperation in South Asia? when some Tamil mercenaries from Sri Lanka attacked the Maldives, the Indian air force and navy reacted quickly to the Maldives’ request to help stop the invasion. India has also contributed towards the island’s economic development, tourism and fisheries. You may have noticed that India has various problems with its smaller neighbours in the region. Given its size and power, they are bound to be suspicious of India’s intentions. The Indian government, on the other hand, often feels exploited by its neighbours. It does not like the political instability in these countries, fearing it can help outside powers to gain influence in 2015-16(21/01/2015)

78 Contemporary World Politics Keshav, The Hindu PEACE AND COOPERATION Pakistan Tribune Do the states of South Asia cooperate with each The two cartoons, one from India and the other other? Or do they only keep fighting with each from Pakistan, interpret the role of two key other? In spite of the many conflicts, the states players who are also interested in the region. Do of South Asia recognise the importance of you notice any commonality between their cooperation and friendly relationship, among perspectives? themselves. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a major regional Every association initiative by the South Asian states to evolve seems to have cooperation through multilateral means. It emerged for trade! began in 1985. Unfortunately, due to persisting Is trade more political differences, SAARC has not had much important than success. SAARC members signed the South people-to-people Asian Free Trade (SAFTA) agreement which relations? promised the formation of a free trade zone for the whole of South Asia. A new chapter of peace and cooperation might evolve in South Asia if all the countries in the region allow free trade across the borders. This is the spirit behind the idea of SAFTA. The Agreement was signed in 2004 and came into effect on 1 January 2006. SAFTA aims at lowering trade tariffs to 20 percent by 2007. But some of our neighbours fear that SAFTA is a way for India to ‘invade’ their markets and to influence their societies and politics through commercial ventures and a commercial presence in their countries. India thinks that there are real economic benefits for all from SAFTA and that a region that trades more freely will be able to cooperate better on political issues. Some in India think that SAFTA is not worth the trouble since India already has bilateral agreements with Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Although India-Pakistan relations seem to be a story of endemic conflict and violence, there have been a series of efforts to manage tensions and build peace. The two countries have agreed to undertake confidence building measures to reduce the risk of war. Social activists and prominent personalities have collaborated to create an atmosphere of friendship among the people of both countries. Leaders have met at summits to understand each other better and to find solutions 2015-16(21/01/2015)

Contemporary South Asia 79 to the major problems between the American involvement in South two neighbours. A number of bus Asia has rapidly increased after the routes have been opened up Cold War. The US has had good between the two countries. Trade relations with both India and between the two parts of Punjab Pakistan since the end of the Cold has increased substantially in the War and increasingly works as a last five years. Visas have been moderator in India-Pakistan more easily given. relations. Economic reforms and liberal economic policies in both No region exists in a vacuum. countries have greatly increased It is influenced by outside powers the depth of American participation and events no matter how much in the region. The large South Asian it may try to insulate itself from diasporas in the US and the huge non-regional powers. China and size of the population and markets the United States remain key of the region also give America an players in South Asian politics. added stake in the future of Sino-Indian relations have regional security and peace. improved significantly in the last ten years, but China’s strategic However, whether South Asia partnership with Pakistan will continue to be known as a remains a major irritant. The conflict prone zone or will evolve into demands of development and a regional bloc with some common globalisation have brought the cultural features and trade interests two Asian giants closer, and their will depend more on the people and economic ties have multiplied the governments of the region than rapidly since 1991. any other outside power. 1. Identify the country: Exercises a. The struggle among pro-monarchy, pro-democracy groups and extremists created an atmosphere of political instability: b. A landlocked country with multi-party competition: c. The first country to liberalise its economy in the South Asian region: d. In the conflict between the military and pro-democracy groups, the military has prevailed over democracy: e. Centrally located and shares borders with most of the South Asian countries: f. Earlier the island had the Sultan as the head of state. Now, it’s a republic: g. Small savings and credit cooperatives in the rural areas have helped in reducing poverty: h. A landlocked country with a monarchy: 2015-16(21/01/2015)

80 Contemporary World Politics Exercises 2. Which among the following statements about South Asia is wrong? a) All the countries in South Asia are democratic. b) Bangladesh and India have signed an agreement on river-water sharing. c) SAFTA was signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad. d) The US and China play an influential role in South Asian politics. 3. What are some of the commonalities and differences between Bangladesh and Pakistan in their democratic experiences? 4. List three challenges to democracy in Nepal. 5. Name the principal players in the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. How do you assess the prospects of the resolution of this conflict? 6. Mention some of the recent agreements between India and Pakistan. Can we be sure that the two countries are well on their way to a friendly relationship? 7. Mention two areas each of cooperation and disagreement between India and Bangladesh. 8. How are the external powers influencing bilateral relations in South Asia? Take any one example to illustrate your point. 9. Write a short note on the role and the limitations of SAARC as a forum for facilitating economic cooperation among the South Asian countries. 10. India’s neighbours often think that the Indian government tries to dominate and interfere in the domestic affairs of the smaller countries of the region. Is this a correct impression? 2015-16(21/01/2015)

Chapter 6 International Organisations OVERVIEW This is the United Nations’ logo. The emblem has a world map with olive branches around it, signifying world peace. In this chapter we shall discuss Credit : www.un.org the role of international organisations after the collapse of the Soviet Union. We shall examine how, in this emerging world, there were calls for the restructuring of international organisations to cope with various new challenges including the rise of US power. The potential reform of the United Nations Security Council is an interesting case of the reform process and its difficulties. We then turn to India’s involvement in the UN and its view of Security Council reforms. The chapter closes by asking if the UN can play any role in dealing with a world dominated by one superpower. In this chapter we also look at some other trans- national organisations that are playing a crucial role.

82 WHY INTERNATIONAL Contemporary World Politics That’s what they say ORGANISATIONS? “Talking shop? Yes, there are about the a lot of speeches and meetings at parliament too — Read the two cartoons on this the U.N., especially during the a talking shop. Does page. Both the cartoons comment annual sessions of the General it mean that we on the ineffectiveness of the Assembly. But as Churchill put it, need talking shops? United Nations Organisation, jaw-jaw is better than war-war. usually referred to as the UN, in Isn’t it better to have one place the Lebanon crisis in 2006. Both where all… countries in the world the cartoons represent the kind of can get together, bore each other opinions that we often hear about sometimes with their words rather the UN. than bore holes into each other on the battlefield?” — Shashi Tharoor, On the other hand, we also the former UN Under-Secretary- find that the UN is generally General for Communications and regarded as the most important Public Information. international organisation in today’s world. In the eyes of many These two quotes suggest people all over the world, it is something important. International indispensable and represents the organisations are not the answer great hope of humanity for peace to everything, but they are and progress. Why do we then important. International organi- need organisations like the UN? sations help with matters of war Let us hear two insiders: and peace. They also help countries cooperate to make “The United Nations was not better living conditions for us all. created to take humanity to heaven, but to save it from hell.” Countries have conflicts and — Dag Hammarskjold, the UN’s differences with each other. That second Secretary-General. does not necessarily mean they must go to war to deal with their © Harry Harrison, Cagle Cartoons Inc. © Petar Pismestrovic, Cagle Cartoons Inc. During June 2006, Israel attacked Lebanon, saying that it was necessary to control the militant group called Hezbollah. Large numbers of civilians were killed and many public buildings and even residential areas came under Israeli bombardment. The UN passed a resolution on this only in August and the Israel army withdrew from the region only in October. Both these cartoons comment on the role of the UN and its Secretary-General in this episode.

International Organisations 83 antagonisms. They can, instead, IMF IMF discuss contentious issues and find peaceful solutions; indeed, The International Monetary Fund even though this is rarely noticed, (IMF) is an international organ- most conflicts and differences are isation that oversees those resolved without going to war. The financial institutions and regula- role of an international tions that act at the international organisation can be important in level. The IMF has 188 member this context. An international countries, (as on 1 September 2012) but they organisation is not a super-state do not enjoy an equal say. The top ten countries with authority over its members. have more than 52 per cent of the votes. They It is created by and responds to are the G-8 members (the US, Japan, Germany, states. It comes into being when France, the UK, Italy, Canada and Russia), China states agree to its creation. Once and Saudi Arabia. The US alone has 16.75 per created, it can help member states cent voting rights. resolve their problems peacefully. Unfortunately, recognising the International organisations need for cooperation and actually are helpful in another way. cooperating are two different Nations can usually see that there things. Nations can recognise the are some things they must do need to cooperate but cannot together. There are issues that are always agree on how best to do so, so challenging that they can only how to share the costs of be dealt with when everyone cooperating, how to make sure works together. Disease is an that the benefits of cooperating are example. Some diseases can only justly divided, and how to ensure be eradicated if everyone in the that others do not break their end world cooperates in inoculating or of the bargain and cheat on an vaccinating their populations. Or agreement. An international take global warming and organisation can help produce its effects. As atmospheric information and ideas about how temperatures rise because of the to cooperate. It can provide spread of certain chemicals called mechanisms, rules and a chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), there bureaucracy, to help members have is a danger that sea levels will also more confidence that costs will be rise, thereby submerging many shared properly, that the benefits coastal areas of the world including huge cities. Of course, Make a list of issues or each country can try to find its problems (other than the own solution to the effects of ones mentioned in the global warming. But in the end a text) that cannot be more effective approach is to stop handled by any one the warming itself. This requires country and require an at least all of the major industrial international organisation. powers to cooperate.

84 Contemporary World Politics FOUNDING OF THE UNITED NATIONS government? We shall try to answer this question at the end 1941August: Signing of the Atlantic Charter by the US President of the chapter. Franklin D. Roosevelt and British PM Winston S. Churchill EVOLUTION OF THE UN 1942 January: 26 Allied nations fighting against the Axis Powers meet in Washington, D.C., to support the Atlantic The First World War encouraged Charter and sign the ‘Declaration by United Nations’ the world to invest in an international organisation to deal 1943 December: Tehran Conference Declaration of the with conflict. Many believed that Three Powers (US, Britain and Soviet Union) such an organisation would help the world to avoid war. As a result, 1945 February: Yalta Conference of the ‘Big Three’ the League of Nations was born. (Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin) decides to organise a United However, despite its initial Nations conference on the proposed world organisation success, it could not prevent the Second World War (1939-45). April-May: The 2-month long United Nations Conference on Many more people died and were International Organisation at San Francisco wounded in this war than ever before. 1945 June 26: Signing of the UN Charter by 50 nations (Poland signed on October 15; so the UN has 51 original The UN was founded as a founding members) successor to the League of Nations. It was established in 1945 October 24: the UN was founded (hence October 24 is 1945 immediately after the celebrated as UN Day) The US Office of War Information 1945 October 30: India joins the UN created the above poster during the Second World War as per the will be fairly divided, and that once Declaration by United Nations of 1942. a member joins an agreement it The poster features the flags of all will honour the terms and nations that were part of the Allied conditions of the agreement. Forces. It reflects the belligerent origins of the UN. With the end of the Cold War, we can see that the UN may have a slightly different role. As the United States and its allies emerged victorious, there was concern amongst many governments and peoples that the Western countries led by the US would be so powerful that there would be no check against their wishes and desires. Can the UN serve to promote dialogue and discussion with the US in particular, and could it limit the power of the American

International Organisations 85 Adapted from http://www.newint.org/issue375/pics/un-map-big.gif

86 Contemporary World Politics Search for at Second World War. The 2007. He is the first Asian to hold least one news organisation was set up through the post since 1971. item about the the signing of the United Nations activities of Charter by 51 states. It tried to The UN consists of many each of the achieve what the League could not different structures and agencies. UN agencies between the two world wars. The War and peace and differences mentioned on UN’s objective is to prevent between member states are this page. international conflict and to discussed in the General facilitate cooperation among Assembly as well as the Security Cold War or no states. It was founded with the Council. Social and economic Cold War, one hope that it would act to stop the issues are dealt with by many reform is needed conflicts between states escalating agencies including the World above all. Only into war and, if war broke out, to Health Organisation (WHO), the democratic leaders limit the extent of hostilities. United Nations Development should be allowed Furthermore, since conflicts often Programme (UNDP), the United to represent their arose from the lack of social and Nations Human Rights Commision countries in the UN. economic development, the UN (UNHRC), the United Nations High How can they allow was intended to bring countries Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), dictators to speak in together to improve the prospects the United Nations Children’s Fund the name of the of social and economic (UNICEF), and the United Nations people of their development all over the world. Educational, Scientific, and country? Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), By 2006, the UN had 192 among others. member states. These includeed almost all independent states. In REFORM OF THE UN AFTER the UN General Assembly, all THE COLD WAR members have one vote each. In the UN Security Council, there are Reform and improvement are five permanent members. These fundamental to any organisation are: the United States, Russia, the to serve the needs of a changing United Kingdom, France and environment. The UN is no China. These states were selected exception. In recent years, there as permanent members as they have been demands for reform of were the most powerful the world body. However, there is immediately after the Second little clarity and consensus on the World War and because they nature of reform. constituted the victors in the War. Two basic kinds of reforms The UN’s most visible public face the UN: reform of the figure, and the representative organisation’s structures and head, is the Secretary-General. processes; and a review of the The present Secretary-General is issues that fall within the Ban Ki-Moon from South Korea. jurisdiction of the organisation. He is the eighth Secretary-General Almost everyone is agreed that of the UN. He took over as the both aspects of reform are Secretary-General on 1 January

International Organisations 87 necessary. What they cannot agree UN SECRETARIES-GENERAL on is precisely what is to be done, how it is to be done, and when it is Trygve Lie(1946-1952) Norway; lawyer and to be done. foreign minister; worked for ceasefire between India and Pakistan on Kashmir; On the reform of structures criticised for his failure to quickly end the and processes, the biggest Korean war; Soviet Union opposed second discussion has been on the term for him; resigned from the post. functioning of the Security Council. Related to this has been Dag Hammarskjöld(1953-1961) Sweden; the demand for an increase in the Economist and lawyer; worked for resolving UN Security Council’s permament the Suez Canal dispute and the and non-permanent membership decolonisation of Africa; awarded Nobel so that the realities of Peace Prize posthumously in 1961 for his contemporary world politics are efforts to settle the Congo crisis; Soviet Union better reflected in the structure of and France criticised his role in Africa. the organisation. In particular, there are proposals to increase U Thant(1961-1971) Burma (Myanmar); membership from Asia, Africa and teacher and diplomat; worked for resolving South America. Beyond this, the the Cuban Missile Crisis and ending the US and other Western countries Congo crisis; established the UN want improvements in the UN’s Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus; criticised budgetary procedures and its the US during the Vietnam War. administration. Kurt Waldheim(1972-1981) Austria; diplomat On the issues to be given greater and foreign minister; made efforts to resolve priority or to be brought within the the problems of Namibia and Lebanon; jurisdiciton of the UN, some oversaw the relief operation in Bangladesh; countries and experts want the China blocked his bid for a third term. organisation to play a greater or more effective role in peace and Javier Perez de Cuellar(1982-1991) Peru; security missions, while others lawyer and diplomat; worked for peace in want its role to be confined to Cyprus, Afghanistan and El Salvador; development and humanitarian mediated between Britain and Argentina work (health, education, after the Falklands War; negotiated for the environment, population control, independence of Namibia. human rights, gender and social justice). Boutros Boutros-Ghali(1992-1996) Egypt; diplomat, jurist, foreign minister; issued a Let us look at both sets of report, An Agenda for Peace; conducted reforms, with an emphasis on a successful UN operation in Mozambique; reform of the structures and blamed for the UN failures in Bosnia, Somalia processes. and Rwanda; due to serious disagreements, the US blocked a second term for him. The UN was established in 1945 immediately after the Kofi A. Annan (1997-2006) Ghana; UN Second World War. The way it was official; created the Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria; declared the US-led invasion of Iraq as an illegal act; established the Peacebuilding Commission and the Human Rights Council in 2005; awarded the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize Photo Credit: www.un.org

88 Contemporary World Politics UN60: A Time for Renewal Credit: www.un.org terrorism, nuclear proliferation, climate change, environmental organised and the way it degradation, epidemics). functioned reflected the realities of world politics after the Second In this situation, in 1989, as World War. After the Cold War, the Cold War was ending, the those realities are different. Here question facing the world was: is are some of the changes that have the UN doing enough? Is it occurred: equipped to do what is required? What should it be doing? And The Soviet Union has how? What reforms are necessary collapsed. to make it work better? For the past decade and a half, member The US is the strongest power. states have been trying to find satisfactory and practical answers The relationship between to these questions. Russia, the successor to the Soviet Union, and the US is REFORM OF STRUCTURES AND much more cooperative. PROCESSES China is fast emerging as a While the case for reform has great power, and India also is widespread support, getting growing rapidly. agreement on what to do is difficult. Let us examine the The economies of Asia are debate over reform of the UN growing at an unprecedented Security Council. In 1992, the UN rate. General Assembly adopted a resolution. The resolution Many new countries have reflected three main complaints: joined the UN (as they became independent from the Soviet The Security Council no longer Union or former communist represents contemporary states in eastern Europe). political realities. A whole new set of challenges Its decisions reflect only confronts the world (genocide, Western values and interests civil war, ethnic conflict, and are dominated by a few powers. It lacks equitable representation. In view of these growing demands for the restructuring of the UN, on 1 January 1997, the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan initiated an inquiry into how the

International Organisations 89 UN should be reformed. How, for World Bank WORLD BANK instance, should new Security Council members be chosen? The World Bank was created immediately after the Second In the years since then, the World War in 1945. Its activities following are just some of the are focused on the developing criteria that have been proposed countries. It works for human for new permanent and non- development (education, health), agriculture permanent members of the and rural development (irrigation, rural services), Security Council. A new member, environmental protection (pollution reduction, it has been suggested, should be: establishing and enforcing regulations), infrastructure (roads, urban regeneration, A major economic power electricity) and governance (anti-corruption, development of legal institutions). It provides A major military power loans and grants to the member-countries. In this way, it exercises enormous influence on the A substantial contributor to economic policies of developing countries. It is the UN budget often criticised for setting the economic agenda of the poorer nations, attaching A big nation in terms of its stringent conditions to its loans and forcing free population market reforms. A nation that respects Clearly, each of these criteria democracy and human rights has some validity. Governments saw advantages in some criteria A country that would and disadvantages in others make the Council more depending on their interests and representative of the world’s aspirations. Even if they had no diversity in terms of desire to be members themselves, geography, economic systems, countries could see that the and culture criteria were problematic. How big an economic or military power did you have to be to qualify for Security Council membership? What level of budget contribution would enable a state to buy its way into the Council? Was a big population an asset or a liability for a country trying to play a bigger role in the world? If respect for democracy and human rights was the criteria, countries with excellent records would be in line to be members; but would they be effective as Council members?